OFDM Lecture 1

Review

We start out with a review of wireless digital communications.

1.1

Conventions

1. W one-sided bandwidth, 2. B two-sided bandwidth, 3. dB is always referenced to power. So given a voltage V , the equivalent voltage in dB is 20 log10 V = 10 log10 V 2 . Given an energy value Ex mW the equivalent dBm is 10 log10 Ex . 4. The signal and noise terms in SNR are always power-to-power or energyto-energy. The denition of SNR can vary from book to book, engineer to engineer. This means it needs to be dened for a given context.

1.2

Fourier Transform Theorems

Recall that X(f ) = x(t)ej2f t dt and x(t) = Review of some Fourier Transform theorems.

X(f )ej2f t df

1. Convolution x y(t) X(f )Y (f ) 2. Correlation (power) theorem. This one is very useful for solving dicult integrals. x(t)y (t)dt = X(f )Y (f )df 3. x(t) cos(2fc t) 1 (X(f fc ) + X(f + fc )). 2 4. x(t)
n=

(t nT )

1 T

n=

X(f n/T )

Given a digital signal x(k),

F(x(k)) =

x(k)ej2f kT

= X(e ) 1 = X(f k/T ) T k= 1 X(m) = N

N 1 n=0

k= j2f

xn ej2mn/N

1. Correlation theorem for digital signals

N 1 n=0 N 1 N 1 N 1 n=0 k=0 l=0 N 1 N 1

x(n)y(n) = = =

1 N 1 N

X(k)ej2kn/N Y (l) ej2ln/N

N 1 n=0

X(k)Y (l)

ej2(kl)n/N

k=0 l=0 N 1 k=0

X(k)Y (k)

1.3

Constellations

1. xk is a symbol from a constellation. Every T seconds we transmit that symbol on an analog pulse p(t). The transmitted signal is x(t) = N k=1 xk p(t kT ). 2. If a constellation has M = 2b values, we transmit at a rate of b/T bits per second. 3. Basis functions and vectors. Basis functions and vectors are a way of representing the transmitted and received analog signals as a set of discrete vectors. To start the analysis of basis functions and vectors, we assume rst a 1-shot channel, i.e. only 1 symbol is sent on the channel. This makes the initial analysis cleaner. 2

In the 1-shot channel, given a set of constellation values of dimension N , {xm |m = 1, . . . , M }, then the equivalent analog signal is x(t) = N n=1 xn n (t) where n (t) are orthonormal basis functions. Orthonormal functions satisfy the property that i (t)j (t)dt = i,j Because the signal is modulated by orthonormal functions, we can make the identity. xn (t)xl (t) dt = xn , x . l 4. Transmitting and receiving signals. We transmit x(t) = N xn n (t). At the receiver, we can determine n=1 the transmitted vector constellation value, x, by taking the inner product of x(t) with i (t) i = 1, . . . , M . 5. Basis functions, vectors and noise. If we have an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel, the received signal is y(t) = x(t) + n(t). For the 1-shot channel, we achieve the best detection when we take the inner product of y(t) with i (t), i = 1, . . . , N , just as in the noiseless channel. But in this case we have y = x + n. x contains just as much information as x(t). (That is you can reconstruct x(t) from x and visa versa as long as you know the basis functions.) But you cannot reconstruct n(t) from n. That is, there are components of the analog noise that are orthogonal to the basis functions of the signal of interest. However the noise that is not represented by n is irrelevant in terms of the maximum likelihood (ML) receiver. 6. ML receiver. The ML receiver nds x that maximizes p(y|x) over all possible xm , m = 1, . . . , M .

7. Theorem of Irrelevance. The noise that is orthogonal to the signal basis functions is irrelevant to the ML receiver. Theorem of Irrelevance:1 If p(y2 |y1 , x) = p(y2 |y1 ), (i.e. the extra information does not give any more information about x the value youre trying to detect) then y2 is irrelevant for detecting x in an ML receiver. Proof: Given y1 , y2 the ML detector of x is the x that maximizes p(y1 , y2 |x) = p(y2 |y1 , x)p(y1 |x) = p(y2 |y1 )p(y1 |x) which means that nding the x that maximizes the left-hand side depends only on p(y1 |x). QED. Now lets prove that the noise not represented in the received digital signal is irrelevant. Let n(t) = n(t)
N n=1

nn n (t)

p( (t)|y, x) = p( (t)|n) n n = p( (t)) n does not depend on x. We can take the last step because n(t) is or thogonal to n.
1 8. Average energy of a constellation. Ex = M M Ex,m . The energy per m=1 1 bit, is Eb = log 1(M ) Ex . The energy per dimension is Ex = N Ex .
2

Some energy formulae: BPSK Eb = QPSK Eb =

d2 . 4 d2 4 M 1 d2 3 4

M = 2b QAM Ex =
1

Wozencraft and Jacobs, Cio Class notes

M 1 2 M = 2b+1 QAM (Cross constellations) Ex = 4 32 6 d4

31

9. Probability of Error The Q function is dened to be Q(x) =

1 x 2

exp( t2 )dt.

