Defining Conflict

Conflict is a complex phenomenon and can be better analyzed by looking at its three components:

Conflict situation Conflict behavior Conflict attitudes and perceptions

At its core, conflict is the dynamic element of a situation in which two or more parties perceive that they have incompatible values, interests and/or goals. Conflict situations involve relationships between parties concerning "their perceptions and misperceptions, their shared and separate values, and their goals and motivations." 1 Conflict takes place within the political, social, economic and institutional domains of those relationships. Conflict is endemic to healthy, evolving societies. A central element in the cycle of conflict is a society's institutional capacity to settle incompatibilities peacefully through regulating mechanisms such as courts or clan structures. Conflict persists and may degenerate into violence and armed confrontation in the absence of such coordinating and mediating mechanisms. The conflict situation has four main components:

Parties Issues Goals Context

Conflict Parties Conflict requires the presence of at least two parties with incompatible needs, values, interests and/or goals. Parties to a conflict often assume different roles because there are variations in their level of involvement:

Primary parties have a direct interest in a conflict and actively pursue strategies designed to promote their interests. Secondary parties have a stake in the outcome of an event but may or may not perceive that there is a conflict and may or may not decide to play an active role or be represented in any decision-making process. Secondary parties may play a key role in facilitating, spoiling or enforcing an agreement.

Third parties or intermediaries generally intervene to help facilitate the resolution of conflict and to help improve the relationship between the parties. They may be impartial and have no stake in any particular outcome, or they may take a side but are viewed as legitimate facilitators by the primary and secondary parties. Conflict Issues Conflict issues are what They can be broken into Conflict issues are what They can be broken into the parties are concerned about, the source of perceived incompatibilities. four categories: the parties are concerned about, the source of perceived incompatibilities. four categories:

Resources and how they are distributed. Resources are tangible goods and include: Territory Money Sources of energy such as oil, natural gas or wood Food - Other commodities such as timber, agricultural goods, and metals destined for trade on the international marked rather than personal consumption.

Power - The allocation of and participation in the political decision making process Identity - The cultural, linguistic, social or ethnic characteristics of peoples.

Values - Core beliefs, especially as enshrined in systems of government, religion or ideology. Values emerge as a culturally specific expression of needs, those basic motivations and requirements of human development that are common to all human beings. Values emerge as a culturally specific expression of needs, those basic motivations and requirements of human

development that are common to all human beings. These needs include the qualities of security, identity, recognition, and development needs in general. Parties whose needs have been violated usually do not respond to coercion over the long run. When the basic requirements that are necessary for a group's physical survival or sense of identity are unsatisfied, then members of the group will continue to struggle to get those needs met in one form or another. Needs cannot be traded away. Yet it is possible to identify a range of ways to satisfy those basic human needs, and openings for the resolution of a conflict can often be realized through the process of identifying and satisfying these needs. Incompatibilities Incompatibilities can be seen in objective conditions or changes , for example in lower standards of living, demographic changes or population movements, changes in technology, or dwindling natural resources. Incompatibilities may also arise as a result of perceived conditions or changes , independent of whether they have actually occurred. At the same time, incompatibilities may not be perceived at all, even if they exist. Such a situation is calledlatent conflict . When at least one of the parties becomes aware of the incompatibilities and takes measures to act upon them the conflict becomes manifest . Goals Goals can be defined as "consciously desired future outcomes, conditions, or end states." If issues are what the conflict is about, goals are what the parties to the conflict want . In many conflict situations, the distinction between goals and issues is not clear. Misperceptions about goals can lead to misperceptions about the issues involved in the conflict. In Iraq, for example, many fear that the ultimate goal of the Shiites is the establishment of an Islamic state. This assessment would lead to the conclusion that the conflict is about values. If, however, the goal of the Shiite leadership is to assure the representation of Shiite interests in any future political arrangement in Iraq, then the conflict is about power in the decision-making process. Parties frame their goals in two basic ways, positively and negatively:

Positive goals reflect tangible future outcomes, such as "secure borders" or "an independent state." Negative goals reflect a desire to avoid an unwanted outcome, such as blocking a country's admittance into a treaty organization, or not wanting to admit refugees. Conflict Context The context of a conflict encompasses the political, social, economic and institutional dynamics within which it takes place, including those at the regional and international levels. The context also includes culture . Culture becomes especially important when the parties to the conflict exhibit strong cultural differences.

