FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.

Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 29

3 ConceptsofStressAnalysis
3.1 Introduction
Heretheconceptsofstressanalysiswillbestatedinafiniteelementcontext.Thatmeansthattheprimary
unknownwillbethe(generalized)displacements.Allotheritemsofinterestwillmainlydependonthe
gradientofthedisplacementsandthereforewillbelessaccuratethanthedisplacements.Stressanalysis
coversseveralcommonspecialcasestobementionedlater.Hereonlytwoformulationswillbeconsidered
initially.Theyarethesolidcontinuumformandtheshellform.BothareofferedinSWSimulation.Theydiffer
inthatthecontinuumformutilizesonlydisplacementvectors,whiletheshellformutilizesdisplacement
vectorsand infinitesimalrotationvectorsattheelementnodes.
AsillustratedinFigure31,thesolidelementshavethreetranslationaldegreesoffreedom(DOF)asnodal
unknowns,foratotalof12or30DOF.Theshellelementshavethreetranslationaldegreesoffreedomaswell
asthreerotationaldegreesoffreedom,foratotalof18or36DOF.ThedifferenceinDOFtypesmeansthat
momentsorcouplescanonlybeapplieddirectlytoshellmodels.Solidelementsrequirethatcouplesbe
indirectlyappliedbyspecifyingapairofequivalentpressuredistributions,oranequivalentpairofequaland
oppositeforcesattwonodesonthebody.

ShellnodeSolidnode
Figure31Nodaldegreesoffreedomforframesandshells;solidsandtrusses

Stresstransfertakesplacewithin,andon,theboundariesofasolidbody.Thedisplacementvector,u,atany
pointinthecontinuumbodyhastheunitsofmeters[m],anditscomponentsaretheprimaryunknowns.The
componentsofdisplacementareusuallycalledu, v, andwinthex,y,andzdirections,respectively.Therefore,
theyimplytheexistenceofeachother,u (u, v, w). Allthedisplacementcomponentsvaryoverspace.Asin
theheattransfercase(coveredlater),thegradientsofthosecomponentsareneededbutonlyasan
intermediatequantity.Thedisplacementgradientshavetheunitsof[m/m],orareconsidereddimensionless.
Unliketheheattransfercasewherethegradientisuseddirectly,instressanalysisthemultiplecomponentsof
thedisplacementgradientsarecombinedintoalternateformscalledstrains.Thestrainshavegeometrical
interpretationsthataresummarizedinFigure32for1Dand2Dgeometry.
In1D,thenormalstrainisjusttheratioofthechangeinlengthovertheoriginallength,
x
=u/x.In2Dand
3D,bothnormalstrainsandshearstrainsexist.Thenormalstrainsinvolveonlythepartofthegradientterms
paralleltothedisplacementcomponent.In2Dtheyare
x
=u/xand
y
=v/y.AsseeninFigure32(b),
theywouldcauseachangeinvolume,butnotachangeinshapeoftherectangulardifferentialelement.A
shearstraincausesachangeinshape.Thetotalanglechange(from90degrees)isusedastheengineering
definitionoftheshearstrain.Theshearstrainsinvolveacombinationofthecomponentsofthegradientthat
FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 30
areperpendiculartothedisplacementcomponent.In2D,theengineeringshearstrainisy =(u/y+v/
x),asseeninFigure32(c).Strainhasonecomponentin1D,threecomponentsin2D,andsixcomponentsin
3D.The2Dstrainsarecommonlywrittenasacolumnvectorinfiniteelementanalysis,=(
x

y
y)
T
.

Figure32Geometryofnormalstrain(a)1D,(b)2D,and(c)2Dshearstrain
Stressisameasureoftheforceperunitareaactingonaplanepassingthroughthepointofinterestinabody.
Theabovegeometricaldata(thestrains)willbemultipliedbymaterialpropertiestodefineanewphysical
quantity,thestress,whichisdirectlyproportionaltothestrains.ThisisknownasHookesLaw:=E,(see
Figure33)wherethesquarematerialmatrix,E,containstheelasticmodulus,andPoissonsratioofthe
material.The2Dstressesarewrittenasacorrespondingcolumnvector,=(
x

y
+)
T
.Unlessstated
otherwise,theapplicationsillustratedhereareassumetobeinthelinearrangeofamaterialproperty.
The2Dand3DstresscomponentsareshowninFigure34.Thenormalandshearstressesrepresentthe
normalforceperunitareaandthetangentialforcesperunitarea,respectively.Theyhavetheunitsof
[N/m^2],or[Pa],butareusuallygivenin[MPa].Thegeneralizationsoftheengineeringstraindefinitionsare
seeninFigure35.Thestrainenergy(orpotentialenergy)storedinthedifferentialmaterialelementishalf
thescalarproductofthestressesandthestrains.Errorestimatesfromstressstudiesarebasedonprimarily
onthestrainenergy(orstrainenergydensity).