Given an AWGN channel, the ML receiver determines x to be the symbol closest to the received value y, i.e. we choose x = argmaxx y x . We make an error when the noise in the received signal is so great that y crosses the boundary of the decision regions about x. (The decision regions are the areas about points in the constellation that are closest to those points. Picture here.) If the distance between two symbols x1 and x2 is d and the variance of the AWGN is 2 , then the probability d we mistake x1 for x2 is Q( 2 ). A measure of the performance of a system is the average probability 1 of error for the constellation, i.e. Pe = M M Pe,m where Pe,m is the m=1 probability of error on xm . Some formulae: (a) For BPSK, Pe = Q( (b) For QPSK Pe = 2Q(
Eb ). 2 Eb ) 2 2

Q2 (

Eb ). 2 3Ex ) (M 1) 2

(c) For M-ary QAM, where M = 22b , Pe = 4(1 1 )Q( M 4( 1 1)2 Q2 ( M

3Ex ). (M 1) 2

1 (d) M-ary QAM Cross where M = 22b+1 Pe 4(1 2M )Q(

3Ex ) ( 31 M 1) 2 32

4(1

2 )Q2 ( M

3Ex ) (M 1) 2

This is an approximation as the corner points etc, have strange decision regions not regular like the square QAM. 10. SNR 5

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is often an arbitrary constant. Many wireless papers use SN R = Eb /N0 . Modem engineers using high-order QAM constellation use SN R = Ex /N0 . Historically, the number of bits in Eb /N0 has been typically 1-3, while modems, DSL lines etc, use very large QAM constellations, and the SNR gives an indication of how many bits they can use in it. 11. Nyquist rate. If p(t) is such that p(t) p(t kT )dt = A(k), then we say that the pulse satises the Nyquist criterion. This means that we can demodulate and nd each symbol xk by taking x(t)p(t kT )dt = Axk . Examples of Nyquist pulses. Raised-cosine pulse p(t) = sinc(t/T )
T

cos(t/T ) (1
2t T 2

)
1 (1 2T

1 |f | 2T (1 ) 1 1 T /2(1 sin( T (|f | 2T ))) 2T (1 ) < |f | < P (f ) = 2 0 otherwise

+ )

is the roll-o factor and controls the size of the bandwidth. Rectangular pulse of width T . Bandwidth decreases proportionally to the frequency Signal power is 20 log10 | sin(f T )|20 log10 f T . Very large bandwidth. 12. Baseband versus passband Most signals are modulated about a carrier frequency fc these are called passband signals. The carrier frequency is assigned by the government for a specic use. To analyze certain properties of such a modulated signal is tough so nd the equivalent lower-bandwidth signal whose center frequency is centered about DC the baseband signal. Passband to baseband conversion for analysis is somewhat arbitrary scaling terms can be added to ensure that the power in both terms is the same. In all passband to baseband conversions we assume that the carrier frequency fc >> W the bandwidth of the signal. 6

(a) General passband signal is of the form x(t) = A(t) cos(2fc t + (t)) where all the above terms are real, A(t) represents linear modulation, (t) represents phase modulation. The in-phase component is the part of the signal modulated on the cosine of the carrier, the quadrature is the component modulated on the sine of the carrier. x(t) = A(t) cos((t)) cos(2fc t) A(t) sin((t)) sin(2fc t) = xI (t) cos(2fc t) xQ (t) sin(2fc t) (b) The equivalent baseband lter is 1 xbb (t) = (xI (t) + jxQ (t)) 2 j2fc t Real( 2xbb (t)e ) = x(t) Why the square-root of 2 factor? Power. Its arbitrary (not everyone uses that convention) but its useful as it ensures that the power calculation in both domains is the same. x2 (t)dt = x2 (t) cos(2fc t)2 dt + I x2 (t) sin(2fc t)2 dt Q +2 = = 1 ( 2 xQ (t)xI (t) cos(2fc t) sin(2fc t)dt x2 (t)dt + I x2 (t)dt) Q

|xbb (t)|2 dt

(c) Filtering passband and baseband signals. x( )h(t )d 7

X(f )H(f ) =

1 ((XI (f fc ) + XI (f + fc )) 4 j((XQ (f fc ) XQ (f + fc )))) ((HI (f fc ) + HI (f + fc )) j((HQ (f fc ) HQ (f + fc )))) 1 = ((XI (s) jXQ (s))(HI (s) jHQ (s))|s=f fc + 4 (XI (s) + jXQ (s))(HI (s) + jHQ (s))|s=f fc 1 = ((XI (s)HI (s) XQ (s)HQ (s)) 4 j(XI (s)HQ (s) + XQ (s)HI (s))|s=f fc +((XI (s)HI (s) XQ (s)HQ (s)) +j(XI (s)HQ (s) + XQ (s)HI (s))|s=f +fc )) 1 ((xI (t) hI (t) xQ (t) hQ (t)) cos(2fc t) + 2 (xI (t) hQ (t) + xQ (t) hI (t)) sin(2fc t)

So the baseband equivalent channel is 1 (hI (t) + jhQ (t)) to ensure 2 the power stays the same. 13. Matched lter Rather than use the inner product shown above to demodulate the signal, the matched lter is an equivalent decorrelator. x( )y( )d = x( )y((T (t )))d |t=T

= x z(t = T ) where z(t) = y(T t).