Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CPSD # G100398
Presented by The Office of Land Surveys Division of Right of Way and Land Surveys
Developed By: Jeremy Evans, PLS Psomas, Inc. And the Office of Land Surveys
Introduction: The Error Analysis and Least Squares class was under development for over three years. The reasons for this are many. One was the discussion of the goals of the course. Offices that used the Star*net least squares adjustment program wanted the course to focus on the use of the Star*net program. Surveyors with a background in mathematics saw this as essential knowledge for the modern surveyor, and pushed for an in-depth classroom course of up to 40 hours. The final decision was to create a course that would show how statistical theory and practice could be applied to the daily job of a Caltrans surveyor. The Caltrans Surveys Manual contains many procedures and standards, but very little background on how those standards were set (and that is not the function of the Manual). This course is to give that information to the surveyors who will use those guidelines every day in their job. Another reason for the development time was the consideration of how to present the class. Should we hire an outside consultant, or write the course ourselves? Until we answered the question of goals and course length, no one could begin to even work on the course materials. If we hired an outside consultant to develop a course to our specifications, the costs would have been prohibitive. To create our own course from scratch would take too much time. Jeremy Evan, PLS, had developed a course similar to what we wanted while working as an instructor at Santiago Canyon Community College in Orange County. We asked Mr. Evans to present his course to Caltrans personnel. His presentation has become the basis for this course. We have added more classroom exercises, and tailored examples to reflect Caltrans procedures, but the course structure is his. By combining his material and ours, Caltrans was able to save a lot of duplicate effort in developing this course. This is not a course in Star*net. Caltrans has purchased over 100 copies of the Star*net program, and it is the most common least squares program available throughout the state. It is also simple to learn, so the instructor doesnt have to spend a lot of time teaching the software procedures. But the purpose of using the program is to present the concepts of least squares, not to teach the program. The Star*net manual does have a very comprehensive tutorial, and anyone who wishes to learn more is encouraged to use it. The Error Analysis and Least Squares class was not meant to be a background course. The students who take this class should use what they learn here to quickly improve the quality of their work through an understanding of the sources of errors present in all survey work. By utilizing the concepts of instrument calibration, redundancy, precision ratios and error ellipses, a surveyor should immediately see an improvement in the quality of their fieldwork. That understanding and application is the core concept for this course.
Introduce Instructor The purpose of this class is to give Caltrans surveyors a clear understanding of error analysis. This is so the typical surveyor in the field or office knows how to determine the precision and accuracy needed to perform a task. This applies not just to control work, but throughout the lifetime of a project. Understand that there are three values for any measurement: the measured value, the adjusted value, and the true value. The true value can never be known, but a surveyor should know how to combine proper techniques, strength of figure, and adjustments so that they are confident that the measured and adjusted values are close to the true value Areas of interest - boundary, control and adjustments, design mapping.
Introduction
The dark side of surveying is the
belief that surveying is about measurements, precisions and adjustments. It is not and never will be.
Dennis Mouland P.O.B. Magazine July, 2002
All measurements, no matter how accurate, are still subject to Boundary Laws and common sense. I once saw a Record of Survey that called 13 monuments out of position, and never held a single one as good. Surveying is the ART and Science of measurement! Over-reliance on numbers leads to the Dark Side, it does.
Introduction
Much has been written lately about least squares adjustment and the advantages it brings to the land surveyor. To take full advantage of a least squares adjustment package, the surveyor must have a basic understanding of the nature of measurements, the equipment he uses, the methods he employs, and the environment he works in.
Measurement analysis is the first part of this presentation. Surveyors should have the ability to evaluate the amount of error in their measurements and / or control the errors in their measurements An understanding of measurements gives the surveyor this control This course will present the Least Squares adjustment LAST, because a surveyor must understand a lot more about errors before they accept a least squares adjustment.
Introduction
Measurements and Adjustments: War Stories
Discuss projects/situations where misunderstanding of measurements has caused problems A level run between benchmarks has an error of 0.25 feet in three miles. Is that caused by random error that can be adjusted? Or by a single bad reading that leaves a 0.30 jump in elevation between two TBMs? The 100 Hubble Space telescope was ground and polished to the smoothest finish of any large mirror ever built. Was it any good? Answer: The mirror was ground to the wrong prescription! Two shuttle space flights were needed to add corrective lenses. The surveyors understanding of measurements and datums is critical to the success of any project. Especially as projects get bigger in geographical terms. In the first example above, a bust can be hidden by the relative size of the project. How do you know when to accept a weak adjustment, and when to re-measure?
Class Outline
Survey Measurement Basics - A Review Measurement Analysis Error Propagation Introduction to Weighted and Least Squares Adjustments Least Squares Adjustment Software Sample Network Adjustments
Star*Net is one of many least squares adjustment software on the market Terramodel Intergraph Survey Select Cad Trimnet or TGO All of these softwares deliver correct results, however star*net was the first I used, speaks surveyor, has the greatest flexibility, etc. The Department is moving to Trimnet from Star*net Caltrans owns 120 Star*net licenses, so easiest to use as an
example
Leica 1103 should be turned in for servicing every 18 months. HQ has received broken units that havent be serviced ever! Thats FOUR years! Its not only good practice to regularly service the equipment, but cheaper in the long run. Are your tribrachs adjusted? Did you check the plummet and level before you picked up a sight? Have you cross-tied any control monuments? Did you turn more sets when you had a weak control scheme, such as straight along a RR? Did you avoid as many 180 degree turns as possible? Every Caltrans Surveyor should know Figure 5.1 !