Figure33Hooke'sLawforlinearstressstrain,=E
FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 31

Figure34Stresscomponentsin2D(left)and3D

Figure35Graphicalrepresentationsof3Dnormalstrains(a)andshearstrains
3.2 Axialbarexample
Thesimplestavailablestressexampleisanaxialbar,showninFigure36,restrainedatoneendandsubjected
toanaxialload,P,attheotherendandtheweightisneglected.Letthelengthandareaofthebarbedenoted
byL,andA,respectively.ItsmaterialhasanelasticmodulusofE.Theaxialdisplacement,u (x),varieslinearly
FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 32
fromzeroatthesupporttoamaximumofattheloadpoint.Thatis,u (x) = x o/ L,sotheaxialstrainise
x
= u
/ x = o / L,whichisaconstant.Likewise,theaxialstressiseverywhereconstant,o = E e =E o / Lwhichinthe
casesimplyreducestoo = P / A.Likemanyothermorecomplicatedproblems,thestressheredoesnot
dependonthematerialproperties,butthedisplacementalwaysdoes,o = PI EA / .Youshouldalways
carefullycheckboththedeflectionsandstresseswhenvalidatingafiniteelementsolution.
Sincetheassumeddisplacementislinearhere,anyfiniteelementmodelwouldgiveexactdeflectionandthe
constantstressresults.However,iftheloadhadbeenthedistributedbarweighttheexactdisplacement
wouldbequadraticinxandthestresswouldbelinearinx.Then,aquadraticelementmeshwouldgiveexact
stressesanddisplacementseverywhere,butalinearelementmeshwouldnot.
Theelasticbarisoftenmodeledasalinearspring.Inintroductorymechanicsofmaterialstheaxialstiffnessof
abarisdefinedask = E A / L,wherethebarhasalengthofL,anareaA,andisconstructedofamaterialelastic
modulusofE.Thentheabovebardisplacementcanbewrittenaso = P k / ,likealinearspring.
o = P / A, = P L / E A
Figure36Alinearlyelasticbarwithanaxialload
3.3 Structuralmechanics
Modernstructuralanalysisreliesextensivelyonthefiniteelementmethod.Themostpopularintegral
formulation,basedonthevariationalcalculusofEuler,isthePrincipleofMinimumTotalPotentialEnergy.
Basically,itstatesthatthedisplacementfieldthatsatisfiestheessentialdisplacementboundaryconditionsand
minimizesthetotalpotentialenergyistheonethatcorrespondstothestateofstaticequilibrium.Thisimplies
thatdisplacementsareourprimaryunknowns.Theywillbeinterpolatedinspaceaswilltheirderivatives,and
thestrains.Thetotalpotentialenergy,,isthestrainenergy,U,ofthestructureminusthemechanicalwork,
W,donebytheexternalforces.Fromintroductorymechanics,themechanicalwork,W,donebyaforceisthe
scalardotproductoftheforcevector,F,andthedisplacementvector,u,atitspointofapplication.
Thewellknownlinearelasticspringwillbereviewedtoillustratetheconceptofobtainingequilibrium
equationsfromanenergyformulation.Consideralinearspring,ofstiffnessk,thathasanappliedforce,F,at
thefree(right)end,andisrestrainedfromdisplacementattheother(left)end.Thefreeendundergoesa
displacementofA.Theworkdonebythesingleforceis
w = A

= A
x
F
x
= u F.
Thespringstorespotentialenergyduetoitsdeformation(changeinlength).Herewecallthatstrainenergy.
Thatstoredenergyisgivenby
u =
1
2
k A
x
2

FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 33
Therefore,thetotalpotentialenergyfortheloadedspringis
L =
1
2
k A
x
2
- A
x
F
x

Theequationofequilibriumisobtainedbyminimizingthistotalpotentialenergywithrespecttotheunknown
displacement,A
x
.Thatis,
oL
oA
x
= u =
2
2
k A
x
- F
x

Thissimplifiestothecommonsinglescalarequation
k A
x
= F,
whichisthewellknownequilibriumequationforalinearspring.Thisexamplewasslightlysimplified,sincewe
startedwiththeconditionthattheleftendofthespringhadnodisplacement(anessentialorDirichlet
boundarycondition).Nextwewillconsideraspringwhereeitherendcanbefixedorfreetomove.Thiswill
requirethatyoubothminimizethetotalpotentialenergyandimposethegivendisplacementrestraint.

