ME 305 Fluid Mechanics I

Chapter 1 Introduction
These presentations are prepared by

Dr. Cneyt Sert

Mechanical Engineering Department Middle East Technical University Ankara, Turkey csert@metu.edu.tr You are not allowed to modify them without the permission of the author.

Classification of Matter
One classification of matter depends on the magnitude of intermolecular attraction forces.
Intermolecular Attraction Forces Solid Strong Volume and Space

Molecules

Relative positions are rather fixed

Free to change their relative positions Practically unrestricted

Definite volume Definite shape

Definite volume Indefinite shape Indefinite volume Indefinite shape

Liquid

Medium

Gas

Weak

There are two other states of matter, plasma and Bose-Einstein condensate. www.edinformatics.com/math_science/states_of_matter.htm

The Concept of Continuum

At the microscopic scale, fluids are composed of molecules which are in constant motion and collision. For an exact analysis, the action of each molecule (or group of molecules) should be studied.

This is done in the kinetic theory of gasses for example, but it is not practical for most engineering problems. We study most engineering problems at the macroscopic scale, where we are concerned with the behaviour of matter in the large.
That is we treat fluids as continuum and do not concern with the behavior of individual molecules.

Microscopic level: Each molecule is travelling at a different speed.

Macroscopic level: The speed at point A is 10 m/s. This is an average value.

The Concept of Continuum (contd)

Continuum assumes that the fluid characteristics, such as density, pressure, temperature, vary continuously throughout the fluid.

In continuum, the smallest element of a fluid is called a fluid particle, which contains enough number of molecules to make statistical averages.
In the previous example, the speed at point A, measured as 10 m/s, is actually the average speed of molecules in the small volume surrounding point A. We can say that the fluid particle located at point A is moving with a speed of 10 m/s. Question: Is continuum a reasonable assumption? Practical Answer: Yes, in many engineering problems

Air at atmospheric conditions

Number of molecules in 1 cm3 Mean free path (m) Distance between molecules (m)

~ 3 x 10 19 ~ 8 x 10 ~ 3 x 10
8 9

The Concept of Continuum (contd)

More realistic answer: Depends on the Knudsen number.

Kn

Average distance traveled by molecules between collisions (mean free path ) Characteristic dimension of the flow field

Continuum is said to be valid for Kn < 0.01. In this course we will always treat fluids as continuum. Kn is typically large (continuum approach should be questioned) for Flows at high attitudes and low pressures (numerator is large). Flows at macro or nano geometries (denominator is small).
www.lab-on-a-chip.com

Although not mentioned in this detail, continuum assumption is also used in solid mechanics.
Actually continuum mechanics, a branch of physics, is the study of matter as a continuum. It does not differentiate between solids and fluids.

Two Different Ways to Describe Continuum

As a fluid particle moves in a flow field, its properties change from point to point in space and from time to time. p = p (x, y, z, t ) , = (x, y, z, t) , etc.

These properties can be described in two different ways. Material (Lagrangian) Description: identified fluid particles are followed in the course of time as they move in the flow field. Spatial (Eulerian) Description: attention is focused at fixed points in the flow field and the variation of properties at these points is determined as fluid particles pass through these points.

Lagrangian description is suitable for solid mechanics, where relatively small and simple motion of individual particles can be followed.
Fluid motion however is much more complex and keeping track of large number of fluid particles is a difficult/impossible task; therefore the Eulerian description is more suitable for fluid mechanics.
Karman vortex street behind a cylinder http://www2.icfd.co.jp/examples/karman/kr2.htm

Properties of the Continuum

Mass Density: ( ) [ kg/m3 ] Mass per unit volume of a fluid. Consider the point P inside a continuous fluid of volume .

According to the continuum assumption, the density at point P can be defined as the average density within the small volume of surrounding point P.

Question: How small can the differential volume

be ?

Answer: Large enough such that the continuum assumption is satisfied. That is, it can not be too small such that there are only a few molecules inside it. Then the molecules passing in and out of will not give a reliable averaging.
m
Domain of molecular affects Domain of contnuum

Therefore a better definition for density is

lim
'

Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Compressibility:
A fluid can be considered as incompressible when its density is constant over the range of working conditions. Water is nearly incompressible, but it does compress a little.

At 25 oC, 1 atm

water

= 999.84 kg/m3
water

It takes 400 kPa (4 atm) pressure to get

= 1000 kg/m3

Air is much more compressible (think about the ideal gas law to understand -p relationship of air)
Specific gravity (relative density): (s) [ unitless ] Ratio of density of a substance to the density of water.

s
water

Specific weight: ( ) [ N/m3 ]

Weight per unit volume of a substance.

Fluid velocity: ( V ) [ m/s ]

For fluids considered as continuum, similar to density, velocity at a point P of a flow field is actually the average velocity of the molecules within a small volume surrounding point P.
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Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Forces acting on a body of fluid: ( F ) [ N ]
Surface forces act on the boundaries of a medium through direct contact.

