Study Material for SA-2 (Class 10th)

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CONTENT
MATHEMATICS v Quadratic equations v Arithmetic progressions v Coordinate geometry v Circles v Some applications of trigonometry v Areas related to circles v Surface areas and volumes v Probability .1 ..2 ..3 ..4 ..4 ..5 ..6 ..7

SCIENCE v Carbon and its compounds v Periodic classification of elements v Human eye and colourful world v Light reflection and refraction v Our environment v Heredity and evolution MODEL PAPER v Maths v Science ..20 ..24

..8 ..10 ..12 ..14 ..16 ..18

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
ImpORTANT TERmS, DEfINITIONS AND RESUlTS

An equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are real numbers and a 0, is called a quadratic equation in x.

The roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a, b, c R and a 0 are given by (Shridharacharyas formula) 2a The expression b2 4ac is called the discriminant of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. x= The discriminant, usually denoted by D, decides the nature of roots of a quadratic equation. (i) If D > 0, the equation has real roots and roots are unequal, i.e., unequal-real roots. If D is a perfect square, the equation has unequal-rational roots. (ii) If D = 0, the equation has real and equal roots and each root is b 2a (iii) If D < 0, the equation has no real roots. (i) If p 5, then p 5 (ii) If p 5, then p 5 (iii) If p2 4, then either p 2 or p 5 (Important) (iv) If p2 4, then p lies between 2 and 2, i.e., 2 p 2 (Important) Quadratic equations can be applied to solve word problems involving various situations. To solve problems leading to quadratic equations, following steps may be used : 1. Represent the unknown quantity in the problem by a variable (letter). 2. Translate the problem into an equation involving this variable. 3. Solve the equation for the variable. 4. Check the result by satisfying the conditions of the original problem. 5. A root of the quadratic equation, which does not satisfy the conditions of the problem, must be rejected. b b 4ac
2

A real number a is called a root of the quardratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 0, if aa2 + ba + c = 0. Any quardratic equation can have at most two roots. Note : If a is a root of ax2 + bx + c = 0, then we say that (i) x = a satisfies the equation ax2 + bx + c =0 or (ii) x = a is a solution of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0

The roots of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are called the zeros of the polynomial ax2 + bx + c. Solving a quadratic equation means finding its roots. If ax2 + bx + c can be factorised as (x a) (x b), then ax2 + bx + c = 0 is equivalent to (x a) (x b) = 0 Thus, (x a) (x b) = 0 xa = 0 or x b = 0 i.e., x = a or x = b. Here a and b are called the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. To solve a quadratic equation by factorisation : (a) Clear fractions and brackets, if necessary. (b) Transfer all the terms to L.H.S. and combine like terms. (c) Write the equation in the standard form, i.e., ax2 + bx + c = 0. (d) Factorise the L.H.S. (e) Put each factor equal to zero and solve. (f) Check each value by substituting it in the given equation. The roots of a quadratic equation can also be found by using the method of completing the square.

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ArITHMETIC PrOgrESSIONS
IMPOrTANT TErMS, DEFINITIONS AND rESULTS
to a definite rule, are said to form a sequence. A sequence is called an arithmetic progression (AP), if the difference of any of its terms and the preceding term is always the same. i.e., tn + 1 tn = constant. The constant number is called the common difference of the A.P.

Some numbers arranged in a definite order, according

Remember the following while working with

consecutive terms in an AP. (i) Three consecutive terms in an AP. a d, a, a + d First term = a d, common difference = d Their sum = a d + a + a + d = 3a (ii) Four consecutive terms in an AP. a 3d, a d, a + d, a + 3d

If a is the first term and d the common difference Let a be the first term and d be the common
tn = a + (n 1) d of an AP, then the general form of the AP is a, a + d, a + 2d, ...

First term : a 3d, common difference = 2d Their sum = 3d + a d + a + d + a a + 3d = 4a (iii) Five consecutive terms in an AP. a 2d, a d, a, a + d, a + 2d First term = a 2d, common difference = d

difference of an AP, then, its nth term or general is given by

If l is the last term of the AP, then nth term from

the end is the nth term of an AP, whose first term is l and common difference is d. \ nth term from the end = Last term + (n 1) ( d) nth term from the end = l (n 1) d If a, b, c, are in AP, then (i) (a + k), (b + k), (c + k) are in AP. (ii) (a k), (b k), (c k) are in AP. (iii) ak, bk, ck, are in AP. (iv) a b c , , are in AP (k 0) k k k

The sum Sn up to n terms of an AP whose first

term is a and common difference d is given by n Sn = [2a + (n 1)d ] 2

If the first term and the last term of an AP are t1

and tn, then Sn = n n (t1 + tn ) = (first term + last term) 2 2

If t1 = a, the first term and tn = l, the last term, n then S n = (a + l ) 2 Sn Sn 1 = tn

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COORDINATE GEOMETRY
IMPORTANT TERMS, DEFINITIONS AND RESULTS

In the rectangular coordinate system, two number lines are drawn at right angles to each other. The point of intersection of these two number lines is called the origin whose coordinates are taken as (0, 0). The horizontal number line is known as the x-axis and the vertical one as the y-axis. In the ordered pair (p, q), p is called the x-coordinate or abscissa and q is known as y-coordinate or ordinate of the point. The coordinate plane is divided into four quadrants.

and the diagonals are also equal. (iv) parallelogram, prove that the opposite sides are equal. (v) parallelogram but not a rectangle, prove that its opposite sides are equal but diagonals are not equal. Three points A, B and C are said to be collinear, if they lie on the same straight line. For three points to be collinear, the sum of the distances between two pairs of points is equal to the third pair of points. Three points will make : (i) a scalene triangle, if no two sides of the triangle are equal. (ii) an isosceles triangle, if any two sides are equal. (iii) an equilateral triangle, if all the three sides are equal.

The abscissa of a point is its perpendicular distance from y-axis. The ordinate of a point is its perpendicular distance from x-axis. The abscissa of every point situated on the right side of y-axis is positive and the abscissa of every point situated on the left side of y-axis is negative. The ordinate of every point situated above x-axis is positive and that of every point below x-axis is negative. The abscissa of every point on y-axis is zero. The ordinate of every point on x-axis is zero. The distance between any two points P(x1, y1) and Q (x2, y2) is given by PQ = or PQ = PQ = (x2 x1 ) + ( y2 y1 ) (x1 x2 ) + ( y1 y2 )
2
2 2 2 2

(iv) a right triangle, if sum of the squares of any two sides is equal to the square of the third side. The coordinates of the point P(x, y) which divides the line segment joining A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) internally in the ratio m : n, are given by : mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1 , y= m+n m+n . The coordinates of the mid-point M of a line segment AB with end points A(x1, y1) and B(x2, y2) are : x=

x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 2 2
The point of intersection of the medians of a triangle is called its centroid. The coordiantes of the centroid of the triangle whose vertices are (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) are given by x1 + x2 + x3 , y1 + y2 + y3 3 3 . The area of a DABC with vertices A(x1, y 1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) is given by :

(Differenceof absissae)

+ (Differenceof ordinates)

If O(0, 0) is the origin and P(x, y) is any point, then from the above formula, we have : OP = (x - 0) + ( y - 0) = x + y
2 2 2 2

In order to prove that a given figure is a :

(i) square, prove that four sides are equal and the diagonals are equal. (ii) rhombus, prove that the four sides are equal. (iii) rectangle, prove the opposite sides are equal area of DABC = 0 1 [x1 (y2 y3) + x2(y3 y1) + x3(y1 y2)] = 0 2

area (DABC) = 1 {x1 ( y2 y3 ) + x2 ( y3 y 1 ) + x3 ( y1 y2 )} . 2 Since area of a triangle cannot be negative, we consider the absolute or numerical value of the area.

