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internal supports and the assumptions made concerning the flexural rigidity in hogging bending. For a cross-section in Class 3 or Class 4, stresses should be calculated by elastic theory, using an effective width for the concrete flange. Account may be taken of creep of concrete in compression by means of an appropriate modular ratio. The typical pattern of bending moments in a continuous beam results in the lower flange being in compression over internal supports. As the upper flange of the steel section is restrained by the concrete slab, lateral buckling of the compression flange is accompanied by distortion of the cross-section. Account can be taken of the distortional stiffness to reduce the effective slenderness for lateral-torsional buckling. The design methods established in the lecture are illustrated by Worked Example 10.3.
1. INTRODUCTION
Bending moments in continuous composite beams at the ultimate limit state (ULS) may be determined by elastic analysis or, subject to certain conditions, rigid-plastic analysis; the latter method is discussed in the previous Lecture 10.4.1. Elastic analysis has the advantage of more general application, and may also be more convenient to use as this approach is also required to check the serviceability limit state (see Lectures 10.5.1 and 10.5.2). In composite building structures no consideration of temperature effects is normally necessary in verifications for ULS. Similarly, the effects of shrinkage may be neglected, except in analysis involving Class 4 sections. These effects, therefore, are not considered in this lecture. The scope of Eurocode 4 [1] does not include members with semi-rigid connections. Thus this lecture concerns beams in which the steel section is either continuous over simple supports or is jointed by rigid connections. In general, elastic analysis requires that the relative stiffnesses of adjacent spans be known. As the stiffnesses depend on the second moment of area of cross-sections, it is necessary to know the effective width of the concrete flange and the modulus of elasticity of concrete relative to that of steel (the modular ratio).
2. GENERAL PRINCIPLES
2.1 Effective Width of Concrete Flange
An effective width approach is used to make allowance for in-plane shear flexibility (shear lag). Values of effective width may be related to distances along the beam between points of zero bending moment. Different values can be calculated therefore for sagging moment regions and hogging moment regions, as described in Fig. 10 of the previous lecture (taken from Fig. 4.3 of Eurocode 4 [1]). For global analysis, however, it has been found that shear lag has little effect on the results. Hence a constant effective width may be assumed for the whole of each span, which greatly simplifies the analysis. As the greater part of each span of a beam will usually be subject to sagging bending moment, it is appropriate that the constant effective width be taken as the value at mid-span. For a cantilever, however, the width should be that applicable at the support. In determining the elastic section properties, the concrete is usually assumed to be uncracked under positive sagging moment. If the slab is formed with profiled steel sheeting whose ribs are transverse to the steel section,
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as discussed in Lecture 10.1, the area of concrete within the profile depth is ignored.
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those of the cracked section for negative moments. The assumption of a fixed proportion of the span as "cracked" is a considerable simplification, since it makes feasible the use of formulae or standard computer programs for the global analysis, without the need for iteration. The second moment of area of the cracked section is calculated using a section comprising the steel member together with the effectively anchored reinforcement located within the effective width of the concrete flange at the support (see Figure 1a). Outside the "15% length", the section properties are those of the uncracked section. They are calculated using the mid-span effective width for the concrete flange but ignoring any longitudinal reinforcement (Figure 1b).
The effect of assuming a length other than 15% to be cracked has been studied (see Figure 2). It was found that bending moments calculated assuming a cracked length of 15% would be correct to within 5% if any proportion of the span between 8% and 25% was in fact cracked; the simplifying assumption is therefore justified.