Introduce books Adjustment Computation by Wolf and Ghilani- more readable than most star*net manual, good basics of adjustment theory and star*net Random Errors chapter of Moffitt. Also the adjustment chapter has a good section on weighted means
If surveyors want to be considered professionals, we need to know the theory behind our procedures.
Measurement
The act or process of determining extent, dimensions, etc. The surveyor is an Expert in Measurement.
Websters definition Remember! Surveying is an ART and SCIENCE. Accurate chaining with a plumb bob is an Art. Calibrating an EDM is SCIENCE.
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Instrument Testing
Pointing error of typical total station
Lets start with everything that you dont know about modern survey instruments.
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This is a typical brochure of a modern total station. Before you accept any of the statements as gospel, you must understand exactly what the manufacturer is telling you. DIN 18723 is the international testing standards for survey instrument accuracy. Other DINs may cover such things as food safety or strength of fishing line. DIN 18723 sets exact parameters for testing; such as temperature range during testing, rigidity of setups, and other parameters that can only be easily performed at the factory. None of theses tests are done while sighting over AC pavement in 100 weather.
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Instrument Specifications
Note that the 5601 is a nominal 1 gun, but can be set for readings of 0.1 The 5602, 5603, and 5605 have different accuracies, but can all be read to 1. What this means is that the 5601 is built differently that the others. Typically, this would mean that it has sensors that read the digital plate in four places (90o apart), and then takes the average of the four readings. The others instruments would read the plate in two places (180o apart), and then takes the mean of those reading. The 5605 is built to the same manufacturing tolerances as the 5602, but just didnt test as well when checked at the factory. The standard deviation of 5 means that EACH time you sight the instrument at a target, the readout has a 68% chance of being within 5 of the true value. The less precise the instrument, the more you need redundant measurements to achieve accurate results. REMEMBER: This is the accuracy of a calibrated instrument the day it leaves the factory! If you dont keep it calibrated, those numbers dont mean anything! It also doesnt account for poor work by the operator, such bad readings caused by parallax. Use 5 value (far right) for examples
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Instrument Specifications
The 5602, 5603, and 5605 are all essentially the same instrument! After manufacture, all instruments are the tested for accuracy (DIN 18723). Those instruments that have a standard deviation of less than 2 are labeled 5602. Those that have a standard deviation of more than 2 but less than 3 are 5603s. The 5605 is built to the same manufacturing tolerances as the 5602, but just didnt test as well when checked at the factory. Note: The instrument companies always try to build their equipment to the higher standard. If you tried to order a 5605 from Trimble, they might tell you that they dont have any available right now, and arent making any due to the high demand for the 5602s. What they really mean is that the factory is doing a great job, and all instruments are passing the 2 standard. Use (3mm + 3ppm) value (far right) Is the ppm value here the same as the ppm value that is dialed into the instrument dealing with temperature and pressure?
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Instrument Specifications
Distance Measurement m = (0.01 + 3ppm x D) What is the error in a 3500 foot measurement? m= (0.01+(3/1,000,000 x 3500)) = 0.021
Discuss setting PPM . If you are on the beach in So Cal, you might get away with setting the PPM to zero. If you arent at sea level and 72, start calibrating.
Sigma (lower case) denotes standard deviation m is Standard deviation of the mean, a measurement of accuracy. More on that later. Apply the standards for a 5605. 3 mm x 10,000 = 30m So a single measurement less that 30m (100ft) will have an precision ration less than 1/10,000. Thats why we tie monuments twice!
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The service contract with the Leica suppliers call for 18 mos. service intervals. Servicing doesnt cost anything, but blunders do! more often as needed means before a control survey, after being dropped, or any rainy equipment day.
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Optical Plummet Adjustment Using: Tribrach Adjusting Cylinder #2001 or Tribrach Adjuster #2002 (see illustration 1)
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Tribrach Adjusting Cylinder #2001 or Tribrach Adjuster #2002, Tripod or instrument stand, 2 tribrachs, target 1. Place the tribrach on the tripod. Put the adjuster in the tribrach. Place the tribrach to be adjusted on top of the adjuster so that it is upsidedown looking at the target on the ceiling. The distance between the tribrach and target should be between 4 and 5 feet. 2. Using the leveling screws of the bottom tribrach, point the crosshair of the tribrach being tested to coincide with the target. 3. Rotate the tribrach being tested 180 degrees on the adjuster. Crosshairs will stay on the target of an adjusted tribrach. 4. After 180 degree turn if the crosshair does not stay on the target, half the error should be corrected with the adjusting screws provided by the manufacturer of the tribrach. The remainder should be corrected with the leveling screws of the bottom tribrach. 5. Repeat steps 2, 3 & 4 until the crosshair stays on target at all positions.
Tribrach Circular Vial Adjustment Using: Tribrach Adjuster #2002 (see illustration 2)
EQUIPMENT NEEDED: Tripod or instrument stand, Tribrach Adjuster #2002 and adjusting pins. 1. Place the tribrach on the tripod and fasten to the tripod. 2. Place the #2002 in the tribrach and level the tribrach using the vial on the #2002. Ignore the circular vial on the tribrach. 3. To level the #2002: Point one end of the #2002 vial to any leveling screw and using that screw bring the vial to center. 4. Now turn the #2002 90 degrees so that each end of the vial is as close as possible to the other two leveling screws. Using these two leveling screws, center the vial. 5. Turn the vial 90 degrees back to the original leveling screw and level again if necessary. 6. Repeat 1,2 & 3 until the vial remains centered at both positions. 7. To test the adjustment of the #2002 vial at any centered position, rotate the #2002 180 degrees. The vial should stay centered within one graduation. If not, take half the error back to the center with the vial mounting screw that is on the high side. 8. If the circular vial on the tribrach is not centered, use the adjusting screws and bring to center.
