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PHARMACOLOGIC CHOICES
A variety of drugs have been advocated to treat pain in dogs and cats. Available routes of drug administration of analgesics at perioperative periods are IV, IM, transdermal, oral, subcutaneous, and rectal routes, but IV, IM and SQ routes are most favored at perioperative periods because of quick onset and control of pharmacological effect both in time and efficacy. For synergism, it is not uncommon to co-administer analgesics of different classes such as opioids, NSAIDs, alpha 2 agonists, and NMDA antagonists. It is also not uncommon to combine a specific analgesic drug with an anxiolytic or sedative which enhances analgesic properties, suggesting pain a complex p henomenon which can be controlled by even through behaviour mod ification.
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bradycardia, their use for post-operative analgesia is not common. Alpha 2 agonist and opioid combination shows marked synergism, and it is possible to obtain all degrees of sedation and, in some cases, anesthesia with such combinations. No pre-prepared combinations exist. They can provide effective analgesia with minimal side effects when used by the epidural route, and this is discussed more in detail in other presentation in this series. If antagonists such as atipamezole or tolazoline have been used, analgesia is reversed alongside sedation and other adverse side effects.
Tramadol has gained more acceptance in veterinary use in recent years in treating post-operative or chronic pain. It may act on mu opioid agonist and as monoamine reuptake inhibitor. This may offer advantage in animals where NSAID is contraindicated. However, it may induce stomach ache, agitation, salivation, excitement, constipation, meiosis, and bradycardia. In severe overdose, it may induce a seizure. Tramadol comes in tablets, capsules, or ampules but in some countries (US) injectable form isn't available yet. It has a bitter taste and therefore usually mixed with syrups to increase acceptance by the animal. Recommended dose ranges between 48 mg/kg every 68 hours in dogs and 12 mg/kg every 12 hours in cats. Tramadol can be co-administered for synergism with gabapentin, NSAID, opioid, and amantadine, but must not be used with tricyclic antidepressant, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, or monoamine oxidase inhibitor.
Gabapentin
Mechanism of action for gabapentin's analgesic effect is not well understood, although a few studies indicate a possible involvement of GABA and alpha 2 receptors. Gabapentin has been successfully utilized in humans as adjunctive analgesic for treating neuropathic pain when opioids and other analgesic classes may not provide adequate pain relief. However, in veterinary application, it has been more commonly utilized as anticonvulsant rather than for pain relief. Nevertheless, this agent appears to offer a unique place in veterinary patients as has been in humans, particularly in animals suffering from neuropathic pain or in orthopaedic procedures. The most common side effect with gabapentin is expected to be mild sedation and ataxia in veterinary use. Gabapentin is typically administered as oral supplement in dogs with onset of effect in one to two hours. The recommended dose rate is 10 mg/kg twice daily in treating pain, but much higher dose at shorter interval is required for treating seizure. Although the drug dose and frequency is not well established in cats for analgesic use, a lower dose is suggested.
Amantadine
Amantadine was originally developed as antiviral agent to treat influenza infection, but in subsequent years it was discovered to be effective in relieving Parkinsonian symptom and neuropathic pain, possibly mediated by dopaminergic agonism and NMDA receptor antagonism, respectively. The recommended dose is 34 mg/kg twice daily in dogs as analgesic. Observed side effects in humans include hallucination, seizure, hyperactivity, dizziness, arrhythmia, diarrhoea and flatulence. Indication for amantadine include treating pain in animals suffering from cancer, osteoarthritis, hyperalgesia, allodynia, and other types of neuropathic pain.
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TENS
More practitioners are willing to incorporate acupuncture or other physical therapy including transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS), laser and magnetic therapy in treating acute or chronic pain in veterinary patients in recent years.
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Mechanism of acupuncture in relieving pain is not fully understood, but the gate control theory proposed by Melzack and Wall seemed to offer a partial explanation as to why acupuncture or TENS are effective. Briefly, in gate control theory, both thin (sensory) and large diameter (motor) nerve fibers carry information from the periphery into the dorsal horn of the spinal cord where signal transmission synapses at different speed. They postulated that these differences account for rubbing of a hammer smacked hand in order to relieve pain sensation, and analgesia achieved by acupuncture or TENS primarily through stimulation of large diameter fiber transmission. TENS and acupuncture are also similarly proposed to provide pain relief by stimulating endogenous pain suppression system (e.g., release of endogenous opioid peptides). Although many advocate strongly for its efficacy, and recognize its unique place in pain management, it is not widely accepted yet.
SUMMARY
What determines which agents or methods should be used for pain control would depend on the type of procedures, severity of pain and economic consideration for each individual circumstance. Our understanding of pain in its manifestation, mechanisms, assessment, and alleviation in animals is still improving. It is imperative to ensure continuous effort in establishing information on safe and appropriate use of different classes of analgesics in animals. However, it must be remembered that no pharmacological intervention can supersede tender loving care which animals deserve most during their suffering.
References
1. Flecknel P, Waterman-Pearson A, eds. Pain Management in Animals. WB Saunders, Philadelphia 2000. 2. Matthews KA, ed. Management of pain. In: Veterinary Clinics of North America (Small Animal Practice), by WB Saunders, Philadelphia 2000. 3. Carrol GL. Small Animal Pain Management. American Animal Hospital Association Press, Lakewood 1998. 4. Melzack R, Wall PD. Pain mechanisms: a new theory. Science 1965;150(699):971979.
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