Figure37Theclassicandgenerallinearspringelement
Nowthespringmodelhastwoenddisplacements,A
1
andA
2
,andtwoassociatedaxialforces,F
1
andF
2
.The
netdeformationofthebariso = A
2
- A
1
.Denotethetotalvectorofdisplacementcomponentsas
A

= {A] = _
A
1
A
2
_
andtheassociatedvectorofforcesas
F

= {F] = _
F
1
F
2
_
Thenthemechanicalworkdoneonthespringis
w = {A]
1
{F] = A
1
F
1
+
2
F
2

Thenthespring'sstrainenergyis
u =
1
2
{A]
1
|k] {A] =
1
2
k o
2
,
wherethespringstiffnessmatrixisfoundtobe
|k] = k j
1 -1
-1 1
[.
Thetotalpotentialenergy,,becomes
L =
1
2
{A]
1
|k] {A] - {A]
1
{F] =
k
2
_
A
1
A
2
_
1
j
1 -1
-1 1
[ _
A
1
A
2
_ - _
A
1
A
2
_
1
_
F
1
F
2
_.
Notethateachtermhastheunitsofenergy,i.e.forcetimeslength.Thematrixequationsofequilibriumcome
fromsatisfyingthedisplacementrestraintandtheminimizationofthetotalpotentialenergywithrespectto
FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 34
eachandeverydisplacementcomponent.Theminimizationrequiresthatthepartialderivativeofallthe
displacementsvanish:
L
{A]
= {u],or
L
A
]
= u
]
, ] = 1, 2.
Thatrepresentsthefirststagesystemofalgebraicequationsofequilibriumfortheelasticsystem:
k j
1 -1
-1 1
[ _
A
1
A
2
_ = _
F
1
F
2
_.
Thesetwosymmetricequationsdonotyetreflectthepresenceofanyessentialboundaryconditiononthe
displacements.Therefore,nouniquesolutionexistsforthetwodisplacementsduetoappliedforces(theaxial
RBMhasnotbeeneliminated).Mathematically,thisisclearbecausethesquarematrixhasazerodeterminate
andcannotbeinverted.Ifallofthedisplacementsareknown,youcanfindtheappliedforces.Forexample,if
youhadarigidbodytranslationofA
1
= A
2
= CwhereCisanarbitraryconstantyouclearlygetF
1
= F
2
= 0.Ifyou
stretchthespringbytwoequalandoppositedisplacements;A
1
= -C, A
2
= Candthefirstrowofthematrix
equationsgivesF
1
= -2 k C.ThesecondrowgivesF
2
= 2 k C,whichisequalandoppositetoF
1
,asexpected.
Usually,youknowsomeofthedisplacementsandsomeoftheforces.Thenyouhavetomanipulatethematrix
equilibriumsystemtoputitintheformofastandardlinearalgebraicsystemwhereaknownsquarematrix
multipliedbyavectorofunknownsisequaltoaknownvector:|A]{x] = {b].
3.4 Equilibriumofrestrainedsystems
Liketheoriginalspringproblem,nowassumetherightforce,F
2
,isknown,andtheleftdisplacement,A
1
,hasa
given(restrained)value,say A
given
.Then,theabovematrixequationrepresentstwouniqueequilibrium
equationsfortwounknowns,thedisplacementA
2
andthereactionforceF
1
.Thatmakesthislinearalgebraic
systemlookstrangebecausethereareunknownsonbothsidesoftheequals,=.Youcould(butusuallydo
not)correctthatbyrearrangingtheequationsystem(notdoneinpractice).First,multiplythefirstcolumnof
thestiffnessmatrixbytheknownA
given
valueandmoveittotherightside:
j
u -k
u k
[ _
u
A
2
_ = _
F
1
F
2
_ - ]
k
-k
A
g|uen