Is It a Mistake or an Error?
Mistake - Blunder in reading, recording or calculating a value. Error - The difference between a measured or calculated value and the true value.
Discuss true value. For a traverse, there is the measured value, adjusted value, and true value. True Value does exist but cannot be measured or known The best that anyone can do is a mean value or most probable value
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Blunder
a gross error or mistake resulting usually from stupidity, ignorance, or carelessness.
Most blunders are caused by human error. If you are lucky, its someone elses error, not yours. This is why we have specific field techniques, such as double tying monuments, measuring all HIs, and closing traverses. If all of the procedures are done properly, then blunders can be isolated and dealt with.
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Blunder
Setup over wrong point Bad H.I. Incorrect settings in equipment
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Types of Errors
Systematic Random
Error is the difference between the measured value and the true value. Its the job of a surveyor to reduce errors to a minimum. But always accept that there will be minor errors, and not try to fix data that is within tolerance.
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Systematic
an error that is not determined by chance but is introduced by an inaccuracy (as of observation or measurement) inherent in the system
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Systematic
Glass with wrong offset Poorly repaired chain Imbalance between level sightings
Each measurement made with the tape is 0.1' shorter than recorded.
Systematic errors may be correctable, or may not be. If the target offset is wrong, a correction factor can be applied. If foresights and backsights on a level run arent balanced, the results may be poor, but there is no correction factor, unless you used digital levels. Systematic Errors are best reduced by following proper procedures.
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Random
an error that has a random distribution and can be attributed to chance. without definite aim, direction, or method
True Random Errors are created by the inherent limitations of equipment, operator skill, and field conditions. They are whats left after blunders have been eliminated, and systematic errors reduced to a minimum.
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Random
Poorly adjusted tribrach Inexperienced Instrument operator Inaccuracy in equipment
Many tribrachs have a centering error of +/- 2mm. They dont have to be poorly adjusted to introduce error. A poorly adjusted tribrach creates systematic error, a properly adjusted one will still be a source of random error. All equipment has inherent inaccuracy. Therefore, all measurements will contain random error.
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A Normal Distribution Curve has all of these attributes: 1. It is symmetrical about the mean 2. More data is close to the mean that farther away 3. Very little data is found at the fringe
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A plus or minus error will occur with the same frequency, so Area within curve is equal on either side of the mean
The Normal Distribution curve is also known as the Bell Curve due to its shape. Its was developed by an 18th century German mathematician and astronomer named Karl Gauss. If this was a chart of coin tosses, the chance of a coin land on heads is equal to the number of coins landing tails. And the number of coins landing heads 6 out of 10 times is equal to the number of coins landing tails 6 out of 10 times, etc. This is a Normal Curve! In real life, the data is often skewed.
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Minor errors will occur more often than large ones, so The area within one standard deviation () of the mean is 68.3% of the total
In any population sample, most errors will be close to the mean. Back to the coin toss example, a lot more tests will show a 6 to 4 split than will show an 8 to 2 split The distribution curve and standard deviation are best explained with large population samples. If this represented a sampling of coins tossed 100 times, differences within one standard deviation would be considered minor. These are just the basics. We will explain the formula for standard deviation later. In surveying, we use much smaller samples, so the data rarely plots as a smooth curve.
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Very large errors will rarely occur, so The total area within 2 of the mean is 95% of the sample population
In the previous slide we mentioned that a small number of data wont result in a smooth curve. In a random sampling of a general population, it usually takes a minimum of sample of about 30 to see a true curve start to form. With numbers less than thirty, its possible that there wont be any measurements outside of two standard deviations. Since surveyors only measure a sample of thirty or more with GPS equipment, ALL conventional field measurements should fall within that limit. If we go back to the example of the curve representing 10 coin tosses, the chance of any person tossing 4 heads in a row is 24 (16:1) or 6.25% The odds of 5 in a row is 32:1, or 3.125%. So while it is possible to toss heads 10 times in a row (1024:1, or 0.1%), measurements outside of 2 sigma of the mean arent usually relevant. For measurement data, that means flawed.
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/ Outlier \
2.0 2.5
Residuals
This data shows the precision of a set of turned angles. A residual is the difference between the measured value and the most likely value (usually the mean). Thats different from the definition of error, which is the difference between measured and true. Since the true value isnt known, you cant calculate error. But a residual is a value that can be calculated and used for mathematical adjustments. Notice the Outlier. A bell curve should help identify data that should be excluded (Blunders) All data within 2 sigma is significant data, even if it isnt precise. It still has statistical value, and isnt weak data In this example, measurements within 1.75 seconds of the mean will happen 68% of the time. So even very good measurements have a measure of uncertainty.
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Measurement Components
All measurements consist of two components: the measurement and the uncertainty statement. 1,320.55 0.05 The uncertainty statement is not a guess, but is based on testing of equipment and methods.
Uncertainty statement is usually a statement of accuracy In the last slide, the measurement of one standard deviation was +/- 1.75. That was the uncertainty statement The second bullet originally read The uncertainty statement is not a guess, but is based on testing of equipment, personnel, methods and the surveyors judgment. Whats the difference between the two? Answer: All properly adjusted equipment, used correctly, has random errors. The human factors (personnel and judgment) introduce blunders and systematic errors. The published instrument uncertainty statements (2.0 mm +/- 2 ppm) are the expected instrument error. The actual field measurements include the systematic errors beyond the manufacturers control.