Three given points A(x 1 , y 1 ), B(x 2 , y 2 ) and C(x3, y3), are collinear if x (y y ) + x (y y ) + x (y y ) = 0 1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2 Page-3

CIrCles
IMporTAnT TerMs, DefInITIons, AnD resulTs

A circle may be regarded as a collection of points in a plane at a fixed distance from a fixed point. The fixed point is called the centre of the circle. The fixed distance between the centre of the circle and the circumference, is called radius. The perimeter of the circle is referred to as the circumference of the circle. A chord of a circle is a line segment joining any two points on the circumference. An arc of a circle is a part of the circumference. A diameter of a circle is a chord which passes through the centre of the circle. A line, which intersects the circle in two distinct points, is called a secant.

A line which has only one point common to the circle is called a tangent to the circle. There is one and only one tangent at a point of the circle. The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact. No tangent can be drawn from a point inside the circle. The lengths of tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal. The perpendicular at the point of contact to the tangent to a circle passes through the centre of the circle. Tangents drawn at the end points of a diameter of a circle are parallel.

some AppLicAtions of trigonometry

importAnt terms, Definitions AnD resuLts

Line of sight : When an observer looks from a point O at an object P, then the line OP is called the line of sight. Angle of elevation : The angle which the line of sight makes with the horizontal line through O is called the angle of elevation of P, as seen from O; i.e., XOP. Or the angle of elevation of an object viewed, is the angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal when it is above the horizontal level. i.e. the case when we raise our head to look the object.

Or the angle of depression of an object viewed, is the angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal when it is below the horizontal level. i.e., the case when we lower our head to look at the object.

Altitude of the sun : The altitude of the sun is simply the angle of elevation of the sun.

Angle of depression : The angle which the line of sight makes with the horizontal line through O is called the angle of depression of P, as seen from O. Page-4

AreAs relAted to circles

iMPortANt terMs, deFiNitioNs ANd resUlts

Perimeter (circumference) of a circle with diameter d (d = 2r, where r is the radius) is given by C = pd = 2pr Perimeter of semicircle with radius r = 2r + pr = r(p + 2) Area of a circle with radius r is given by A = pr2. r 2 . Area of a semicircle of radius r = 2 Area of a ring whose outer and inner radii are R and r respectively = p(R2 r2) = p(R + r) (R r) If two circles touch internally, then the distance between their centres is equal to the difference of their radii. If two circles touch externally, then the distance between their centres is equal the sum of their radii. The distance moved by a rotating wheel in one revolution is equal to the circumference of the wheel. The number of revolutions completed by a rotating wheel in one minute Distance moved in one minute = Circumference of the wheel Length of an arc which subtends an angle of q at the centre = 2 r = r . 360 180 Sector of a circle is a region enclosed by an arc of a circle and its two bounding radii. (i) Area of sector OACBO r 2 . 360 (ii) Perimeter of sector OACBO = 2 r . 360 Minor sector : A sector of a circle is called a minor sector if the minor arc of the circle is a part of its boundary. In the above figure minor sector is OACB. = 2r + Major sector : A sector of a circle is called a major sector, if the major arc of the circle is a part of its boundary. In the above figure, OADB is the major sector. The sum of the arcs of major and minor sectors of a circle is equal to the circumference of the circle.

The sum of the areas of major and minor sectors of a circle is equal to the area of the circle. The area of a sector is given by 1 r A = lr , where l = 180 2 Angle described by minute hand in 60 minutes = 360. \ angle described by minute hand in one minute 360 = 6. = 60 Thus, the minute hand rotates through an angle of 6 in one minute. Angle described by hour hand in 12 hours = 360. \ angle described by hour hand in 1 hour 360 = = 30. 12 Angle described by hour hand in one minute = 30 = 1 60 2 1 Thus, hour hand rotates through in 1 minute. 2 A segment of a circle is the region bounded by an arc and a chord, including the arc and the chord. Minor segment : If the boundary of a segment is a minor arc of a circle, then the corresponding segment is called a minor segment. In the figure, segment PQR (the area which is shaded) is a minor segment.

Major segment : A segment corresponding a major arc of a circle is known as the major segment. In the figure above, segment PQSP is a major segment. Area of minor segment PRQS r 2 1 2 r sin 360 2 Area of major segment PSQ = pr2 area of minor segment PRQ. = Page-5

surfACe AreAs And voluMes

IMporTAnT TerMs, defInITIons And resulTs

Cuboid : (a) Lateral surface area = 2h(l + b) (b) Surface area = 2(lb + bh + lh) (c) Volume = lbh (d) Length of diagonal = where l, b, h are length, breadth and thickness of the cuboid.

Hemisphere (solid) : r = radius (a) Curved surface area = 2pr2 (b) Total surface area = 3pr2 (c) Volume = pr3

Spherical Shell : Outer radius = R, Inner radius = r (a) Surface area (outer) = 4pR2 (b) Surface area (inner)= 4pr2 (c) Volume of the material = = (R r) (R2 + Rr + r2) p(R3 r3)

Cube : (a) Lateral surface area = 4l2 (b) Surface area (c) Volume (d) Length of diagonal = = = 6l2 l3

where, l is the edge of the cube.

Cylinder : r = radius, h = 2prh (b) Total surface area =2pr2

= height

When a cone is cut by a plane parallel to the base of the cone, then the portion between the plane and the base is called the frustum of the cone. (a) Slant height of the frustum, l = h + (R - r )
2 2

(a) Area of curved surface

+ 2prh = 2pr(r + h)

(c) Volume = pr2h (d) Curved surface area of hollow cylinder = 2ph(R + r) (e) Total surface area of hollow cylinder = 2ph (R + r) + 2p(R2 r2)

(b) Volume of the frustum of the cone h 2 = R + r2 + R r 3 (c) Lateral surface area of the frustum of the cone = pl(R + r) (d) Total surface area of the frustum of the cone = (area of the base) + (area of the top) + (lateral surface area) = [pR2 + pr2 + pl(R + r)] = p[R2 + r2 + l (R + r)].