Culture can be understood as a system of ideas and values that guide (but do not determine) behavior. It is the basic lens through which a people perceive the world and it is reflected in every aspect of their way of life. Culture can be understood as a system of ideas and values that guide (but do not determine) behavior. It is the basic lens through which a people perceive the world and it is reflected in every aspect of their way of life. Parties to a conflict are guided by their own culturally created system of meaning to: (1) interpret what is happening in a situation; (2) decipher their own and others' behaviors; and (3) understand all the communication that is exchanged between their group and the others. When parties to a conflict have been shaped by different cultures, there may be substantial variations in their interpretation of the meaning of the behavior of others. These variations can spark conflict, they can also lead to misunderstandings and prevent the clear communication that is necessary in conflict resolution processes.

Conflict Behavior
Conflict can be `good' (functional) or `bad' (dysfunctional) depending on the nature and degree of incompatibility as well as the way in which conflict is handled. 2 Conflict is a process in which parties, independently or together, deploy ways and means to deal with their incompatibilities. These ways and means can be broadly summarized

as conflict behavior. Conflict behavior is based on a party's perception of the problem at hand, on desired outcome(s) and on the action(s) taken by other parties to the conflict. Conflict behavior can take the following five forms: 3

Contending occurs when one party seeks to achieve its goals without regard to the other party's interests, usually by getting the other party to yield. The tactics employed are often coercive and can include making threats, taking preemptive actions, and imposing penalties or sanctions that will be withdrawn if the other concedes.

Yielding occurs when one party concedes to another party, usually after aspirations have been lowered. Sometimes yielding is used to buy time while a party develops a new strategy. At other times, it involves only a partial concession, as other interests have been met.

Withdrawal and Inaction are similar behaviors because both involve side-stepping the conflict without settling the issues that gave rise to it. Withdrawal refers to a permanent situation. Inaction is often a temporary move, usually with the intention of gaining time to develop a stronger position.

Problem-Solving involves identifying the issues in contention, with the goal of developing and implementing a solution that is acceptable to all the primary parties. Ideally, neither party has to lower its aspirations because the solution reconciles the parties' previously incompatible goals. The strategies chosen are linked to the quality of the relationship between the parties. If their relationship is mutually valued, parties are less likely to engage in contentious or coercive strategies. Problem-solving approaches tend to foster better-rooted relationships because they build a strong basis for positive post-conflict interaction: parties are less likely to feel bitter or humiliated, and the source of their conflict has been addressed. In addition, they now have experience working together on difficult issues and may have enhanced feelings of mutual trust.

Conflict Attitudes and Perceptions

While perceptions and emotions are individually developed and controlled, it is common for members of a group to share similar attitudes and psychological responses to their adversaries. These responses often lock a group into conflict because their perceptions of the other group are clouded by overlays of fear and suspicion, emotions that can form a barrier to working through the conflict. In situations of conflict the parties involved inevitably develop some problematic attitudes towards their adversaries. Attitudes and perceptions may take the following forms: 4

Emotions . It is common for parties locked in conflict to experience feelings of fear, anger, distrust, resentment, scorn, envy, and suspicion about the intentions of the other.

Cognitive Processes shape and maintain perceptions about both one's own group and the adversary in conflict situations and can include the following: - Groups often develop blanket stereotypes about their opponent. Through a process known ascognitive dissonance ,5 parties screen out all information about adversaries that does not fit with their preexisting collective image/idea of the opponent. - Bolstering is a process that involves seeking out evidence to support one's own position and actions, while denying evidence that gives legitimacy to the other's concerns.

Enemy Images . Parties often assume that their adversaries are and will always be their enemies. Despite assumptions to the contrary, enemies are not born but are constructed out of the conflict situation and subsequently generated psychological dynamics.6 The following psychological phenomena are often at work: - Transference or displacement occurs when a group has been frustrated by another, usually more powerful, group that cannot be directly confronted. Because the primary group is inaccessible, feelings of hostility and aggression are directed at a third group. - Enemies are dehumanized when members of one party depict members of the opponent group as not fully human or even as inhuman. 7 This mechanism is often stimulated by propaganda during mobilization for war. If the enemy is seen as not fully human, then it is psychologically easier to suspend moral sanctions, present in virtually every culture, against senseless destruction.