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Bullseye example Bullseye is not a very good example in surveying. A tightly grouped set of measurements (precision) that misses the Bullseye (accuracy) doesnt help the surveyor. Q. If several tightly grouped measurements miss the bullseye, how would you know? A. See Standard Deviation of the Mean
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Measurement Analysis
Determining Measurement Uncertainties
Now well take a data sample and show how the Bell curve applies to measurements.
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Determining Uncertainty
Uncertainty - the positive and negative range of values expected for a recorded or calculated value, i.e. the value (the second component of measurements).
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Your Assignment
Measure a line that is very close to 1000 feet long and determine the accuracy of your measurement. Equipment: 100 tape and two plumb bobs. Terrain: Basically level with 2 high brush. Environment: Sunny and warm. Personnel: You and me.
If the instructor wishes to have the class perform this exercise, see the sample instructions in the student work book.
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Setup: On level ground lay the chain out flat, and place two nails approximately 100 feet apart. The site can be on grass, dirt, or pavement, as long as it is level.
Procedure: Have the class form 2-person teams, with each team making a single measurement of the distance. Both chainmen should use a plumb bob, with the head chainman holding the chain no more than waist high. If time permits, the trainees can use a spring balance and thermometer, and adjust for sag and temperature. The tape corrections would be part of eliminating systematic errors. If corrections for sag or temperature arent made, students should still be aware of the correction procedures. You can still use uncorrected measurements for the classroom exercise.
Measurements: At least 10 measurements should be made. If the class has fewer than 20 students (10 teams), then teams may switch off head and rear chainmen until a total of 10 measurements are obtained. There may be more measurements, but for simplicity it shouldnt be much more than 10, and should be an even number. Each chaining team should not reveal their results until all measurements have been made.
Calculations: After all measurements have been collected, the student will return to the classroom, and use the data as shown in the PowerPoint to obtain mean, standard deviation, and standard deviation of the mean
NOTE: After completing the exercise, DONT try to measure the distance using EDM equipment! Students should be aware that they will never know the true value. There are measurements that are close to the mean value, but there is no right answer. Even a distance measured by modern equipment has its own random errors, and is not the true value.
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Need to measure between two points approximately 1000 apart and need the accuracy of the measurement Discuss how measurements were made (chain, bobing up to waist high, etc.) Objective is to determine error per chain length by testing, then determine the error in the 1000 distance.
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Averages
Measures of Central Tendency
The value within a data set that tends to exist at the center.
Measures of Central Tendency is a corollary to the Nature of Random Errors #2. Mean is the sum of measurements divided by the number of observations. Median is the midpoint of the observations (half are less, half are greater). Mode is the most common value.
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Averages
Most commonly used is Arithmetic Mean Considered the most probable value
mean =
meas. n
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Residuals
The difference between an individual reading in a set of repeated measurements and the mean Residual () = reading - mean Sum of the residuals squared (2) is used in future calculations
Residuals are also called variations. Thats why v is used in the formula
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Residuals
Calculating Residuals (mean = 100.00):
Readings 99.96 100.02 100.04 100.00 100.00 99.98 100.02 100.00 99.98 100.00 residual -0.04 +0.02 +0.04 0 0 -0.02 +0.02 0 -0.02 0 2 residual2 0.0016 0.0004 0.0016 0 0 0.0004 0.0004 0 0.0004 0 = 0.0048
The determination of mean and the resulting residuals are the beginning of a least squares adjustment. The sum of the residuals squared should be smallest where the mean was properly calculated.
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Standard Deviation
The Standard Deviation is the range within which 68.3% of the residuals will fall or Each residual has a 68.3% probability of falling within the Standard Deviation range or If another measurement is made, the resulting residual has a 68.3% chance of falling within the Standard Deviation range.
Standard Deviation is sometimes referred to as standard error. Dont get the cart before the the horse, the slide makes it sound like the definition of deviation is 68.3%. In reality, the formula for Standard Deviation results in a 68.3% probability, not the other way around.
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0.0048 = 0.023' 9
Sigma (lower case) denotes standard deviation Sigma (upper case) denotes Summation Vee (italics) denotes residual, the difference between individual measurements and mean n denotes number of measurements The pure formula for standard deviation would have just n in the denominator, not n-1 But you cant have a standard deviation from just one measurement. So n-1 represents the number of redundant measurements, You can make only a single measurement if you wanted to. But you wouldnt be able to calculate a standard deviation from a single measurement. Note that the more redundant measurements (n-1) you have, the closer n-1 approaches n. That is, if n=2, then n-1 is of n. But if n=100, then n-1 is 99% of n. The more redundant measurements, the more accurate the standard deviation
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Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation is a comparison of the individual readings (measurements) to the mean of the readings, therefore Standard Deviation is a measure of.
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Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation is a comparison of the individual readings (measurements) to the mean of the readings, therefore Standard Deviation is a measure of.
PRECISION!
Draw a Bell Curve that is very tall and steep, and compare it to a very low and flat curve. Which curve represents a higher precision? The closer the data are to the mean, the higher precision.
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44
Draw a Bell Curve that is skewed, with one steep side and one gentle slope. Is this more accurate than a symmetrical data set? Q. What happens if you turn three sets of angles instead of two or four? SEE EXERCISE FOR STANDARD DEVIATION OF THE MEAN
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Standard deviation ( ) =
2 n 1
Not satisfied with the spread of the measurements, the instrument man then turns another set of angles: 504544 504538 504542 504536 Calculate the Standard Deviation and Standard Deviation of the Mean for the set of four angles.