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'cracked' analysis with such beams is equivalent to 10% redistribution of the 'uncracked' support moments, as shown in Table 1 for Class 3 and Class 4 sections. There is no need to be so cautious for Class 3 ("semi-compact") sections as these can reach the design resistance, with local buckling only preventing the development of the full plastic moment. Numerical analysis, using experimental data on the falling branch of moment-rotation relationships for locally-buckling Class 3 cantilevers, confirms that up to 20% redistribution can be allowed, as given in Table 1. In a Class 2 section the full plastic moment resistance can be developed. It has been proposed that a redistribution of 30% be permitted from an "uncracked" analysis to allow for local yielding at the supports and cracking of concrete. Comparisons with test results made during the assessment of Eurocode4 confirm the latter figure as appropriate for sections which can attain the plastic resistance moment at the supports. A beam with Class 2 (or Class 1) sections at supports will typically have a relatively low neutral axis, in order to meet the restrictions on the depth of the web in compression required in such sections. Hence only light tensile reinforcement can be provided and the ratio of "uncracked" to "cracked" flexural stiffness (I1/I2) can exceed 3.0. For such beams, the bending moment at the internal support from "cracked" analysis may then be less than 70% of the value from "uncracked" analysis and is almost always less than 85% of the "uncracked" value. This contrasts with the studies referred to above and summarised in Figure 2, for which the ratio I1/I2 was nearer 2 than 3. It follows that for Class 2 and Class 1 sections a 15% difference between "uncracked" and "cracked" analysis is more appropriate than the 10% difference adopted for beams with sections in Class 3 or Class 4. A 15% difference is given in Table 1 for Class 2 and Class 1 sections. Finally, a Class 1 section is one which can, not only attain the plastic resistance moment, but also sustain this level of moment whilst rotation occurs. In steel structures, the limits on flange and web slenderness which define a 'plastic' section are sufficiently restrictive to permit plastic global analysis without further checks on rotation capacity. This is not true for composite beams, partly because the degree of redistribution needed to attain a plastic hinge mechanism will be higher due to the greater relative moment resistance at mid-span. The conditions required for plastic global analysis have been discussed in the previous lecture. The redistribution of elastic support moments permitted in Table 1 for Class 1 sections is based on the recognition that some rotation capacity exists for such sections.
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mechanically connected to the steel section. A Class 3 web which is encased, may be treated effectively as if it was in Class 2. Provided the flanges are Class 1 or Class 2, the moment resistance of a section with an uncased web in Class 3 may still be determined by plastic analysis, provided that part of the web is discounted. The resulting effective section in hogging bending is shown in Figure 3. Without this approach, change of classification of the web from Class 2 to Class 3, due to small changes in longitudinal reinforcement, would prevent plastic analysis from being used. As a consequence, the calculated resistance moment would be unduly sensitive to changes in reinforcement.
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concrete interface. Use is made of the theory of transformed sections, assuming that both concrete in compression and steel are linearly elastic materials. This assumption enables the composite section in sagging bending to be replaced in the analysis by an equivalent all-steel cross-section. The breadth of the equivalent steel slab depends upon the modular ratio a e, defined by: a e = Ea/E1c where Ea is the elastic modulus of steel. E1c is an appropriate elastic modulus for concrete. The transformation is illustrated in Figure 4a for the case where the slab is formed with profiled sheeting. The ribs of depth Dp run transverse to the beam and all concrete above the ribs is in compression. The area of concrete within the depth of the profiled steel sheet is ignored.
As elastic theory is being used, calculations are therefore similar to those to be made for all classes of section when checking serviceability, and reference should be made to Lectures 10.5.1 and 10.5.2 for detailed explanation of the analysis of the transformed section. Account should be taken of creep of concrete in compression due to permanent loads by use of an appropriate value for the modular ratio. In hogging bending, the whole of the concrete slab may be assumed to be cracked. The effective section
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therefore comprises the structural steel section and effectively anchored reinforcement within the effective width for hogging bending (Figure 5a).
The ultimate bending resistance of the member is attained when a stress reaches the limiting strength of one of the components in the cross-section. In Eurocode 4 [1] the limiting strengths for ULS are as follows: 1. Structural steel in tension or compression fy /ga 2. Reinforcing steel in tension fsk /gs 3. Concrete in compression 0,85fck/gc These limits are illustrated in Figure 4b for a section in sagging bending and in Figure 5b for a section in hogging bending. In the particular cases shown, the neutral axes are in the structural steel section. For sections in Class 4, account should be taken of local buckling, for example by using effective widths for the compression elements as described in Eurocode 3 [2] and discussed in Lecture 7.3. Where unpropped construction is used, stresses due to loads on the structural steelwork alone need to be added to stresses due to loads on the composite member. When high vertical shear co-exists with high bending moment, account needs to be taken of the resulting interaction. The manner in which vertical shear affects the plastic resistance moment has been described in Lecture 10.3. For sections in Class 3 and Class 4, Section 4.4.3 of Eurocode 4 generally reduces the elastic resistance moment to account for vertical shear.
6. LATERAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
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In composite beams, the upper flange of the steel section is restrained against lateral buckling by the concrete slab. However, the typical pattern of bending moments in a continuous beam (see Figure 6a) results in the lower flange being in compression in the region of internal supports. The length of the lower flange in compression can be considerable when only dead load acts on the span under consideration (Figure 6b).
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Methods for the design of unrestrained steel beams against lateral-torsional buckling, as discussed in Lectures 7.9.1 and 7.9.2, are not applicable to negative moment regions of continuous composite beams because in the former case it is assumed that each cross-section of the member rotates as a whole, without distortion (see
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Figure 7a). In the negative moment region of a composite member, the restraint afforded to the upper flange results in distortion of the cross-section if the lower (compression) flange is to buckle laterally (Figure 7b). This restraint is provided by the torsional stiffness of the slab, acting together with adjacent steel sections as an inverted U-frame (Figure 8). The effectiveness of the restraint is also dependent on the stiffness of the shear connection.
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For composite beams whose steel member is a conventional hot-rolled I-section, inverted U-frame action may provide full restraint to the lower (compression) flange. The conditions under which this can be assumed to be achieved are given in Section 4.6.2 of Eurocode 4 [1]; they include some limitation on the depth of the steel member, the restriction becoming more severe as the design strength of the steel increases. The effect of the restraint to the compression flange resulting from the distortional stiffness of the cross-section, and other components in the U-frame action, can also be accounted for by reducing the effective slenderness of the beam when calculating the buckling resistance moment. Despite the possibility of local plastification at the ends of the beam, the plastification is not considered to affect the elastic mode of instability of the beam (Figure 9) because of the reducing negative moment over the buckled length. A method for the calculation of the slenderness is given in Eurocode 4, Annex B [1].
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7. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
When elastic analysis is used to determine internal moments and forces (global analysis), moment may be redistributed from internal supports to allow for cracking of concrete and yielding of steel. The extent of the redistribution is dependent on the classification of the steel section at each internal support and on the assumptions made concerning flexural rigidity in the negative moment regions. The properties of the uncracked section may be used to determine the flexural rigidity for every crosssection along the beam ("uncracked section method"). Alternatively, it may be assumed that over a fixed length, on each side of internal supports, the properties are those of the cracked section ("cracked section method"). The ultimate bending resistance of sections in Class 3 and Class 4 are determined by elastic analysis of the effective cross-section, based on the attainment of limiting strengths. In determining the effective section, account is taken of shear lag, cracking of concrete in negative moment regions and, for Class 4 sections, the buckling of steel elements in compression. An appropriate modular
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ratio is used to allow for creep of concrete in compression. The concrete slab may be assumed to prevent the upper flange of the steel section from moving laterally. Torsional restraint is provided by inverted U-frame action. In negative moment regions the tendency of the lower flange to buckle laterally is partially restrained by the distortional stiffness of the cross-section. These effects result in a reduction in the effective slenderness for lateral-torsional buckling, and may provide full restraint against this form of buckling. Discrete lateral restraint may be provided to the compression flange, for example by bracing or transverse web stiffeners.
8. REFERENCES
[1] Eurocode 4: "Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures": ENV1994-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN (in press). [2] Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General rules and rules for buildings, CEN, 1992.
9. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Johnson R.P., "Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete: Volume 1: Beams, Columns, Frames and Applications in Building", Granada 1975. 2. Johnson R.P. and Buckby R.J., "Composite Structures of Steel and Concrete: Volume 2: Bridges", Second edition, Collins, 1986. 3. Brett P.R., Nethercot D.A. and Owens G.W., "Continuous Construction in Steel for Roofs and Composite Floors", Structural Engineer, Volume 65A, October 1987, pp. 355-368. 4. Lawson R.M. and Rackham J.W., "Design of Haunched Composite Beams in Buildings", Steel Construction Institute, Ascot, England 1989. The references given in Lecture 10.1 are also relevant. Table 1 Limits to redistribution of moments, per cent of the initial value of the bending moment to be reduced Class of cross section in hogging moment region For "uncracked" elastic analysis For "cracked" elastic analysis 1 40 25 2 30 15 3 20 10 4 10 0
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