Cone : r = radius, h = height, l = slant height. (a) Curved surface area 2 2 = prl = r h + r (b) Total surface area = pr2 + prl = pr (r + l) (c) Volume = pr2h

Sphere : r = radius (a) Surface area = 4pr2 (b) Volume = pr3 Page-6

probAbIlITy
IMporTAnT TerMs, DefInITIons AnD resulTs

The science which measures the degree of uncertainty is called probability. There are two types of approaches to the study of probability. These are experimental or empirical approach and theoretical approach. In the experimental approach to probability, we find the probability of the occurrence of an event by actually performing the experiment a number of times and record the happening of an event. In the theoretical approach to probability, we predict the results without actually performing the experiment. The observations of an experiment are called its outcomes. An experiment in which all possible outcomes are known and the exact outcome cannot be predicted in advance, is called a random experiment. The word unbiased means each outcome is equally likely to occur. For example, an unbiased die indicates that each of the outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 has equal chances to occur. Throughout this chapter, we shall assume that all the experiments have equally likely outcomes. The theoretical probability of an event E, written as P(E) is defined as

P(E) =

Number of outcomes favourable to E Total number of all possible outcomes of the experiment

An event having only one outcome of the experiment is called an elementary event. The sum of the probabilities of all the elementary events of an experiment is 1. In general for any event E P(E) = 1 P(not E) = 1 P(E) or P(E) = 1 P(E) or P(E) + P(E) = 1 Here the event E , representing not E, is called the compliment of the event E. The probability of the event which is impossible to occur is 0. Such an event is called an impossible event. The probability of an event which is sure (or certain) to occur is 1. Such an event is called a sure or a certain event. For an event E, we have 0 < P(E) < 1. A die is a well balanced cube with its six faces marked with numbers or dots 1 to 6. When we throw a die we are interested in the number that occurs on the top face. The pack or deck of playing cards consists of 52 cards, 26 of red colour and 26 of black colour. There are four suits each of 13 cards namely hearts (), spades (), diamonds () and clubs (). Each suit contains ace, king, queen, jack or knave, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2. There are 4 aces, 4 kings, 4 queens, 4 jacks, 4 tens, and so on in a pack. Kings, queens, and jacks are called face cards.

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Carbon and its Compounds

IMPORTANT NOTES
1. Covalent bond or Molecular bond or Homopolar bond : A chemical bond formed between two non-metallic elements by the mutual sharing of one or more electron pairs is called covalent bond. 2. Covalency : The number of electron pairs which an atom of an element mutually shares with another atom or atoms of the same or different elements, so as to acquire a stable configuration like noble gases, is called covalency. 3. Properties of covalent (molecular) compound : (i) They have low melting point and boiling point. (ii) They have low density, i.e., their density is generally less than that of water. (iii) They are gaseous or volatile liquids or soft solids. (iv) They are insoluble in water, but soluble in organic solvents. (v) They are generally bad conductors of electricity. 4. Diamond is the purest crystalline form of carbon which is the hardest naturally occurring substance. 5. Other pure crystalline forms of carbon are graphite and fullerenes. In Buckminsterfullerene, each molecule has 60 atoms arranged in hexagons and pentagons. 6. Organic Chemistry : The branch of chemistry dealing with carbon compounds other than carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and carbonates is called organic chemistry. 7. Catenation : The property of carbon atoms to link with other carbon atoms or the atoms of other elements with single, double or triple covalent bonds, so as to form large number of compounds is called catenation. 8. Saturated organic compounds : Organic compounds in which all the four valencies of carbon atoms are satisfied by single covalent bonds, are called saturated organic compounds. 9. Unsaturated organic compounds : Organic compounds in which a double or a triple bond exists between two carbon atoms in a carbon chain, are called unsaturated organic compounds. 10. Hydrocarbons : Organic compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen atoms are called hydrocarbons. 11. Straight chain hydrocarbons : Hydrocarbons, in which all the carbon atoms are linked to one another in a straight chain by a single covalent bond are called straight chain hydrocarbons. 12. Branched chain hydrocarbons : Hydrocarbons, in which one or more carbon atoms are attached to the main straight chain of carbon atoms by a single covalent bond are called branched chain hydrocarbons. 13. Isomerism : The phenomenon due to which there can exist two or more organic compounds, with different physical and chemical properties, due to the difference in arrangement of carbon atoms in their structure, but have same chemical formula is called isomerism. 14. Homologous series : A group of members of the same class of organic compounds, which differ from each other by a CH2 group, when arranged in the ascending order of molecular mass, is called a homologous series. 15. Homologous : The members of the same class of organic compounds, when arranged in the ascending order of molecular mass, such that they differ by 14 amu or a CH2 group are called homologous. 16. Alkanes (saturated hydrocarbons) : Compounds of carbon and hydrogen, in which all the valencies of carbon atoms are satisfied by single covalent bonds are called saturated hydrocarbons or alkanes. General formula for alkanes is CnH2n + 2 where n stands for number of carbon atoms. 17. Alkenes : A homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons, characterised by the presence of double covalent bond ( C = C ) in the

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straight chain of carbon atoms, are called alkenes. General formula for alkenes is CnH2n where n stands for the number of carbon atoms in the carbon chain. 18. Alkynes : A homologous series of hydrocarbons, characterised by the triple covalent bond ( C C straight chain of carbon atoms alkynes. unsaturated presence of ) in the are called 25.

26.

General formula for alkynes is CnH2n 2, where n stands for the number of carbon atoms in the carbon chain. 19. Functional group in an organic compound, is an atom or group of atoms bonded together in such a unique fashion, that it is usually the site of chemical reactivity of an organic compound. 20. Alcohols are carbon compounds containing OH group attached to the carbon atom of an alkyl chain. IUPAC name of alcohols is alkanols and general formula is CnH2n + 1 OH.

27.

28.

29.

21. Aldehydes are carbon compounds containing CHO group attached to the carbon atom of an alkyl chain. IUPAC name of aldehydes is alkanals and general formula is CnH2n + 1 CHO. 22. Ketones are compounds containing group, in which the carbon atom of

30.

C=O

31.

C=O
32.

are attached to two carbon atoms. IUPAC name of ketone is alkanone, and O general formula is R C R' where R and R stand for the same or different alkyl radicals, having the general formula CnH2n + 1. 23. Carboxylic acids are compounds of carbon containing COOH group attached to the carbon atom of an alkyl chain. IUPAC name of carboxylic acids is alkanoic acids and general formula is RCOOH where R stands for alkyl radical having the general formula CnH2n + 1.

33. 34.

35. 36.

24. Halo alkanes : Halogen compounds of alkanes, obtained by replacing a hydrogen atom of an alkane with an atom of a halogen are called halo alkanes. General formula of halo alkanes is RX

37.

where R stands for alkyl radical and X stands for halogen atom. All allotropic forms of carbon as well as organic compounds burn in air/oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water (in the form of steam), with the release of a large amount of energy. The process of rapid burning of carbon or its compounds in air/oxygen, with the release of a large amount of energy and formation of carbon dioxide and water is called combustion. Coal and petroleum are formed when organic matter (plants and animals) got buried deep inside the earth and then decomposed by anaerobic bacteria. A reaction which proceeds with the breaking of double or triple covalent bonds in organic compounds, so as to form new organic compounds having single covalent bond, is called addition reaction. The conversion of unsaturated vegetable oil into saturated vegetable oil by the absorption of hydrogen in the presence of finely divided nickel is called hydrogenation of oils. A chemical reaction in which hydrogen atoms in a saturated hydrocarbon are replaced by the atoms of some other elements is called substitution reaction. Ethanol (i) is a colourless and inflammable liquid, (ii) is miscible in water in all proportions, (iii) has a boiling point of 78.2C and freezing point of 118C and (iv) is a bad conductor of electricity. Ethanol reacts with sodium and potassium to form their respective ethoxides and hydrogen gas. Ethanol gets dehydrated to ethene when heated with conc. sulphuric acid at 443 K (170C). Methylated spirit is ethanol in which a small amount of methanol is mixed. This makes it unfit for drinking purposes, but is extensively used in paints and varnish industry. Pure ethanoic acid is a corrosive colourless liquid having strong smell like that of vinegar. A chemical reaction between ethanoic acid and any alcohol to form an acetate of the alcohol (commonly called as ester), which is a sweet smelling product, is called esterification. The process by which an ester gets hydrolysed in the presence of sodium hydroxide to form the constituent alcohol and sodium salt of alkanoic acid is called saponification.