andthenmovetheunknownreaction,F
1
,totheleftside

j
-1 -k
u k
[ _
F
1
A
2
_ = _
u
F
2
_ - ]
k
-k
A
g|uen
.
Nowyouhavetheusualformofalinearsystemofequationswheretherightsideisaknownvectorandthe
leftsideistheproductofaknownsquarematrixtimesavectorofunknowns.Sinceboththeenergy
minimizationandthedisplacementrestraintshavebeencombinedyounowhaveauniquesetofequationsfor
theunknowndisplacementsandtheunknownrestraintreactions.Invertingthe2by2matrixgivestheexact
solution:
_
F
1
A
2
_ =
1
-k
j
k k
u -1
[ __
u
F
2
_ - ]
k
-k
A
g|uen
]
_
F
1
A
2
_ = _
-F
2
F
2
k + A
g|uen
/
_
sothatF
1
= -F
2
always,asexpected.IfA
given
=0,asoriginallystated,thentheenddisplacementisA
2
= F
2
k / .
Thissortofrearrangementofthematrixtermsisnotdoneinpracticebecauseitdestroysthesymmetryofthe
originalequations.Algorithmsfornumericallysolvingsuchsystemsrelyonsymmetrytoreduceboththe
requiredstoragesizeandtheoperationscount.Theyareveryimportantwhensolvingthousandsofequations.
FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 35
3.5 Generalequilibriummatrixpartitions
Theabovesmallexamplegivesinsighttothemostgeneralformofthealgebraicsystemresultingfromonly
minimizingthetotalpotentialenergy:asingularmatrixsystemwithmoreunknownsthanequations.Thatis
becausethereisnotauniqueequilibriumsolutiontotheproblemuntilyoualsoapplytheessential(Dirichlet)
boundaryconditionsonthedisplacements.Thealgebraicsystemcanbewritteninageneralpartitionedmatrix
formthatmoreclearlydefineswhatmustbedonetoreducethesystemtoasolvableformbyutilizing
essentialboundaryconditions.
Foranelasticsystemofanysize,thefull,symmetricmatrixequationsobtainedbyminimizingtheenergycan
alwaysberearrangedintothefollowingpartitionedmatrixform:
_
K
uu
K
ug
K
gu
K
gg
_ _
A
u
A
g
_ = _
F
g
F
u
_
whereA
u
representstheunknownnodaldisplacements,andA
g
representsthegivenessentialboundaryvalues
(restraints,orfixtures)oftheotherdisplacements.ThestiffnesssubmatricesK
uu
andK
gg
aresquare,whereas
K
ug
andK
gu
arerectangular.InafiniteelementformulationallofthecoefficientsintheK matricesareknown.
TheresultantappliednodalloadsareinsubvectorF
g
andtheF
u
termsrepresenttheunknowngeneralized
reactionsforcesassociatedwithessentialboundaryconditions.Thismeansthataftertheenforcementofthe
essentialboundaryconditionstheactualremainingunknownsareA
u
andF
u
.Onlythendoesthenetnumber
ofunknownscorrespondtothenumberofequations.But,theymustberearrangedbeforealltheremaining
unknownscanbecomputed.
Here,forsimplicity,ithasbeenassumedthattheequationshavebeennumberedinamannerthatplacesrows
associatedwiththegivendisplacements(essentialboundaryconditions)attheendofthesystemequations.
Theabovematrixrelationscanberewrittenastwosetsofmatrixidentities:
K
uu
A
u
+ K
ug
A
g
= F
g

K
gu
A
u
+ K
gg
A
g
= F
u
.
Thefirstidentitycanbesolvedfortheunknowndisplacements,A
u
,byputtingitinthestandardlinear
equationformbymovingtheknownproductK
ug
A
g
totherightside.Mostbooksonnumericalanalysis
assumethatyouhavereducedthesystemtothissmaller,nonsingularform(K
uu
)beforetryingtosolvethe
system.Invertingthesmallernonsingularsquarematrixyieldstheuniqueequilibriumdisplacementfield:
A
u
= K
uu
-1
(F
g
- K
ug
A
g
).
Theremainingreactionforcescanthenberecovered,ifdesired,fromthesecondmatrixidentity:
F
u
= K
gu
A
u
+ K
gg
A
g
.
Inmostapplications,thesereactiondatahavephysicalmeaningsthatareimportantintheirownright,or
usefulinvalidatingthesolution.However,thispartofthecalculationisoptional.
3.6 StructuralComponentFailure
Structuralcomponentscanbedeterminedtofailbyvariousmodesdeterminedbybuckling,deflection,natural
frequency,strain,orstress.Strainorstressfailurecriteriaaredifferentdependingonwhethertheyare
consideredasbrittleorductilematerials.Thedifferencebetweenbrittleandductilematerialbehaviorsis
determinedbytheirresponsetoauniaxialstressstraintest,asinFigure38.Youneedtoknowwhatclassof
materialisbeingused.SWSimulation,andmostfiniteelementsystems,defaulttoassumingaductilematerial
FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 36
anddisplaythedistortionalenergyfailuretheorywhichisusuallycalledtheVonMisesstress,oreffective
stress,eventhoughitisactuallyascalar.Abrittlematerialrequirestheuseofahigherfactorofsafety.