Body forces are distributed over the volume of a fluid, and defined per unit mass.
A surface force can be decomposed into a normal force acting perpendicular to the surface and tangential (shear) force acting parallel to the surface. External Forces
z

Internal Forces
z

Fi
Fit

Fin n

Fit t

F2

F1

Fi

F3
y x

F3

Fin
y

F5 F4
5

F4

At equilibrium

Fk

At equilibrium

F3

F4

Fi

0
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k 1

Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Stress: ( , ) [ Pa = N/m2 ]
lim Fn A Ft A
x z

Ft

F
Fn

Normal stress at point P: Shear stress at point P:

P
y

lim

Note that stress field at a point is a tensor quantity (not a vector quantity). Complete definition of it requires nine components (not three).
y
yy yx

xx

xy yy zy

xz yz zz
z

Cartesian stress tensor :

yz

yx zx

Sign convention for the stress: A stress component is positive when the direction of the stress component and the plane on which it acts are both positive or both negative.

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Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Pressure: ( p ) [ Pa = N/m2 ] is the normal component of the force acting on an area divided by that area.

Pressure always acts perpendicular and towards the surface.

For a fluid at rest, pressure at a point is independent of the direction (see section 1.5.7). Note that it is also possible to think pressure as a thermodynamic property. Atmospheric pressure: 1 atm = 760 mmHg = 101.3 kPa = 14.7 psi Crashing can experiment: Take a soda can.

Put very little water into it, just enough to cover the bottom.
Heat the can for about 1 minute so that the water evaporates.

Water vapor will push the air inside the can out. The can will be somewhat vacuumed.
Quickly invert the can and insert it into water.

It will be crushed immediately.

For a movie of this experiment and similar ones http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/patm.html#atm
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Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Viscosity: ( ) [N.s/m2] Measure of a fluids resistance to shear and angular deformation.

Movie 1.1: Viscous fluids

It is sometimes defined as the fluidity of a fluid.

Experiment: Consider a solid block firmly attached to two parallel plates. The block deforms slightly if a force F is appiled to the upper plate. B B B

A A

Fixed plate

If a similar experiment is performed using fluid between the plates, a vertical fluid element AB will deform continuously as long as the shear force is applied.
B
to
t1

B
t2

A fluid can also be defined as a substance that deforms continuously under the application of a shear (tangential) force, no matter how small the force is.
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Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Viscosity (contd): The constant force F will cause the upper plate to move with a constant velocity of Uo.

Note that the lower plate is not moving.

Due to the no-slip condition (fluid particles stick to the solid walls and move with them), speed of the fluid particles adjacent to the lower and upper plates will be zero and Uo, respectively.

We will observe a linear velocity profile between the two plates (why linear ?).
u=Uo
Linear velocity profile u=0

Uo

Now consider an infinitesimal (differential) fluid element of dimensions dx and dy.

Uo
dy
y

dx

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Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Viscosity (contd):

The deformation of this fluid element will be studied in detail during the class.
Uo
dy
y x

dx

y A x

A D

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Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Newtons Law Of Viscosity: Relates shear stress ( ) to shear strain rate (d /dt ). For Newtonian fluids, the shear stress on a surface tangent to the flow direction is proportional to the rate of shear strain or to the velocity gradient on the surface (change of velocity in a direction normal to the surface).
d dt
y x

du dy

Sign convention for shear stress:

coefficient of viscosity absolute viscosity dynamic viscosity viscosity

On a surface whose normal is acting in the positive direction of the coordinate axis,

shear stress is positive if it is acting in the positive direction of the coordinate axis.
it is negative if it is acting in the negative direction of the coordinate axis.

On a surface whose normal is acting in the negative direction of the coordinate axis,
shear stress is positive if it is acting in the negative direction of the coordinate axis. it is negative if it is acting in the positive direction of the coordinate axis.
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Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Sign convention for shear stress (contd):
Surface normal direction Shear stress direction Shear stress is

+
Sign convention example:

+ -

Surface 1:
1 2

snd: + snd: snd: + snd: -

ssd: ssd: + ssd: + ssd: -

ss: ss: ss: + ss: +

Surface 2: Surface 3: Surface 4:

3 y x 4

Therefore shear stress is positive on the lower fluid and it is negative on the upper fluid.
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Example
Area = 0.3 m2 h = 2 mm
x

Uo = 0.3 m/s

(constant)

oil = 3 Pa.s

Determine the (a) velocity profile in the oil. (b) shear stress distribution. (c) force required to pull the plate. (d) power required to pull the plate.

Pressure is constant everywhere.