Note that: 1. Both data sets have the same mean 40 2. The first set has a smaller spread than the second 6 vs. 8, but isnt symmetrical about the mean
1 2 3 4
Calc Standard Deviation for set #1 24 set #1 ( ) = = 3.46 2 Calc Stand. Dev. of the Mean for set #1 set #1 (m) = 3.46 = 2.0 3
4. The second symmetrical set has a smaller standard deviation of the mean (accuracy)
Calc Stand. Dev. of the Mean for set #2 set #2 (m) = 3.65 = 1.82 4
If your observations arent symmetrical, it is better to take more observations than guess which ones are better When turning sets with a total station, always turn an even number!
Back to the chaining example. For every measurement that you make, there are three values. The first value is the measured value (in this example, each of the 10 measurements) The second value is the adjusted value; i.e. the mean. The third value is the True Value. The Standard Deviation of the Mean is your confidence in the adjusted value. This calculation states I am confident that the true value lies within 0.007 of the adjusted value.
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Probable Error
Besides the value of =68.3%, other error values are used by statisticians An error value of 50% is called Probable Error and is shown as E or E50 E50= (0.6745)
E50 is used statistically for things like toxicity studies on lab rats and Air Force bombing surveys (The Doc says you got a 50-50 chance!)
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E 90 = (1 .6449 )
E 95 = (1.96 )
E 90m =
E90 n
E95m =
E95 n
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Note that the last slide showed the multiple for E95 as 1.960, and this one is 2. Technically two standard deviations and E95 arent the same, but the two terms are often used interchangeably in day-to-day usage. (Day to Day by mathematicians, I dont know too many surveyors who talk like that) Method to determine the E95m for each tape length This now reads, Theres a 95% chance that any measurement of 100.00 feet is accurate within 0.046, and the average of a set of ten measurements will be within 0.015 of the true value 95% of the time. Now 0.046 doesnt sound very accurate, and it isnt. But this is the 95% level. If you chain a distance of 100 feet, any one chaining is probably (68.3%) within 0.023 feet of true, But for any one measurement, you are certain that you are within 0.046. Check the original data set. MOST measurements are within one standard deviation, but ALL are within E95.
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Meaning of E95
If a measurement falls outside
Francis H. Moffitt
Were Surveyors, not statisticians. Random Errors that fall outside of E95 arent random errors. Time to re-check you measurements and equipment.
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Error in a Series
Describes the error of multiple measurements with identical standard deviations, such as measuring a 1000 line with using a 100 chain.
Eseries = E n
The error of a series is equal to the error of each measurement times the square root of the number of measurements in the series. Common Sense would say that if one measurement has an error of 0.02, and you measured 10 lengths, the total error would be 0.20. But because errors can be positive or negative, the chance of a random error being positive for 10 measurements in a row is remote. That is why the square root give a more reliable answer.
What is the error in 1000 distance using error value determined before? Using data from slide 43 and the error of series formula: =0.015 (10) =0.047 = 0.05
Note that we are using the term Error and the variable E rather than Standard Deviation and sigma. If we replaced E with sigma, the formula would still be correct But this formula will also work for E50 and E95 as well. By changing the variable of E , we can calculate any error value we wish.
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Error in a Sum
Esum = E1 2 + E2 2 + E3 2 + ... + En 2
Esum is the square root of the sum of each of the individual measurements squared It is used when there are several measurements with differing standard errors
Error in a series and error in a sum are basically the same. If the variable E is the same for each of the measurements, then the result is the Error of a Series formula. If they arent the same value, then you use the Errors of a Sum formula.
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Hint: First look at errors that would affect distance, then errors that would affect the angle.
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The combination of all of the possible random errors exceeds the amount of error we normally associate with a single measurement For someone to say this is a half-second gun, or The EDM is accurate to 2mm ignores all of the other possible error sources
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Ered.meas. =
E n
If sigma= one (1), and n=1,then one over the square root of 1 = 1 If sigma= one (1), and n=2, then one over the square root of 2 = 0.707 If sigma= one (1), and n=2, then one over the square root of 4 = 0.5
What is error in 1000 distance using error value determined before =0.015 (10) =0.047 = 0.05 Error in redundant measurement is used when a value is measured more than one time What is error value when 1000 distance is measured 4 times. =0.047 4 = 0.024 = 0.02
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Sample of Redundancy
Expected accuracy of a given number of unique observations at a given baseline length, at the 95% confidence interval and stated in mm.
Base Line (KM)
Shots 1 2
20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 14 16 17 18 20 21 23 24 25 27 28
Horizontal
3
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 20 21 22 23
4
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
5
9 10 11 12 13 13 14 15 16 17 18
6
8 9 10 11 11 12 13 14 15 16 16
7
8 8 9 10 11 11 12 13 14 14 15
8
7 8 8 9 10 11 11 12 13 13 14
9
7 7 8 9 9 10 11 11 12 13 13
10
6 7 8 8 9 9 10 11 11 12 13
Shots 1 2
40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58 60 28 30 31 33 34 35 37 38 40 41 42
Vertical
3
23 24 25 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 35
4
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
5
18 19 20 21 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
6
16 17 18 19 20 20 21 22 23 24 24
7
15 16 17 17 18 19 20 20 21 22 23
8
14 15 16 16 17 18 18 19 20 21 21
9
13 14 15 15 16 17 17 18 19 19 20
10
13 13 14 15 15 16 16 17 18 18 19
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
This is the published accuracy of the Trimble R7 receiver To apply the Errors of Redundant Measurement formula, Use the number in column 1 of Horizontal shots as E95, In the 10 KM Baseline, that would be 40mm Divide that number by the square root of the number of shots (example, 4) and you should get the same value as the chart. 40 divided by the square root of 4 equals 20. That agrees with the chart. So four measurements are twice as accurate as a single measurement!