Figure38Axialstressstrainexperimentalresults
3.7 FactorofSafety
Allaspectsofadesignhavesomedegreeofuncertainty,asdoeshowthedesignwillactuallybeutilized.For
allthereasonscitedabove,youmustalwaysemployaFactorofSafety(FOS).Somedesignersrefertoitasthe
factorofignorance.RememberthataFOSofunitymeansthatfailureiseminent;itdoesnotmeanthatapart
orassemblyissafe.Inpracticeyoushouldtrytojustify1<FOS<8.Severalconsistentapproachesfor
computingaFOSaregiveninmechanicaldesignbooks[9].Theyshouldbesupplementedwiththeadditional
uncertaintiesthatcomefromaFEA.Manyauthorssuggestthatthefactorofsafetyshouldbecomputedas
theproductoftermsthatareall1.Thereisafactorforthecertaintyoftherestraintlocationandtype;the
certaintyoftheloadregion,type,andvalue;amaterialfactor;adynamicloadingfactor;acyclic(fatigue)load
factor;andanadditionalfactoriffailureislikelytoresultinhumaninjury.Variousprofessionalorganizations
andstandardsorganizationssetminimumvaluesforthefactorofsafety.Forexample,thestandardforlifting
hoistsandelevatorsrequireaminimumFOSof4,becausetheirfailurewouldinvolvetheclearriskofinjuring
orkillingpeople.Asaguide,considertheFOSasaproductoffactors:F0S = [ F
k
n
k=1
= F
1
F
2
F
3
.F
n
.Aset
oftypicalfactorsisgiveninTable31.

Table31Factorstoconsiderwhenevaluatingadesign(each 1)
k Type Comments
1 Consequences Willlossbeokay,criticalorfatal
2 Environment Roomambientorharshchemicalspresent
3 Failuretheory Isapartclearlybrittle,ductile,orunknown
4 Fatigue Doesthedesignexperiencemorethattencyclesofuse
5 GeometryofPart Notuncertain,iffromaCADsystem
FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 37
6 GeometryofMesh Defeaturingcanintroduceerrors.Elementsizesandlocation
areimportant.Lookinglikethepartisnotenough.
7 Loading Areloadspreciseordotheycomefromwaveaction,etc.
8 Materialdata Isthematerialwellknown,orvalidatedbytests
9 Reliability Mustthereliabilityofthedesignbehigh
10 Restraints Designsaregreatlyinfluencedbyassumedsupports
11 Stresses Wasstressconcentrationconsidered,orshockloads
3.8 ElementTypeSelection
Evenwithtodaysadvancesincomputingpoweryouseemnevertohaveenoughcomputationalresourcesto
solvealltheproblemsthatpresentthemselves.Frequentlysolidelementsarenotthebestchoicefor
computationalefficiency.Theanalystsshouldlearnwhenotherelementtypescanbevalidorwhentheycan
beutilizedtovalidateastudycarriedoutwithadifferentelementtype.SWSimulationoffersasmallelement
librarythatincludesbars,trusses,beams,frames,thinplatesandshells,thickplatesandshells,andsolid
elements.Therearealsospecialconnectorelementscalledrigidlinksormultipointconstraints.
Theshellsandsolidelementsareconsideredtobecontinuumelements.Theplateelementsareaspecialcase
offlatshellswithnoinitialcurvature.Solidelementformulationsincludethestressesinalldirections.Shells
areamathematicalsimplificationofsolidsofspecialshape.Thinshells(likethinbeams)donotconsiderthe
stressinthedirectionperpendiculartotheshellsurface.Thickshells(likedeepbeams)doconsiderthe
stressesthroughthethicknessontheshell,inthedirectionnormaltothemiddlesurface,andaccountfor
transversesheardeformations.
LethdenotethetypicalthicknessofacomponentwhileitstypicallengthisdenotedbyL.Thethicknessto
lengthratio,h/L,givessomeguidanceastowhenaparticularelementtypeisvalidforananalysis.Whenh/Lis
largesheardeformationisatitsmaximumimportanceandyoushouldbeusingsolidelements.Conversely,
whenh/L isverysmalltransversesheardeformationisnotimportantandthinshellelementsareprobablythe
mostcosteffectiveelementchoice.Intheintermediaterangeofh/L thethickshellelementswillbemostcost
effective.Thethickshellsareextensionsofthinshellelementsthatcontainadditionalstrainenergyterms.
Theoverlappingh/LrangesforthethreecontinuumelementtypesaresuggestedinFigure39.Thethickness
ofthelinessuggeststhoseregionswhereaparticularelementtypeisgenerallyconsideredtobethepreferred
elementofchoice.Theoverlappingrangessuggestwhereonetypeofelementcalculationcanbeusedto
validateacalculatedresultobtainedwithadifferentelementtype.Validationcalculationsincludethe
differentapproachestoboundaryconditionsandloadsrequiredbydifferentelementformulations.Theyalso
canindirectlycheckthatauseractuallyunderstandshowtoutilizeafiniteelementcode.