The Rwandan station Radio Television des Milles Collines sought to demonize and "dehumanize" Tutsis. The station created the impression that killing Tutsis was not akin to killing other humans, thus making the act somehow more acceptable. RTLM referred to Tutsis as inyenzi , meaning "cockroaches," and tried to spread the myth that Tutsis were inhuman in their thirst for blood, urging listeners to "understand that the cruelty of the inyenzi is incurable, the cruelty of the inyenzi can be cured only by their total extermination." 1. "You cockroaches must know you are made of flesh. We won't let you kill. We will kill you" - 1994 RTLM radio broadcast 2. "We began by saying that a cockroach cannot give birth to a butterfly. It is true. A cockroach gives birth to another cockroach " 1993 Kangura newspaper article In situations of protracted conflict, a dynamic of systemized victimhood can develop. This dynamic occurs when the basic identity of a party has been shaped by its historic experiences of traumatic violations by others, creating a pervasive sense of victimhood. 8 The three main components of systemized victimhood are:

a history of violent, traumatic aggression and losssuch as past experiences of genocide; a conviction that such aggression was unjustified by any standard; and

an often unstated fear on the part of the victim group that the aggressor will strike again, when feasible, in the future. Even though conflict is a universal phenomenon, it does not follow that violence is equally universal. However, some researchers argue that without the proper intervention mechanisms, such as domestic courts, international organizations or clan structures, social conflicts have the propensity to gravitate towards violence.

Conflict and Violence

Violence is conceptually very different from conflict, though the two are linked. The World Health Organization defines: Violence ". . . the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or deprivation."9 The use of direct violence is a contending behavior to deal with incompatibilities. In this sense, it is a tactical means of attaining one's goals and is sometimes called `instrumental aggression'. 10 The decision to use direct violence may have two purposes:

overpower and physically eliminate the other party; at its most extreme end, this leads to genocide and is often motivated by ethno-religious rivalries. Hitler's plan to exterminate the Jewish people, and the genocides in Rwanda and Bosnia are examples of this use of violence in armed conflicts. The Global War on Terrorism (GWOT) may also be viewed as an effort to eliminate terrorism and terrorists.

influence the other party's behavior and choices. Terrorists and insurgents in Iraq use various forms of violence including suicide bombings and targeted killings to force a change in U.S. policy, i.e. make the U.S. withdraw its forces. When violence is exhibited at the group/community/state level, we often use such terms as "violent conflict," "armed conflict," "war," "high intensity conflict," and "low intensity conflict." Many definitions of armed conflict in international relations contain threshold levels of violence measured by the number of deaths suffered either by the armed forces or the population (or both). 11 Even though the threshold levels vary, sometimes considerably, as do the terms associated with them, they illustrate the link between conflict and violence. The following "violence road map" provides an overview of different acts of direct physical violence categorized by their primary motivation. 12 The nature of today's armed conflicts makes all categories relevant for conflict managers. The increasing importance of war economies, terrorism, ethnic cleansing, and rape as forms of coercion demonstrate the complexity of war as a system of violence operating at multiple levels.

Peace researcher Johan Galtung argues that direct violence is too narrow a definition for violence and proposes two addition categories of violence that do not rely on the use of physical force but are important when analyzing conflicts and transforming relationships: 13

Structural violence occurs where the actions of governments or society as a whole negatively affect the human rights of certain segments of the population. Such violence is entrenched in the social fabric, political economy and the governmental structure of a society. Structural violence is observable at the societal level in the form of systematic shortfalls in the quality of life of certain groups of people. Structural violence can be manifested in the following domains: Political: depriving people of freedom and political rights; - Economic: depriving people of basic needs for food, clothing, medicine, and access to the economic system; - Cultural: depriving people of their cultural identity by repressing their cultural expressions in public and private life.

Cultural violence , sometimes also referred to as institutional violence, is the legitimization, or de-legitimization, of the use of direct and structural violence by shaping the norms and values that guide such actions. Leaders in conflict situations seek to justify their own actions, while at the same time trying to cast their opponents' actions as illegitimate or unjustified.

Peace and Conflict

There is no consensus on a conceptually clear definition of peace to guide the work of conflict managers. 18The following short overview looks at the most important elements and concepts of peace relevant for conflict management. Negative definitions of peace Traditionally, peace has been defined negatively: peace is the absence of violence. In most cases, these definitions refer to the notion of direct violence. Over the past 30 years, the concept of peace, however, has evolved beyond the absence of direct violence towards the absence and rejection of all levels of violence, including its cultural and structural varieties. Galtung has related the various forms of violence to the concepts of negative peace and positive peace: 19

Negative peace is a situation where direct violence is absent. 20 This is the case for example in Cyprus, where direct violence between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots has subsided, but the underlying issue about the future of the island remains at the heart of the conflict.