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38. Soap is a sodium salt of long chain carboxylic acids (fatty acids), which has cleansing action in water. 39. Synthetic detergents (soapless soaps) are either sodium salts of long chain benzene sulphonic acid or sodium salt of long chain alkyl hydrogen sulphate, which show cleansing properties in water. 40. The process of breaking down of bigger droplets of oil or grease into smaller droplets is called emulsification and the substance used to do so is called emulsifier. 41. The long chain of hydrocarbon in soap/ detergent is repelled by water molecules and is

called hydrophobic. However, it is attracted by oil or grease molecules. 42. Sodium ions, forming the short ionic part in soap/detergent are attracted by water molecules and is called hydrophilic. However, it is repelled by oil or grease molecules. 43. The colloidal particles of soap suspended in water form clusters, which are commonly called soap micelles. 44. Soap loses its cleansing action in hard water and forms a sticky scum. 45. Synthetic detergents lather even in hard water and hence can be used for cleaning.

Periodic Classification of Elements

IMPORTANT NOTES
1. Early chemists classified elements as metals and non-metals on the basis of a set of physical and chemical properties. 2. Dobereiner classified elements on the basis of Law of Triads which states that atomic mass of the middle element of a triad is almost the arithmetic mean of the atomic mass of other two elements. 3. Newland classified elements on the basis of Law of Octaves stated by him. According to this law : When the elements are arranged in the order of increasing atomic mass, the properties of the eighth element (starting from a given element) are a repetition of the properties of the first element. 4. Mendeleevs Periodic Law states : The physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic masses. 5. Mendeleevs Periodic Table is a tabular chart, representing systematic arrangement of elements in groups and periods in the order of their increasing atomic masses. 6. In the original Mendeleevs Periodic Table : (i) There are eight vertical columns called groups. The groups from I to VII are subdivided into two groups, i.e., subgroup a and subgroup b. Thus, on the whole, there are 15 vertical columns. (ii) The properties of elements in the same subgroup or main group are similar. (iii) The horizontal rows in the periodic table are called periods. (iv) In a period, the properties of elements gradually change from metallic to nonmetallic character. (v) There are few gaps in the periodic table. These gaps were left knowingly as these elements were not known at that time. 7. H.G.J. Moseley modified Mendeleevs Periodic Law by changing atomic mass to atomic number, which is a more fundamental property of an element. It states : The physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic number. 8. Modern Periodic Law : It states that the properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic numbers. 9. Long form of the Periodic Table : In the long form of the periodic table, the elements are arranged in groups and periods on the basis of electronic configuration of elements. 10. Characteristic of the Long form of the Periodic Table. (a) Characteristics of the groups : (i) There are 18 groups in the long form of the periodic table. (ii) Group 1 is on the extreme left hand side and group 18 on the extreme right hand side of the periodic table.

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(iii) Groups 1, 2 and 13 to 17 contain normal elements. The normal elements are sometimes called representative elements. In these elements, all the inner shells are completely filled with electrons, except the outermost shell which is incomplete. (iv) The elements in group 18 are known as noble gases or inert gases. They have 8 electrons in their valence shell, except helium, which has 2 electrons in the valence shell. (v) The elements in group 3 to group 12 are called transition elements. In transition elements, the outermost shell as well as the shell next to the outermost shell (penultimate shell) are incomplete. (b) Characteristics of Periods : (i) There are seven periods in all, such that each period has consecutive (or continuous) atomic numbers. (ii) The number of elements in a period correspond to the maximum number of electrons which can be accommodated in one shell. (iii) The number of the period to which an element belongs is given by the number of the outermost shell (quantum number). 11. Rare Earth or Lanthanides : They are inner transition elements from atomic number 57 (Lanthanium) to atomic number 71 (Lutetium). They are kept outside of the periodic table to mark their peculiar properties. 12. Actinides : They are inner transition elements from atomic number 89 (Actinium) to atomic number 103 (Lawrencium). They are kept outside of the periodic table to mark their peculiar properties. 13. On moving from left to right in a period, the atomic size of elements decreases in groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and then suddenly increases.

14. On moving from left to right in a period, the metallic character of elements gradually decreases and non-metallic character gradually increases, till in the 18th group it becomes noble gas. 15. All the elements in a group generally have same valency which is equal to the number of electrons in the valence shell. 16. The atomic size of elements increases as one moves down the group. 17. (a) While moving down in the group of metals (1, 2, 13), the metallic character of elements increases. (b) While moving down in the group of nonmetals (14, 15, 16 and 17) the electronegative character of nonmetals decreases.

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Human Eye and Colourful World

IMPORTANT NOTES
1. Parts of the Human Eye : (i) Sclerotic is the outermost white fibrous covering of the eye. (ii) Cornea is the transparent front bulging portion of the eye. (iii) Choroid is a grey membrane attached to the sclerotic from the inner side. (iv) Retina is a hemispherical screen formed by the nerve endings of the optic nerve which is sensitive to light. (v) Optic nerve is a bundle of approximately 70,000 nerves originating from the brain and entering the eye ball from the posterior side. (vi) Yellow spot is a slightly raised area situated at the centre of the retina and has a very high concentration of nerve endings. (vii) Blind spot is the region on the retina, where the optic nerve enters the eyeball. It has no nerve endings. (viii) Crystalline lens : It is a double convex lens made of transparent tissue which help in focussing the image of the object on the retina. (ix) Ciliary muscles : It is a ring of muscles which holds the crystalline lens and changes its focal length by contraction and expansion. (x) Iris is a circular contractile diaphragm suspended in front of the crystalline lens which has a circular hole in it and is commonly called pupil. The pupil controls the amount of light entering the eye. (xi) Vitreous humour is a dense jelly-like fluid, filling the posterior portion of the eye. It protects the eyeball from collapsing. (xii) Aqueous humour is a watery saline fluid filling the anterior portion of the eye. It keeps the cornea moist and prevents the front portion of the eye from collapsing. 2. Accommodation of the Eye : The process by which the ciliary muscles alter the focal length of the crystalline lens, so as to focus nearer or far-off objects clearly on the retina is called accommodation of the eye. 3. Short-sightedness or Myopia is a defect in which a person can see clearly the nearer objects, but cannot see clearly the far-off objects. 4. Long-sightedness or Hypermetropia is a defect in which a person can see clearly the faroff objects, but cannot see clearly the nearer objects. 5. Presbyopia is a defect in which a person cannot see clearly, the nearer or far-off objects. 6. Prism is a piece of glass or any other transparent material bounded by two triangular and three rectangular surfaces. 7. When refraction of light takes place through a prism then : angle of incidence + angle of emergence = angle of prism + angle of deviation 8. A prism bends the rays of light towards its base. 9. Dispersion is the phenomenon due to which white light splits up into its component colours when passed through a prism. 10. Spectrum is the band of colours obtained on the screen, when white light splits on passing through the prism. 11. The order of colours in the solar spectrum is violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red (VIBGYOR), such that red colour deviates the least and violet colour the most. 12. Dispersed white light (seven colours) can be recombined to form white light by placing
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another prism in inverted position in the path of dispersed light. 13. Rainbow is produced due to dispersion of sunlight by tiny droplets of water suspended in air, just after the rain. 14. Rainbow is always formed in the direction, opposite to the direction of the sun. 15. The different layers of the atmosphere have different optical densities. Thus, rays of light on passing through these layers, suffer refraction,