FEAConcepts
Draft
3.9 SWS
Thesymbolsu
Figure310.T
elementsolut
representsthe
areoftenrefe
displacement
enoughrestra
N
Al

Forsimplicity
Thatis,they
thetypeofre
frequentlyen
understands

s:SWSimula
13.0.Copyri
Simulation
usedinSWSim
Thesymbolsfo
ionsarebased
emechanicalw
rredtoasgene
DOFsforthes
intstoprevent
Nodeofsolid
lthreedispla
F
ymanyfinite
enforceanIm
estraint,asw
ncounterthe
symmetrypla
Displaceme
Figu
ationOverview
ght2009.All
Figure3
Fixturean
mulationtorepr
rthecorrespo
donworkener
workdoneatth
eralizeddisplac
solidnodes(to
tanymodelfro

ortrusselem
acementsare
Figure310Fix
elementexam
mmovableco
wellaswheret
commoncon
anerestraints

ent
ure311Single
w
lrightsreserv
9Overlappin
ndLoadSy
resentasingle
ndingforcesa
rgyrelations,th
hepoint.Whe
cements.The
op)andshellno
omundergoing
ment:
zero.
xedrestraintsy
mplesincorre
onditionforso
thepartisre
nditionsofsym
forsolidsan
Force
ecomponents
ved.
ngvalidranges
ymbols
etranslationala
ndmomentlo
heaboveword
enamodelcan
SWSimulation
odesareseen
garigidbodyt
ymbolsforsol
ectlyapplyco
olidsoraFixe
strainedisof
mmetryoran
dshells.
Rot
symbolsforres

sofelementty
androtational
adingsaresho
dcorrespondi
ninvolveeither
nnodalsymbo
inFigure311.
translationor
Nodeoff
Allthreedi
ro
ids(top)ands
ompleterestr
edconditionf
ftenthemost
ntisymmetry

tation
straints(fixtur

ypes
DOFatanode
ownpinkintha
ngmeanstha
rtranslationso
lsfortheunkn
.Youalmosta
rigidbodyrota
frameorshel
splacements
otationsareze
shellnodes
aintsataface
forshells.Ac
tdifficultpart
yrestraints.Y
Coup
res)andloads
J
3
eareshowngr
atfigure.Since
attheirdotpro
orrotationsas
nowngeneraliz
alwaysmustsu
ation.

llelement:
andallthree
ero.
e,edgeorno
tuallydeterm
tofananalys
Youshouldun

le
.E.Akin
38

reenin
efinite
oduct
DOFthey
zed
upply

ode.
mining
is.You
nder
FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 39
3.10 SymmetryDOFonaPlane
Aplaneofsymmetryisflatandhasmirrorimagegeometry,materialproperties,loading,andrestraints.
Symmetryrestraints\iareverycommonforsolidsandforshells.Figure312showsthatforbothsolidsand
shells,thedisplacementperpendiculartothesymmetryplaneiszero.Shellshavetheadditionalconditionthat
theinplanecomponentofitsrotationvectoriszero.Ofcourse,theflatsymmetryplaneconditionscanbe
statedinadifferentway.Forasolidelementtranslationaldisplacementsparalleltothesymmetryplaneare
allowed.Forashellelementrotationisallowedaboutanaxisperpendiculartothesymmetryplaneandits
translationaldisplacementsparalleltothesymmetryplanearealsoallowed.

Nodeofasolidortrusselement:
Displacementnormaltothesymmetryplaneiszero.
Nodeofaframeorshellelement:
Displacementnormaltothesymmetryplaneandtwo
rotationsparalleltoitarezero.
Figure312Symmetryrequireszeronormaldisplacement,andzeroinplanerotation
3.11 AvailableLoading(Source)Options
Mostfiniteelementsystemshaveawiderangeofmechanicalloads(orsources)thatcanbeappliedtopoints,
curves,surfaces,andvolumes.ThemechanicalloadingterminologyusedinSWSimulationisinTable32.
Mostofthoseloadingoptionsareutilizedinlaterexampleapplications.

Table32Mechanicalloads(sources)thatapplytotheactivestructuralstudy
LoadType Description
BearingLoad Nonuniformbearingloadonacylindricalface
CentrifugalForce Radialcentrifugalbodyforcesfortheangularvelocityand/ortangential
bodyforcesfromtheangularaccelerationaboutanaxis
Force Resultantforce,ormoment,atavertex,curve,orsurface
Gravity Gravity,orlinearaccelerationvector,bodyforceloading
Pressure Apressurehavingnormaland/ortangentialcomponentsactingona
selectedsurface
RemoteLoad/
Mass
Allowsloadsormassesremotefromtheparttobeappliedtothepart
bytreatingtheomittedmaterialasrigid
Temperature Temperaturechangeatselectedcurves,surfaces,orbodies(see
thermalstudiesformorerealistictemperaturetransfers)
3.12 AvailableMaterialInputsforStressStudies
Mostapplicationsinvolvetheuseofisotropic(directionindependent)materials.Theavailablemechanical
propertiesfortheminSWSimulationarelistedinTable33.Itisbecomingmorecommontohavedesigns
utilizinganisotropic(directiondependent)materials.Themostcommonspecialcaseofanisotropicmaterialsis
theorthotropicmaterial.Anyanisotropicmaterialhasitspropertiesinputrelativetotheprincipaldirectionsof
thematerial.Thatmeansyoumustconstructtheprincipalmaterialdirectionsreferenceplaneorcoordinate
axesbeforeenteringorthotropicdata.Mechanicalorthotropicpropertiesaresubjecttosometheoretical
FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 40
relationshipsthatphysicallypossiblematerialsmustsatisfy(suchaspositivestrainenergy).Thus,
experimentalmaterialpropertiesdatamayrequireadjustmentbeforebeingacceptedbySWSimulation.