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This may be the single most important statement in this entire course.
As networks become more complex, there is is a greater chance of error. Also, a blunder can hide in a complex network, by having the error spread out to more points. At the beginning we had the example of a level network with 0.10 closure per mile (0.25 in three miles). A single three mile level run cant isolate a bust. But three one mile loops will show whether you have poor measurements or poor control. Always think of redundancy when planning a network.
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. Redundancy can mean: 1. Turning more sets of angles with a Total Station. This is very easy with servo instruments turning rounds in auto mode. 2. Traverses with cross-ties and double stubbing 3. Longer occupations using GPS 4. Multiple occupations of GPS points using different configurations 5. Level runs that use several loops, instead of a single long run between two known points.
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Error Ellipses
Used to described the accuracy of a measured survey point. Error Ellipse is defined by the dimensions of the semi-major and semi-minor axis and the orientation of the semi-major axis Assuming standard errors, the measurements have a 39.4% chance of falling within the Error Ellipse E95 = 2.447
See Sample Test Question A-4 1991 LS for error ellipse example Part A and B (this is in the Caltrans Exam Prep Video and Workbook) Draw the example problem above. After completing the calculations, draw a typical error ellipse at point C. Now draw line B-C. If Point C were to be measured from B, how would the error ellipses overlap? Which form of redundancy would be more accurate, Repetitions of angle BAC?, or Measuring BAC and ABC?
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{ }
Easting Standard Deviation
This is why the standard errors have only a 39.4% chance of falling within the error ellipse. The standard deviations arent oriented the same as the ellipse.
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Older surveys use closure as a measure of accuracy. Newer adjustments dont. How do you compare the two? Or to put it another way, How close together can two error elipses be and still have an accurate survey? See Attached Document
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Positional Accuracy vs. Precision Ratio Traditional compass rule adjustments were analyzed using precision ratios. The length of a traverse is divided by the error in closure. The result is the precision ratio. The standard for a control traverse run to second order accuracy is 1:20,000. The standard for a landnet traverse run to third order accuracy is 1:10,000. (See Chapter 5 Surveys Manual) 0.01 ft x 10,000 = 100.00 Therefore, any single distance measured to an accuracy of less that 0.01 per 100 ft cannot meet the 1:10,000 ratio. This is one reason why all landnet points are double-tied. RTK. RTK only measures baselines between the base station and the rover. Each measurement to a monument is independent of measurements to other monuments. The vector between two unknown stations is never measured. Each is independently measured to a known base station. This is one reason why RTK can only be used for surveys of third order or less.
Positional Accuracy Least square adjustments dont publish precision ratios. Instead, each point is given a position and an error ellipse, defining the most likely position of the point. A position can also be defined as the circle in which the true position has a 95% chance of being located. (E95). The question then becomes How do you determine the precision ratio of a measurement that doesnt have a traverse closure? The simple way to check for precision ration is to divide the distance between two points by the sum of the standard errors of the two points. Errors in a Sum The Standard Error of the sum of two quantities is equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the standard errors of the individual quantities .The concept can be extended to the sum of any number of quantities that are not correlated. -Moffitt/ Bouchard
To determine the precision ratio between to monuments: The ratio between the length of the line and the sum of the errors of the two point.
Y = (Distance)(A + B) Where A is the positional accuracy at the first station and B is the positional accuracy at the second station. 1:Y is the resultant precision ratio, where Y shall be greater than or equal to 10,000 to achieve third order accuracy. Assume that you locate two monuments using RTK that are approximately 140 m apart. Each has a positional accuracy of 10mm. What is the precision ratio of the measured distance between the two monuments? Y = (140.00)(0.010) + (0.010) Y = (140.00)0.0002 Y = 140.00 0.014 Y = 10,000 and 1:Y = 1:10,000 OR Given two RTK monuments at E95 of 10mm, The minimum distance between the two monuments that would achieve a 1: 10,000 ratio would be 140 meters (460 ft.)
Monuments found at distances less than 140 meters (460 ft) apart must be tied using conventional total station methods to achieve third order standards. Monuments between 140 and 200 meters apart should be checked for positional error before being accepted. The 140 meter standard applies when each monument has been occupied according to standards (occupied twice for minimum of 15 epochs) and are within a properly boxed control net. See Surveys Manual Chapter 6 Exercise #2 An EDM with an accuracy () of 2 mm 2.0 ppm is used to measure a distance of 40 meters. The instrument and foresight are on tribrachs with an accuracy of 1.5 mm. Using the Errors of a Sum formula, calculate the total measurement error. Then calculate the shortest distance that such a setup could measure a 1: 10,000 precision ratio (land net), and a 1: 50,000 ratio (project control)
Introduction to Adjustments
Adjustment - A process designed to remove inconsistencies in measured or computed quantities by applying derived corrections to compensate for random, or accidental errors, such errors not being subject to systematic corrections.
Definitions of Surveying and Associated Terms, 1989 Reprint
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Introduction to Adjustments
Common Adjustment methods: Compass Rule Transit Rule Crandall's Rule Rotation and Scale (Grant Line Adjustment) Least Squares Adjustment
Compass rule assumes that both angles and distances are measured with equal precision. The most common way of adjusting metes and bounds descriptions. The Compass Rule can only solve a traverse, not redundant measurements. Transit Rule assumes angles are more accurate than distances, but the formula results in different corrections depending on the orientation of a figure (if you have a closed traverse, and then rotate it 45 degrees, the adjustment for each leg will change) Crandalls rule again assumes angles superior than distances, but is more complicated than Transit Rule Rotation and scale holds interior angles as fixed, and adjusts distances. This is the same as the BLM Grant line Adjustment. Least Squares simultaneously adjusts the angular and linear measurements to make the sum of the squares of the residuals a minimum. If there are no redundant measurements, the results are the same as a Compass Rule.