which give rise to the phenomena such as twinkling of stars, the sun appearing bigger during sunrise or sunset, etc. 16. The phenomenon due to which colloidal particles scatter blue colour in white light is called Tyndall effect. 17. The phenomenon due to which a ray of light of a particular wavelength strikes a particle bigger than its wavelength, such that the light is first absorbed by the particle and then transmitted in all directions is called scattering of light.

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Light Reflection and Refraction

IMPORTANT NOTES
1. Reflection of light is the phenomenon due to which a parallel beam of light travelling through a certain medium on striking some surface, bounces off from it in some other direction. 2. Laws of reflection : (i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal lie in the same plane at the point of incidence. (ii) The angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection. 3. Real image : When the rays of light, diverging from a point, after reflection or refraction, actually converge at some other point, then the image so formed at that point is called the real image of the object. 4. Virtual image : When the rays of light, diverging from a point, after reflection or refraction, appear to diverge from another point, then the image so formed at that point is called its virtual image. 5. Plane mirror is used (i) as looking glass (ii) for providing false dimensions in show-cases (iii) in the construction of reflecting periscope (iv) in solar cookers (v) and for signalling purposes. 6. Concave mirror : A mirror which is polished from the outer side of a hollow sphere, such that the reflecting side is towards its hollow side, is called a concave mirror. 7. Convex mirror : A mirror which is polished on the hollow side of the sphere, such that the reflecting surface is towards its bulging side, is called a convex mirror. 8. Pole : The mid-point of a spherical mirror is called pole. 9. Centre of curvature is the centre of the sphere of which the spherical mirror is a part. 10. Principal axis is an imaginary line passing through the pole and centre of curvature of a spherical mirror. 11. Linear aperture is the length of effective surface, from which reflection takes place. 12. Principal focus of a spherical mirror is the point on the principal axis where the rays travelling parallel to the principal axis either actually meet or appear to meet. In case of concave mirror the rays actually meet, whereas in case of convex mirror, they appear to meet. 13. Focal length is the linear distance between the pole and principal focus of a spherical mirror. 14. Radius of curvature is the linear distance between the pole and the centre of curvature of a spherical mirror. 15. Sign conventions for spherical mirrors : (i) All distances are measured from the pole of the spherical mirror. (ii) The distances measured in the same direction as incident light are taken as positive. (iii) The distances measured in opposite the direction of incident light, are taken as negative. (iv) Distances measured upward and perpendicular to the principal axis, are taken as positive. (v) Distances measured downward and perpendicular to the principal axis, are taken as negative. 16. v + u = f is the mirror formula where u is the distance of object from the pole, v is the distance of image from the pole and f is the focal length of the spherical mirror. h v 17. Linear magnification : m = i = , where ho u hi is the height of image and ho is the height of object. 18. Uses of convex mirror : It is used as : (i) rear-view mirror (ii) reflector of street lights.
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19. Uses of concave mirror : It is used as : (i) reflector in automobile lights (ii) as a shaving mirror (iii) by dentists for seeing the back of tooth (iv) reflector of solar furnaces. 20. Refraction is the phenomenon due to which a ray of light deviates from its original path, while travelling from one optical medium to another optical medium. 21. Laws of refraction : (i) The ratio between sine of angle of incidence and sine of angle of refraction for two given media, is a constant quantity. This law is also known as Snells law of refraction. (ii) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of incidence, lie in the same plane. 22. Refractive index : The ratio between the sine of angle of incidence (in air) and the sine of angle of refraction (in denser medium) is called refractive index (). () =

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33. 34.

sin i sin r

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

Velocity of light in air or vacuum = Velocity of light in a given medium Lateral displacement is perpendicular shift in the path of the incident ray, while emerging out from an optical slab. It is (a) directly proportional to : (i) thickness of the optical slab, (ii) refractive index of the optical material (medium), (iii) angle of incidence, and (b) inversely proportional to wavelength of light. When a ray of light emerges out from a rectangular optical slab, then : (i) incident ray is parallel to emergent ray (ii) angle of incidence is equal to angle of emergence. Lens is defined as a portion of a transparent, optical material, having one or two spherical surfaces. Convex lens or converging lens is a piece of transparent, optical material, having one or two spherical surfaces, such that it is thicker in the middle and tapering at the edges. Concave lens or diverging lens is a piece of transparent, optical material, having one or

35.

36.

37.

two spherical surfaces, such that it is tapering in the middle and thicker at the edges. Principal axis of a lens is an imaginary line joining the centres of curvature of two spherical surfaces. Optical centre of a lens is the point within the lens, where a line drawn through the aperture, meets the principal axis. Principal focus of a lens is a point on the principal axis of the lens such that a beam of light parallel to the principal axis after refraction either actually meet or appear to meet. Focal length of a lens is the linear distance between the optical centre and principal focus. Focal plane : A vertical plane passing through the principal focus of the lens is called a focal plane. Power of lens is the reciprocal of focal length in metres. Unit of power of lens is dioptre (D). It is +ve for convex lens and ve for concave lens. Sign conventions for lenses : (i) All distances are measured from the optical centre of the lens. (ii) Distances measured from the optical centre in the direction of the incident light are taken as positive. (iii) Distances measured from the optical centre in opposite the direction of the incident light are taken as negative. (iv) The distances measured upward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as positive. (v) The distance measured downward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as negative. 1 1 1 is the lens formula where v is = v u f the distance of image from the optical centre, u is the distance of object from the optical centre and f is the focal length of the lens. h v Linear magnification m = i = , where ho ho u is the height of the object and hi is the height of the image.
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Our Environment
IMPORTANT NOTES
1. An ecosystem consists of biotic components comprising of living organisms and abiotic components comprising of physical factors like temperature, rainfall, wind, soil and minerals. 2. The term environment refers to the complete range of physical and biological conditions in which organisms live. The environment has four components atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. 3. Environmental biology, also called ecology, is the study of relationships between living things and the non-living components. 4. An ecosystem is a self-sustaining, structural and functional unit of biosphere. It is an open system in terms of energy and a closed system as far as flow of minerals is concerned. 5. The small plants floating on the surface of water are phytoplanktons. A pond, lake, river, forest, desert, even a man-made aquarium and a crop field are the examples of different types of ecosystems. 6. Producers or autotrophs synthesise their own food by photosynthesis. Consumers or heterotrophs are dependent upon other organisms for food. Consumers may be classified as herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and parasites. 13. 7. Decomposers or saprotrophs consume and thus decompose the dead remains of other organisms (both autotrophs and heterotrophs). 8. The sequential process of eating and being eaten is called a food chain. The flow of energy in a food chain is unidirectional. A simple food chain operating in a grassland can be shown as follows : Grass Deer Lion. 9. The network of interconnected food chains is called food web. The various links or steps representing organisms in a food chain at which the transfer of food (and energy) takes place are called trophic levels. 10. There is a continuous transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next in a food chain. Only 10 per cent of the total energy entering a particular trophic level is available for transfer to the next trophic level. 11. Biomagnification is the increase in harmful chemicals throughout the trophic levels. 12. The sum total of all the factors that make our surroundings is called the environment. Human activities have damaged the balance of this environment leading to problems like global warming, soil erosion, floods, etc.