Table33Isotropicmechanicalproperties
Symbol Label Item
E EX Elasticmodulus(Youngsmodulus)

NUXY Poissonsratio
G GXY Shearmodulus
p DENS Massdensity
o
t
SIGXT Tensilestrength(Ultimatestress)
o
c
SIGXC Compressionstresslimit
o
y
SIGYLD Yieldstress(yieldstrength)
u ALPX Coefficientofthermalexpansion

Table34Orthotropicmechanicalpropertiesinprincipalmaterialdirection
Symbol Label Item
E
x
EX ElasticmodulusinmaterialXdirection
E
y
EY ElasticmodulusinmaterialYdirection
E
z
EZ ElasticmodulusinmaterialZdirection

xy

NUXY PoissonsratioinmaterialXYdirections

yz

NUYZ PoissonsratioinmaterialYZdirections

xz

NUXZ PoissonsratioinmaterialXZdirections
G
xy
GXY ShearmodulusinmaterialXYdirections
G
yz
GYZ ShearmodulusinmaterialYZdirections
G
xz
GXZ ShearmodulusinmaterialXZdirections
p DENS Massdensity
o
t
SIGXT Tensilestrength(Ultimatestress)
o
c
SIGXC Compressionstresslimit
o
y
SIGYLD Yieldstress(Yieldstrength)
u
x
ALPX ThermalexpansioncoefficientinmaterialX
u
y
ALPY ThermalexpansioncoefficientinmaterialY
u
z
ALPZ ThermalexpansioncoefficientinmaterialZ
Note:NUXY,NUYZ,andNUXZarenotindependent
Partscanalsobemadefromorthotropicmaterials(asshownlater).However,theirutilizationismost
commoninlaminatedmaterials(laminates)wheretheyeachplylayerhasacontrollableprincipalmaterial
direction.TheconceptforconstructinglaminatesfromorthotropicmaterialplysisshowninFigure.
Understandingthefailuremodesoflaminatesusuallyrequiresspecialstudy.
FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 41

Figure313Exampleofafourplylaminatematerial
3.13 StressStudyOutputs
Asuccessfulrunofastudywillcreatealargeamountofadditionaloutputresultsthatcanbedisplayedand/or
listedinthepostprocessingphase.DisplacementsaretheprimaryunknowninaSWSimulationstressstudy.
The available displacement vector components are cited in Table 35 and Table 36, along with the reactions
theycreateifthedisplacementisusedasarestraint.Thedisplacementscanbeplottedasvectordisplays,or
contourvalues.Theycanalsobetransformedtocylindricalorsphericalcomponents.
Table35Outputresultsforsolids,shells,andtrusses
Symbol Label Item Symbol Label Item
U
x
UX Displacement(Xdirection) R
x
RFX Reactionforce(Xdirection)
U
y
UY Displacement(Ydirection) R
y
RFY: Reactionforce(Ydirection)
U
z
UZ Displacement(Zdirection) R
z
RFZ Reactionforce(Zdirection)
U
r
URES: Resultantdisplacement
magnitude
R
r
RFRES Resultantreactionforce
magnitude

Table36Additionalprimaryresultsforbeams,plates,andshells
Symbol Label Item Symbol Label Item

x
RX Rotation(Xdirection) M
x
RMX: Reactionmoment(Xdirection)

y
RY Rotation(Ydirection) M
y
RMY Reactionmoment(Ydirection)