Positive peace is achieved through the absence of structural, cultural as well as direct violence. Mozambique is often cited as a successful case of a country that is well under way to achieve positive peace. After years of civil war, the country has gone through a process of national reconciliation, established a multi-party system, and achieved economic growth as well as a sense of national cohesion. One can also find the terms cold peace and warm peace as equivalents of negative and positive peace, respectively, in the peace and conflict literature. 17 Positive definitions of peace Attempts to describe peace as what it is, rather than what it is not, include definitions of peace as:

a situation of harmony, concord, unity, tranquility. This conception of peace is heavily influenced by non-Western philosophies. In Chinese, for example, there is no single word for peace. It is expressed by joining two symbols: harmony and balance.18

an agreement or a pact structuring relationships. Based on the English legal tradition, there is also a strong emphasis on the proposition that peace flows from contractual relations. As a result, peace is seen as a relationship among people based on a common understanding or agreement. 19 This notion has direct relevance for the peace processes in conflict situations as peace agreements restructure and re-establish relationships among conflict parties along mutually accepted lines.

an experience shared by the affected people as a whole. Peace is a collective rather than individual reality and as a result there are strong subjective elements in what groups of people perceive as peace. In order to gain a fuller understanding of this phenomenon, one must talk to the affected people and discover what they define as peace.

a process through which political, social, economic and social goods are distributed.

Peace and justice The subjective nature of peace is also expressed in the debate about the relationship between peace and justice:

Peace as a process is concerned with (re-)distributing political, economic and social goods in a manner acceptable by all parties; Peace as a relationship deals with mending social fissures after violence and establishing justice for wrongful actions in a legal sense; and Peace as a harmonious condition is concerned with social justice. If peace is to be achieved, one needs to be aware of what justice means to the affected communities. One commentator argues that:

"In the end, justice is no more than the legitimacy of the social order. If people regard the constraints under which they live as just, then they must be considered so, and peace will prevail." 20 Peace then is not just the absence of war or violent conflict, but the establishment of a just social order as well. The following graph puts conflict, violence, peace and justice on the following continuum: 21

Summary
Conflict is defined as "a situation in which two or more parties perceive that they have incompatible needs, values, interests and/or goals". We then looked at the components of the conflict situation and reviewed how parties may behave in situations of conflict: contending, yielding, withdrawal/inaction and problem solving conflict behaviors. The section on Conflict Attitudes and Perceptions was devoted to analyzing psychological factors shaping conflict behavior such as stereotyping, bolstering, the creation of enemy images, de-humanization, and feelings of victimhood. The lesson identified three levels of violence that relate to conflict: direct violence, structural violence and institutional violence. We presented in a table the manifestations of violence that are likely present in political, institutional and socio-economic contexts, and related conflict and violence to a comprehensive notion of peace that includes not only the absence of direct violence but the presence of integrative institutions that allow all citizens to participate equally in public life, provide equal protection under the rule of law, and are accepted under a common notion of justice.

uiz
Conflict refers to a situation in which: The use violence among members of society is frequent. Fighting occurs between ethnic groups. Two or more parties perceive that they have incompatible values, interests and/or goals. Peace is absent. The conflict situation has the following components: Parties, values, interests, context. Parties, issues, goals, context. Contending behavior, issues, parties, perception. Issues, enemy images, injustice, violence. The statement "The present government is a regime dominated by the provinces in the South our party wants to change that and give the North more influence in the political process" means that: The party is prepared to pick up arms to change the regime. There is an issue of perceived inadequate political representation.

There is wide-spread ethnic discrimination and ethnic tension. The party seeks to establish an autonomous North. In the context of conflict, culture is an important factor in: Deciphering the meaning of the other party's behavior. Understanding the conflict situation. Interpreting the communication between conflict parties. All of the above. Which of the following situations best illustrates structural violence? Wide-spread poverty due to a lack of economic development. Protracted armed confrontations between the government and armed opposition. High unemployment as a result of market liberalization and economic reform. Systematic shortfalls in the quality of life of certain groups of people as a result of state institutions. Cognitive Dissonance refers to: The process of directing feelings of hatred and aggression to a third party when the responsible primary party cannot be confronted. The difficulty of interpreting conflict relevant information. The process of screening out all information about the adversary that does not fit the preexisting collective image of the other party. The process of seeking out evidence to support one's own positions and actions while denying evidence that supports the other side.