Note: Biodegradable products work as pollutants only when in excess. 14. Types of pollution

15. Ozone is a molecule consisting of three atoms of oxygen. Ultraviolet rays are known to cause skin cancer, eye damage and damage to the immune
1

system. There are several reasons for the depletion of ozone layer. The foremost is the use of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
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16. In 1987, 27 industrialised countries signed the Montreal Protocol, a landmark international agreement related to ozone layer depletion. 17. Municipal Solid Wastes (MSWs) are commonly called garbage. Main source of non-biodegradable wastes are improved packaging methods and increased use of disposals. 18. Ecofriendly ways of waste disposal Most urban solid wastes can be burnt to make landfills.

Wastes like plastics, metals, etc., may be recycled. Plastic wastes can be molten and mixed with asphalt to produce road making material. Many domestic wastes like vegetable refuse can be composted and effectively used as manure. Incineration, i.e., burning at a high temperature is recommended for many nonreutilisable waste.

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Heredity and Evolution

IMPORTANT NOTES
1. The similarities between parents and their offspring are accounted for by heredity and the dissimilarities by variation. Both heredity and variation are accounted for when we study genetics. 2. Asexual reproduction tends to produce clones, i.e., organisms which are genetically identical. Chances of variations are higher in organisms showing sexual reproduction. 3. The differences or dissimilarities between parents and children as individuals of a species are called variations. Hereditary variations refer to the differences which are inherited by the progeny from their parents. The inheritance of such heritable variations is determined by the genetic constitution of an individual. Examples of inheritable variations are blood type, skin colour, hair colour, height, etc. 4. Environmental variations are caused due to differences in sunlight, water, soil, nutrients and other factors of environment. 5. The type of variation in which individuals can be arranged in a definite increasing order of gradation with respect to particular characteristics, like height, is called continuous variation. On the other hand, where no gradation between the distinct features can be seen is called discontinuous variation. 6. Causes of variation are (i) reshuffling of genes during meiosis, (ii) errors in DNA copying, (iii) environment. 7. Gregor Johann Mendel is considered the father of genetics. Mendel attributed contrasting factors coming from the parents and their random combinations, as the cause of variation. Mendels factors were termed genes by Johannsen. It was observed that the paired condition of the factors is present in the diploid state. But when haploid gametes are formed, the factors segregate. Since chromosomes are paired in its diploid state but separate during gametic meiosis, it is fair enough to judge that the factors are placed on the chromosomes. 8. Chromosomes are made of giant DNA molecules. A DNA molecule consists of two polynucleotide strands forming a double helix. DNA is the genetic material throughout the living world except in a few viruses where RNA serves as the genetic material (e.g., HIV). 9. Each chromosome has two arms called chromatids joined at the centre called centrosome. Eukaryotic chromosomes have basic proteins mixed with DNA and are usually more complex in structure than prokaryotic chromosomes. 10. A gene is the functional unit of DNA that serves as hereditary unit. It is possible to insert a segment of a foreign DNA into the original DNA of a species to make a transgenic organism commonly called GOMs, i.e., Genetically Modified Organisms. 11. Each human nucleus has 23 pairs of chromosomes out of which 22 are same in male and female and are known as autosomes. The 23rd pair is different in male and female and are known as sex chromosomes. Females have XX sex chromosomes and males have sex chromosomes XY type. 12. Sex determination in humans

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13. Evolution is a set of changes brought about by the forces of natural selection on the variation within a population, so that resultant organisms are better adapted to their surroundings. 14. Evidences of evolution can be summarised as follows : A. Paleontological or fossil evidence Fossils are remains or impressions of the organisms of the past. Archaeopteryx is a fossil that has both reptilian and avian features, proving that birds have evolved from the reptiles. B. Embryological evidence All the vertebrate embryo up to 6 weeks stage look similar. Hence, the biogenetic law or the law of recapitulation was suggested by Haeckel which states that an organism during the course of its development repeats the developmental history of its race. C. Morphological evidence and anatomical

organs, e.g., wings of a bird and the wings of a butterfly. (iii) Vestigial organs are the functionless remnants of the organs, functional in the ancestral forms, e.g., vermiform appendix is the remnant of the caecum (an organ of digestion in the herbivorous ancestors). 15. The most accepted theory of evolution comes from Charles Darwin, whose theory is known as Origin of Species by natural selection. Its tenets are as follows : (a) Organisms have a far higher capacity to reproduce that can be sustained by nature, thereby creating competition or struggle for existence. (b) Offspring vary from one another and from the parents. (c) Those with favourable variations are fit for the struggle for existence. (d) The favourable variations are accumulated over a long time period creating a new species. The weak point of Darwinism is that it could not explain how variations arise. 16. Certain fossils show features which are intermediate between two groups. Such fossils form the connecting links and clearly demonstrate stages during the evolutionary process. A very well known example of an extinct animal is dinosaur that, existed long ago in large numbers.

(i) Homologous organs : Organs which are similar in structure and origin but different in function and appearance are called homologous organs, e.g., forearm of man, wing of a bat, flipper of a seal, etc. (ii) Analogous organs : Organs which are similar in appearance and function but different in structure and origin are known as analogous

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MATHS X TERM-II

MODEL TEST PAPER

[For Summative Assessment-2 (Term-II)]
[Based on the latest CBSE Sample Question Paper] Time : 3 hours General Instructions : Same as in CBSE Sample Question Paper. SECTION A (Question numbers 1 to 10 carry 1 mark each. For each of the questions 1 to 10, four alternative choices have been provided of which only one is correct. You have to select the correct choice.) 1. Which of the following has no real roots? (a) x2 4x + 3 2 = 0 (c) x2 4x 3 2 = 0 (b) x2 + 4x 3 2 = 0 (d) 3x2 + 4 3 x + 4 = 0 M.M. : 80

2. In an A.P., if a = 1, tn = 20 and Sn = 399, then n is : (a) 20 (b) 32 (c) 38 (d) 40 3. If the angle between two radii of a circle is 100, the angle between the tangents at the ends of the radii is : (a) 50 (b) 60 (c) 80 (d) 90 4. In the figure, PA and PB are tangents to the circle with centre O such that APB = 50, then OAB is equal to :