Oil is a Newtonian fluid. (solution will be given during the lecture)

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Classification of Fluids According to the Behavior of Their Viscosity

Fluids Inviscid (ideal) Newtonian Viscous Non-Newtonian

Time independent Pseudoplatic (shear thinning) Dialatant (shear thickening)

Bingham plastic

Time dependent
Thixotropic Rheopetic

Bingham plastic

Newtonian
Movie 1.2: Non-Newtonian fluids

Dialatant
Elastic solid Inviscid (ideal)

Pseudoplastic

du dy

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Classification of Fluids According to the Behavior of Their Viscosity (contd)

Newtonian behaviour simple (it is linear), but not all fluids are Newtonian.

Fortunately the most common ones, water and air behave as Newtonian.
Inviscid (ideal) fluids do not exist in real world. They have simplification for some analytical analysis. Viscous fluids are the real fluids. They have 0. = 0. This might be a useful

Dialatant fluids become thicker and thicker under increased shear stress. (printing ink). Bingham plastics do not flow below a certain amount of shear stress. (toothpaste).

Pseudoplastics become thinner and thinner under increased shear stress. (wall paint, blood).
For thixotropic fluids viscosity decreases with time (lipstick). For rheopetic fluids viscosity increases with time (betonite solution).
Movie 1.3: Capillary tube viscometer

www reference:

http://www.answers.com/topic/non-newtonian-fluid
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Variation of Viscosity with Temperature

Temperature dependence of viscosity of gases and liquids are affected by different mechanisms. Liquid molecules have limited mobility compared to gases. As temperature increases average distance between the molecules increase, and intermolecular attraction forces decrease. Therefore fluidity increases, meaning that viscosity decreases.

Gas molecules have greater mobility, but weak intermolecular attraction forces.
Viscosity is due to the collision of molecules.

As temperature increases mobility of the molecules increase, resulting in more collisions.

This decreases fluidity, meaning that viscosity increases. General formula for liquids: Andrades equation

A eBT
CT 2 T D
3

A, B, C, D are fluid dependent constants

General formula for gases: Sutherlands equation

Variation of Viscosity with Pressure

Affect of pressure on viscosity is usually small.
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Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Kinematic viscosity: ( ) [m2/s]

Surface tension: ( ) [N/m] Surface tension is due to the asymmetric cohesive forces acting on the molecules of a free surface (interface between a liquid and a gas).

This asymmetry will result in a hypothetical skin (membrane) all around the surface
Movie 1.4: Magic sand

Surface tension exists whenever there is a density discontinuity between a liquid and another liquid or a gas or a solid. More about surface tension http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/exper2/exper2.htm

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Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Surface tension (contd)
Surface tension creates a pressure difference across a curved interface of two fluids (one of them is always a liquid). Consider a spherical liquid droplet in a gas.
Force due to surface tension:

2 r

Liquid pi

Gas po

Force balance: pi
po

pi

r2

po 2 r

r2

2 r

pi - p o

A more general analysis for a double curvature surface (not the surface of a sphere) is given in the textbook.

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Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Surface Tension (contd): Liquid + Liquid + Fluid meet at a point:

Fluid a Liquid b Liquid c

ab ac

bc

If

ab

cos( ) +

bc

cos( ) = b: oil,

ac

then liquid b does not spread over liquid c Example: a: air, If > + c: water

ac

ab

bc

then there is no equilibrium. Liquid b will spread over liquid c. Example: a: air, b: gasoline, c: water
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Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Surface Tension (contd): Liquid + Fluid + Solid meet at a point: (a) Liquid wetting a surface
Fluid a Liquid b
bc ab

: wetting angle (angle of contact). It is always measured from solid/liquid interface to liquid/fluid interface.
ac

< /2
bc

Solid c

For equilibrium:

ab

cos( ) =

ac

Example: a: air,

b: water,

c: glass

(b) Liquid not wetting a surface

Fluid a Liquid b
bc
ab

ac

> /2

Example: a: air,

b: mercury,

c: glass

Solid c

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Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Vapor pressure: Consider a liquid in a confied space kept at constant temperature. Even at temperatures below the boiling point, some of the liquid molecules will have enough kinetic energy to escape from the free surface to the space above. After some time, there will be enough molecules in the vapor above the liquid and they will start exerting pressure so that some of the liquid molecules will rejoin the free surface. At some point, there will be a balance of molecules escaping from the free surface and molecules rejoining the free surface. At this equilibrium, the pressure exerted on the free surface is called the vapor pressure of the liquid.

Vapor

Liquid

Vapor pressure increases with temperature (high temperature increased molecular activity more molecules escaping from the free surface increased vapor pressure). Volatile liquids have high vapor pressure (easy to evaporate).
Nonvolatile liquids have low vapor pressure (hard to evaporate).

Visit http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_pressure for a discussion about vapor pressure of solids.

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Properties of the Continuum (contd)

Boiling and vapor pressure: When the pressure above the free surface of a liquid is brought slightly below the vapor pressure, it starts boiling.

Boiling can be achieved by

raising the temperature of the liquid, therefore its vapor pressure rises. lowering the pressure of the space above the free surface below the vapor pressure of the liquid. How does a pressure cooker work? http://missvickie.com/workshop/howdoesit.html

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