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Weighted Adjustments
Weight - The relative reliability (or worth) of a quantity as compared with other values of the same quantity.
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Weighted Adjustments
The concept of weighting measurements to account for different error sources, etc. is fundamental to a least squares adjustment. Weighting can be based on error sources, if the error of each measurement is different, or the quantity of readings that make up a reading, if the error sources are equal.
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Weighted Adjustments
Formulas: W (1 E2) (Error Sources) C (1 W) (Correction) W n (repeated measurements of the same value) W (1 n) (a series of measurements)
Weights are inversely proportional to the residuals. The closer a measurement is to the mean, the more heavily weighted it should be. Therefore, corrections are inversely proportional to the weights. The farther a measurement is from the mean, the more it will be corrected. Weights are proportional to redundancy. The more times a value is repeated, the stronger the weight. Weights are inversely proportional to measurements of a series. A level run of 4 turns is stronger than a run using 8 turns. (All other factors being even)
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Weighted Adjustments
A = 432436, 2x B = 471234, 4x A C = 892220, 8x Perform a weighted adjustment based on the above data
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ANGLE A B C
Rel. Corr.
4/ 2/ 1/ 7/
Corrections
4/ 2/ 1/
Adjusted Value 43 24 53 47 12 43 89 22 24
or 4/7 or
1/
X 30 = 17 X 30 = 04
2/ 4 or 7 4 4 7
7 X 30 = 09 7
or 7/7
= 30 180 00 00
The relative correction for the three angles are 1 : 2 : 4, the inverse proportion to the number of turned angles. This is the first set of relative corrections. The sum of the relative corrections is 1 + 2 + 4 = 7 , This is used as the denominator for the second set of corrections. The sum of the second set of relative corrections shall always equal 1. The second set is used for corrections.
The correction to angle C should be one fourth the correction to angle A, and one half the correction of angle B. This ration is the relative correction factors between the measurements. This is the first correction factor. The sum of the relative factors results in the total correction factor for the figure. The total figure correction factor is then used to correct the measured angles.
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Weighted Adjustments
BM B Elev. = 102.0
+7.8, 2 mi.
BM NEW
This exercise doesnt have a published solution. Instructors may include it as an exercise, or save time by skipping it. See Moffitt for a good example of solving this type of problem.
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Compass rule adjustment is based on proportional adjustment of data Simultaneous adjustment of all measurements is the most important benefit of least squares. In multiple traverses, a compass adjustment must solve each traverse in order, and hold the results as fixed for the next traverse. Least squares can solve the entire network simultaneously Each measurement can have its own error estimate or you can globally set the error estimate or a combination of the two Maintains the integrity of the field measurements, least squares tries to minimize the amount of adjustment to each measurement
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Think of ways that other adjustment methods can skew data. The Compass Rule adjusts angles based on the length of the legs. But short sights are less accurate than long ones, so why adjust the long sight more? A least squares adjustment can take weighted means, redundancy, and strength of figure to adjust a network.
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>Any survey can be manipulated to pass a least squares adjustment by freeing up data or changing error estimates >All adjustments must be reviewed prior to moving on to next step >A traverse that runs 3 miles along a straight highway is inherently weak >If you occupy the wrong monument, and dont perform a check shot, least squares wont help you >A survey with no redundancy will have the same results whether adjustment is compass rule or least squares
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Least Squares
Least Squares Should Be Used for
The Adjustment Of: Conventional Traverse Control Networks GPS Networks Level Networks Resections Collected By: Theodolite & Chain Total Stations GPS Receivers Levels EDMs
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Least Squares
A Observed 1st Iteration 2nd Iteration G F E B
What happens?
Iterative Process Each iteration applies adjustments to observations, working for best solution Adjustments become smaller with each successive iteration
C D
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Least Squares
The Iterative Process
1 Creates a calculated observation for each field 2 3 4 5
observation by inversing between approximate coordinates. Calculates a "best fit" solution of observations and compares them to field observations to compute residuals. Updates approximate coordinate values. Calculates the amount of movement between the coordinate positions prior to iteration and after iteration. Repeats steps 1 - 4 until coordinate movement is no greater than selected threshold.
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Least Squares
Four component that need to be addressed prior to performing least squares adjustment
1 2 3 4
Errors Coordinates Observations Weights
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Errors
Blunder - Must be removed Systematic - Must be Corrected Random - No action needed
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Coordinates
Because the Least Squares process begins by calculating inversed observations approximate coordinate values are needed. 1 Dimensional Network (Level Network) - Only 1 Point. 2 Dimensional Network - All Points Need Northing and Easting. 3 Dimensional Network - All Points Need Northing, Easting, and Elevation. (Except for adjustments of GPS baselines.)
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Weights
Weight = Influence of the Observation on Final Solution Larger Weight - Larger Influence Weight = 1/2 = Standard Deviation of the Observation The Smaller the Standard Deviation the Greater the Weight
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Observational Group
Least Desirable Method Example: All Angles Weighted at the Accuracy of the Total Station Best Method Standard Deviation of Field Observations Used as Weight of the Mean Observation
Good for projects the where standard deviation is calculated for each observation.