(a) 25 (b) 30 (c) 40 (d) 50 5. From a point P which is at a distance of 13 cm from the centre of a circle of radius 5 cm, the pair of tangents PQ and PR to the circle are drawn. Then, the area of the quadrilateral PQOR is : (b) 65 cm2 (c) 30 cm2 (d) 32.5 cm2 (a) 60 cm2 6. To divide a line segment AB in the ratio 4 : 7 a ray AX is drawn first such that BAX is an acute angle and then points A1, A2, A3 .... are located at equal distances on the ray AX and the point B is joined to : (a) A12 (b) A11 (c) A10 (d) A9

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7. A steel wire, when bent in the form of a square encloses an area of 121 cm2. The same wire is bent in the form of a circle. The area of the circle is : (a) 154 cm2 (b) 145 cm2 (c) 451 cm2 (d) 541 cm2 8. A right circular cylinder of radius r cm and height h cm (h > 2) just encloses a sphere of diameter : (a) h (b) 2h (c) r (d) 2r 9. The height of a tower is 50 m. When the suns altitude changes from 30 to 45, the shadow of the tower becomes x metres less. The value of x is : (a) 50 m (b) 50 3 m (c) 50

3 1 m

(d)

50 3

10. Someone is asked to take a number from 1 to 100. The probability that it is a prime is : (a)
1 5

(b)

6 25

(c) SECTION B

1 4

(d)

13 50

(Question numbers 11 to 18 carry 2 marks each) 11. Find the roots of the equation 21x2 2x +
1 = 0 by factorisation method. 21

12. Find x, y and z such that x, 7, y, 23, z are in A.P. 13. Two tangent segments BC and BD are drawn to a circle with centre O such that CBD = 120. Prove that OB = 2BC. 14. Volume of a cylinder is 448 cm3 and height 7 cm. Find the lateral surface area of the cylinder. 15. Two circles touch internally. The sum of their areas is 116 cm2 and distance between their centres is 6 cm. Find the radii of the circles. 16. Find the coordinates of the centroid of a triangle whose vertices are (0, 6), (8, 12) and (8, 0). 17. If Q(0, 1) is equidistant from P(5, 3) and R(x, 6), find the value of x. 18. A jar contains 24 marbles, some are green and others are blue. If a marble is drawn at random from the jar, the probability that it is green is marbles in the jar. OR
2 . Find the number of blue 3

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Kavita and Savita are friends. Find the probability that both will have (i) the same birthday (ii) different birthdays. (ignore a leap year) SECTION C (Question numbers 19 to 28 carry 3 marks each)
a +b a 19. Solve for x : x 2 + + x + 1 = 0, x 0 a+b a

OR The sum of the reciprocals of Rehmans age (in years) 3 years ago and 5 years from now is
1 . Find his present age. 3

20. Which term of the A.P. 8, 14, 20, 26, ... will be 72 more than its 41st term? 21. A circle touches the side BC of ABC at P and touch AB and AC produced at Q and R respectively. Prove that AQ =
1 (Perimeter of ABC) 2

OR In the figure, OT is a radius and PT is a tangent to the circle. If OT = 12 cm and PT = 16 cm, find PQ. 22. Construct a tangent to a circle of radius 4 cm from a point which is at a distance of 6 cm from its centre. 23. The wheel of a motorcycle is of radius 35 cm. How many revolutions per minute must the wheel make so as to keep a speed of 66 km/hr? OR Find the area of the shaded region in the figure. Where ABCD is a square of side 10 cm and semi-circles are drawn with each side of the square as diameter. ( = 3.14) 24. A bucket is in the form of a frustum of a cone and hold 28.490 litres of water. The radii of the top and bottom are 28 cm and 21 cm respectively. Find the height of the bucket. 25. As observed from the top of a 75 m high lighthouse from the sea level, the angles of depression of two ships are 30 and 45. If one ship is exactly behind the other on the same side of the lighthouse, find the distance between the two ships. 26. If the mid-point of the line segment joining the points A(3, 4) and B(k, 6) is P(x, y) and x + y = 10, find the value of k.

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27. Find the area of the triangle ABC, with A(1, 4) and the mid-points of the sides through A being (2, 1) and (0, 1). 28. A card is drawn at random from a well-shuffled pack of playing cards. Find the probability that the card drawn is : (a) a card of spade or an ace (b) a red king (c) neither a king nor a queen. SECTION D (Question numbers 29 to 34 carry 4 marks each) 29. If the roots of the equation x2 + 2cx + ab = 0 are real and unequal, prove that the equation x2 2(a + b) x + a2 + b2 + 2c2 = 0 has no real roots. OR A train travels at a certain average speed for a distance of 63 km and then travels a distance of 72 km at an average speed of 6 km/hr more than its original speed. If it takes 3 hours to complete the total journey, what is its original speed? 30. An A.P. consists of 37 terms. The sum of the three middle most terms is 225 and the sum of last three terms is 429. Find the A.P. 31. Let s denote the semi-perimeter of a triangle ABC in which BC = a, CA = b and AB = c. If a circle touches the sides BC, CA and AB at D, E, F respectively. Prove that BD = s b. 32. Three horses are tethered with 7 m long ropes at the three corners of a triangular field having sides 20 m, 34 m and 42 m. Find the area of the field which can be grazed by the horses. Also find the area of the field which remains ungrazed. 33. A solid toy is in the form of a hemisphere surmounted by a right circular cone. Height of the cone is 2 cm and the diameter of the base is 4 cm. If a right circular cylinder circumscribes the toy, find how much more space it will cover? OR 500 persons are taking a dip into a cuboidal pond which is 80 m long and 50 m broad. What is the rise of water level in the pond, if the average displacement of the water by a person is 0.04 m3. 34. There are two poles, one each on either bank of a river, just opposite to each other one pole is 60 m high. From the top of this pole, the angles of depression of the top and the foot of the other pole are 30 and 60 respectively. Find the width of the river and the height of the other pole.

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SCIENCE X TERM-II

MODEL TEST PAPER

Maximum Marks : 80 Maximum Time : 3 hours Instructions : Same as in CBSE Sample Question Paper for SA-2 (Term II)

SECTION A
1. How would you name the following compounds? (i) CH3CH2Br 2. What is Tyndall effect? 3. Name an ecofriendly fuel? 4. Write a three step food chain. 5. What were the limitations of Dobereiner's classification? 6. What were the criteria used by Mendeleev in creating his periodic table? 7. What are bisexual organisms? Give two examples. 8. When and how does multiple fission take place? 9. (i) Why do we prefer a convex mirror as a rear-view mirror in vehicles? (ii) [1] [1] [1] [2] [2] [2] [2] [2] [1]

(ii) Find the focal length of a convex mirror whose radius of curvature is 32 cm. 10. Why do the faces of persons sitting opposite to you around a camp fire appear to shimmer? [2] 11. State the reason for the following observations recorded from the surface of the Moon. [2] (i) Sky appears dark (ii) Rainbow is never formed on the moon. 12. How is the increase in demand for energy affecting the environment adversely? [2] 13. What is Chipko movement? Why should we conserve forests? [2] 14. Give reasons for the following : [3] (a) Air holes of a gas burner have to be adjusted when the heated vessels get blackened by the flame. (b) Soap are ineffective in hard water. (c) Alcohol supplied for industrial purposes is mixed with poisonous substances like copper sulphate.