z
RZ Rotation(Zdirection) M
z
RMZ: Reactionmoment(Zdirection)
M
r
MRESR Resultantreactionmoment
magnitude
The strains and stresses are computed from the displacements. The stress components available at an
element centroid or averaged at a node are given in Table 37. The six components listed on the left in that
tablegivethegeneralstressatapoint(i.e.,anodeoranelementcentroid).Thosesixvaluesareillustratedon
theleftofFigure314.TheycanbeusedtocomputethescalarvonMisesfailurecriterion.Theycanalsobe
usedtosolveaneigenvalueproblemfortheprincipalnormalstressesandtheirdirections,whichareshownon
the right of Figure 314. The maximum shear stress occurs on a plane whose normal is 45 degrees from the
direction of P1. The principal normal stresses can also be used to compute the scalar von Mises failure
criterion.
ThevonMiseseffectivestressiscomparedtothematerialyieldstressforductilematerials.Failureispredicted
tooccur(basedonthedistortionalenergystoredinthematerial)whenthevonMisesvaluereachestheyield
stress.Themaximumshearstressispredictedtocausefailurewhenitreacheshalftheyieldstress.SW
Simulationusestheshearstressintensitywhichisalsocomparedtotheyieldstresstodeterminefailure
FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 42
(becauseitistwicethemaximumshearstress).ThefirstfourvaluesontherightsideofTable37areoften
representedgraphicallyinmechanicsasa3DMohrscircle(seeninFigure315).
Table37:Nodalandelementstressresults
Symbol Label Item Symbol Label Item
o
x
SX Normalstressparalleltoxaxis o
1
P1 1stprincipalnormalstress
o
y
SY Normalstressparalleltoyaxis o
2
P2 2ndprincipalnormalstress
o
z
SZ Normalstressparalleltozaxis o
3
P3 3rdprincipalnormalstress
+
xy
TXY ShearinYdirectiononplane
normaltoxaxis
+
I INT Stressintensity(P1P3),twice
themaximumshearstress
+
xz
TXZ ShearinZdirectiononplane
normaltoxaxis

+
yz
TYZ ShearinZdirectiononplane
normaltozaxis
o
vm
VON vonMisesstress(distortional
energyfailurecriterion)

Figure314Thestresstensor(left)anditsprincipalnormalvalues

Figure315ThethreedimensionalMohr'scircleofstressyieldtheprincipalstresses
FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 43

Ifdesired,youcanplotallthreeprincipalcomponentsatonce.Thethreeprincipalnormalstressesatanode
orelementcentercanberepresentedbyanellipsoid.Thethreeradiioftheellipsoidrepresentthemagnitudes
ofthethreeprincipalnormalstresscomponents,P1,P2,andP3.Thesignofthestresses(tensionor
compression)arerepresentedbyarrows.ThecolorcodeofthesurfaceisbasedonthevonMisesvalueatthe
point,ascalarquantity.Ifoneoftheprincipalstressesiszero,theellipsoidbecomesaplanarellipse.Ifthe
threeprincipalstresseshavethesamemagnitude,theellipsoidbecomesasphere.Inthecaseofsimple
uniaxialtensilestress,theellipsoidbecomesaline.

Figure316AprincipalstressellipsoidcoloredbyvonMisesvalue

TheavailablenodaloutputresultsinTable37areobtainedbyaveragingtheelementvaluesthatsurroundthe
node.Youcanalsoviewthemasconstantvaluesattheelementcentroids.Thatcangiveyouinsighttothe
smoothnessoftheapproximation.Forbrittlematerialsyoucanalsobeinterestedintheelementstrain
results.TheyarelistedinTable38.Table39showsthatyoucanalsoviewtheelementerrorestimate,ERR
whichisusedtodirectadaptivesolutions,andthecontactpressurefromaniterativecontactanalysis.
Additionaloutputsareavailableifyouconductanautomatedadaptiveanalysistoreducethe(mathematical)
errortoaspecificvalue,ortorecoverresultsfromthedevelopedpressurebetweencontactingsurfaces.They
arelistedinTable39.

Table38Elementcentroidalstraincomponentresults
Sym Label Item Sym Label Item
c
x
EPSX Normalstrainparalleltox
axis
c
1
E1 Normalprincipalstrain(1st
principaldirection)
c
y
EPSY Normalstrainparalleltoy
axis
c
2
E2 Normalprincipalstrain
(2ndprincipaldirection)
c
z
EPSZ Normalstrainparalleltoz
axis
c
3
E3 Normalprincipalstrain(3rd
principaldirection)
y
xy
GMXY ShearstraininYdirectionon
planenormaltoxaxis
c
r
ESTRN Equivalentstrain
y
xz
GMXZ ShearstraininZdirectionon
planenormaltoxaxis
SED SEDENS Strainenergydensity(per
unitvolume)
y
yz
GMYZ ShearstraininZdirectionon
planenormaltoyaxis
SE ENERGY Totalstrainenergy
FEAConcepts:SWSimulationOverview J.E.Akin
Draft13.0.Copyright2009.Allrightsreserved. 44

Table39Additionalelementcentroidstressrelatedresults
Label Item
ERR Elementerrormeasuredinthestrainenergynorm
CP Contractpressuredevelopedonacontactsurface