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Least Squares
If you remember nothing else about least squares today, remember this! Least Squares Adjustment Is a Two Part Process
1
- Unconstrained Adjustment
- Constrained Adjustment
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Unconstrained Adjustment
Also Called
Used to Evaluate
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Flow Chart
Start
Field Observations Setup Observation Standard Deviation Field Data Needs Editing? Yes Edit Field Data Remove Blunders Correct Systematic Errors Perform Unconstrained Least Squares Adjustment
No
Performed by User
Decision Step
Finish
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The Acceptable Range Is ? to ? > 1.0 - Observations Are Not As Good As Weighted < 1.0 - Observations Are Better Than Weighted
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Observation Residuals
Amount of adjustment applied to observation to obtain best fit This is the residual that is being minimized Used to analyze each observation Usually flags excessive adjustments (Outliers) (Star*net flags observations adjusted more than 3 times the observations weight) Large residuals may indicate blunders
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Observation Residuals
Site 10-11-12 11-12-13 12-13-14 O bservation 214 33 17.2 174 16 43.8 337 26 08.6 Residual 1.7 7.2 2.1 S Dev. 1.2 1.9 1.3 Flag
Outlier
2.0 2.5
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Coordinate standard deviations represent the accuracy of the coordinates Error ellipses are a graphical representation of the standard deviations The better the network the rounder the error ellipses High standard deviations can be found in networks with a good standard deviation of unit weight and well weighted observations due to effects of the network geometry
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Relative Errors
Predicted amount of error that can be expected to occur between points when an observation is made in the network.
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Chi-square Test
noun: (ki'skwr) a statistic that is a sum of terms
each of which is a quotient obtained by dividing the square of the difference between the observed and theoretical values of a quantity by the theoretical value In other words: A statistical analysis of the statistics.
The chi-squared () test. Consider flipping a coin and getting 7 heads and 3 tails. Now continue until you have 70 heads and 30 tails. The first sample is reasonably close to your expectation of a 50-50 split. The second sample is very far off. But the 7:3 ratio is the same. The test should reveal problems such as this. (7-5) 5 = 0.8 (70-50) 50 = 8.0 The closer the solution is to zero, the better the network. Statisticians really only feel comfortable using chi-squared for enumeration data (such as counting left-handed red-headed people), rather than measurement data (surveying). All statistical programs will generate a chi-squared test, but be careful when to accept it as proof of a good network.
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Explain scenario (must be straight line thru points) This is an example of determining a best fit alignment for a prescriptive easement. In a boundary problem, it might help you reject a monument, but best fit is never to be used as a boundary solution
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Perpendicular offsets: 1 = (0,0) 2 = (100,100) 3 = (200, 400) This example - Perpendicular offset = 141.421 1: r = 0, r sq. = 0 2: r = 0, r sq. = 0 3: r = 141.421, r sq. = 20,000 Sum r sq. = 20,000
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1, 2 & 3: r = 22, r2 = 484 Sum r2 = 3*484 = 1452 This has the lowest Sum r2 therefore is best result so far Actual best result is a skewed line that runs 19.9 feet SE of point 1 to 8.4 feet SE of point 3.
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Redundancy is a good thing!! Explain the necessity of two adjustments A closed traverse that is minimally constrained (one point and bearing held) should result in a tight closure. If it doesnt, that means that your measurements were poor. If you have a good minimally constrained adjustment, then you run a fully constrain the adjustment (hold all found control monuments as fixed). If the results are poor, then you know that it is the control that is weak, not your measurements. Then you go back to the minimally constrained adjustment, and start adding one control monument each run, until you can isolated the poor control.
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Star*Net
1
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Star*Net
1
Printout from this adjustment in in appendix Run adjustment and review printout (unconstrained & constrained) add mistake to input data and run adjustment explain how least squares will point to potential mistake (if only one mistake!) If inputting data by hand, input one page then run adjustment and check for errors, input second page and check for errors, etc. If time permits, do adjustment with GPS vectors Show the results of traverse (linear precision) in this adjustment
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0016 186.655
0018 204.86
Star*Net
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Statistics Glossary Error the difference between a measured or computed result and the true value. In mathematics, errors can be systematic or random. See Residual. Systematic Errors an error that is not determined by chance but is introduced by an inaccuracy (as of observation or measurement) inherent in the system. If they are cumulative, such as temperature corrections for a steel tape, applying correction factors can compensate for the effects. If they are variable, such as error caused by a poorly adjusted tribrach, they can be controlled by proper field procedures or calibrations. Random Errors Often called accidental errors. They are unpredictable errors that remain after mistakes and systematic errors have been eliminated. They are usually compensating, and follow the laws of probability. Present in all survey measurements. Residual () The difference between a measured value and the most probable value, which is usually the mean. Residuals are similar to errors except that residuals can be calculated and errors cant, because a true value is never known. All adjustment calculations therefore use residuals. The symbol is used because residuals are sometimes referred to as variations. Variance () The variance is a measure of the range of a set of measurements. It is a function of the sum of the residuals. Its square root is the standard deviation. The greater the range of measurements, the larger the standard deviation. Standard Deviation () A measurement of the precision of a set of measurements. Also referred to as standard error. In a normal distribution curve, the area within one standard deviation is 68.27% of the total. Standard Deviation of the Mean (m) is a measure of accuracy. The mean is the average of a data set. The Standard Deviation of the Mean is the expected accuracy of the calculated mean. It gives more weight to a mean calculated from many measurements than one derived from only a few. Also called Standard Error of the Mean. Notes on Statistical words: In the above glossary, many concepts are called by different names. Many surveying texts use the terms Standard Error and Standard Error of the Mean because the authors feel that the technical definition of error is closer to the way it is used in surveying than the terms Standard Deviation and Standard Deviation of the Mean. This presentation uses the term Deviation because it is more common in standard statistical texts. Either way is acceptable as long as both instructor and students agree that they are identical terms.