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15. How were the following defects of the original Mendeleevs Periodic Table resolved in the modified Mendeleevs Periodic Table? [3] (i) Problem of anomalous pairs (ii) Position of rare earths (iii) Positions of isotopes 16. Illustrate the following with the help of suitable diagrams : [3] (i) Binary fission in Amoeba. (ii) Leaf of Bryophyllum with buds. 17. Give (a) (b) (c) reasons for the following : [3] Wings of a bird and the wings of a bat are not considered analogous A male is called heterogametic. The sex of a child is determined by what it inherits from the father and not from the mother.

18. Mendel crossed the round and green seeded pea plants with the wrinkled and yellow seeded pea plants. Give the phenotypic ratio of F2 generation. [3] 19. Clarify the terms 'haploid' and 'diploid'. What is the relation between the two terms? [3] 20. By drawing a neat diagram show how the image of a small slide can be projected on a large screen. State two characteristics of the image. [3] 21. Two thin lenses of power + 2.5 D and 1.5 D are placed in contact with each other. Calculate : (i) power of the combination, (ii) focal length of the combination. [3] 22. The given diagram shows the path of a ray of light through an equilateral prism. Answer the following questions : [3] (i) Which is the refracted ray? (ii) Which is the emergent ray? (iii) What name is given to angle 1? (iv) What name is given to angle 3? (v) What name is given to angle 5? (vi) What is the relation between angles 1, 2, 3 and 4?

23.

(a) Write the chemical equation representing the preparation reaction of ethanol from ethene. [5] (b) Name the product obtained when ethanol is oxidised by either chromic anhydride or alkaline potassium permanganate. (c) Give an example of esterification reaction. (d) What is hydrogenation? What is its industrial application.

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OR (a) Give a chemical test to identify the compound CH3COOH. [5] (b) Name the gas evolved when this compound acts on solid sodium carbonate. How would you identify this gas? (c) How would you bring about the following conversions? Name the process and write the reaction involved. (i) ethanol to ethene (ii) propanol to propanoic acid. [5]

24. What happens when the egg is not fertilised? OR

Draw a labelled diagram showing reproductive organs in a male human body along with its position. [5] 25. The radius of curvature of a convex mirror used on a moving automobile is 2.0 m. A truck is coming behind it at a constant distance of 3.5 m. Calculate : (i) the position, and (ii) the size of image relative to the size of the truck. What will be the nature of the image? [5] OR Draw the ray diagram in each case to show the position and nature of the image formed when the object is placed : [5] (i) at the centre of curvature of a concave mirror. (ii) between the pole P and focus F of a concave mirror (iii) in front of a convex mirror (iv) at 2F of a convex lens (v) in front of a concave lens.

SECTION B
26. When an aluminium strip is kept immersed in freshly prepared ferrous sulphate solution taken in a test tube, the change which is observed is : [1] (a) the green solution slowly turns brown (b) the lower end of the test tube becomes slightly warm (c) a colourless gas with the smell of burning sulphur is observed (d) light green solution changes to blue 27. On adding zinc granules to freshly prepared ferrous sulphate solution, a student observes that : [1] (a) a dull brown coating is formed (b) a black coating is formed (c) a greyish coating is formed. (d) no coating is formed

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28. Ethanoic acid was added to sodium bicarbonate solution and the gas evolved was tested with a burning splinter. The following four observations were reported : [1] (a) The gas burns with the pop sound and the flame gets extinguished. (b) The gas does not burn but the splinter burns with a pop sound. (c) The flame extinguishes and the gas does not burn. (d) The gas burns with a blue flame and the splinter burns brightly. The corect observation is reported in : (a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D 29. When sodium bicarbonate powder is added to acetic acid, a gas evolves. Which one of the following statements is not true for this gas? It : [1] (a) turns limewater milky (b) extinguishes a burning splinter (c) dissolves in a solution of sodium hydroxide (d) turns acidified potassium dichromate solution green 30. Ethanoic acid is the constituent of : [1] (a) lemon juice (b) grape juice (c) table vinegar (d) beer 31. The image of a distant object is obtained on a screen by using a concave mirror. The focal length of the mirror can be determined by measuring the distance between : [1] (a) the object and the mirror (b) the object and the screen (c) the mirror and the screen (d) the mirror and the screen as well as that between the object and the screen 32. The focal length of the concave mirror in the experiment set up shown below, is : [1]

20

22

24

26

28

30

32

34

36

(a) 10.2 cm

(b) 11.0 cm

(c) 11.4 cm

(d) 12.2 cm

33. A student obtained a sharp image of the grill of a window on a screen, using a convex lens. For getting better results, the teacher suggested focussing a distant tree instead of the grill. In which direction should the lens be moved for this purpose? [1]

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(a) Away from the screen (c) Behind the screen

(b) Very far away from the screen (d) Towards the screen

34. A ray of light travelling through glass emerges into air. At the surface of separation, the ray : [1] (a) continues along the same path (b) bends towards the normal (c) is reflected back in water (d) bends away from the normal 35. In an experiment to trace the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab, the correct measurement of angles of incidence (i), refraction (r) and emergence (e) is shown in diagram. [1]

(a) A (b) B (c) C 36. The figure given bellow illustrates the step leading to : (a) binary fission in Amoeba (b) longitudinal binary fission in Paramecium (c) transverse binary fission in Euglena (d) transverse binary fission in Paramecium 37. Two of the following four figures that illustrate budding are :

(d) D [1]

[1]

G O
(a) I and II

YA L
(b) I and III

(c) I and IV

(d) II and IV [1]

38. Slides A and B show stages of asexual reproduction in two organs.

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The slides A and B are depicting : (a) binary fission is both Amoeba and yeast (b) budding in both Amoeba and yeast (c) binary fission in yeast and budding in Amoeba (d) binary fission in Amoeba and budding in yeast 39. A solution whose concentration is greater than the internal concentration of the cell is : [1] (a) isotonic solution (c) hypertonic solution (b) hypotonic solution (d) none of these
[1]

40. Endosmosis occurs when raisins are placed in : (a) hypotonic solution (b) hypertonic solution (c) isotonic solution (d) none of these

41. While performing the experiment with raisins to determine the percentage of water absorbed by them, a student recorded the following data : [1] Weight of the water in the beaker = 50 g Weight of raisins before soaking = 10 g Weight of raisins after soaking for one hour = 15 g Weight of water left in the beaker after the experiment was over = 40 g The percentage of water absorbed by raisins is : (a) 10 (b) 20 (c) 45 (d) 50

ANSWERS
9. (ii) 16 cm 26. (a) 27. (c) 34. (d) 35. (a) 21. 1.0 D, 1 m 28. (c) 29. (d) 36. (b) 37. (c) 25. 400 cm, m = 1 30. (c) 31. (c) 32. (b) 33. (d) 38. (d) 39. (c) 40. (a) 41. (d)

Page-29

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