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First published July, 2009

Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Chemistry

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

What is chemistry about? Chemistry in our lives today Classification of matter Properties of substances Physical and chemical changes Working in chemistry laboratory

1 1 2 8 10 11 17 17

Key terms Summary

Part I

Planet Earth

Chapter 2

The atmosphere

19

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4

Getting to know our planet Earth The atmosphere Separation of oxygen and nitrogen from air Properties of oxygen

19 20 22 23 24 25

Key terms Summary

Chapter 3

Oceans

26

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

Introducing oceans and seas Composition of sea water Extraction of common salt from sea water Tests for sodium and chloride ions in common salt Tests for the presence of water in a sample Electrolysis of sea water and uses of products

26 26 27 31 33 33 35 36

Key terms Summary

Chapter 4

Rocks and minerals

37

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6

Rocks Extraction of metals from their ores Limestone, chalk and marble Weathering and erosion of rocks Chemical changes involving calcium carbonate Tests for calcium carbonate in a sample of limestone/chalk/marble / /

37 38 40 40 42 45 47 48

Key terms Summary

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

1.1

What is chemistry about?

1.1

Chemistry is the study of substances, about their compositions, structures, properties and the changes among them.
Note 1 Refer to Chapter 8 and Chapter 9 for structures of substances. N1

Chemistry is a branch of science. Science means the N2 knowledge gathered systematically from observations and experiments.
Note 2 Refer to Supplementary information: The scientific method in the Teachers Guide.

1.2

Chemistry in our lives today

1.2

Clothing, food, housing, transport and medical care are the basic necessities of life. Chemistry plays a major role in each of these parts of our modern lives.

Class practice 1.1

The photos below are some commodities or facilities in our daily lives which are affected by or related to chemistry. Write down the names of chemicals in them. The first one has been done for you as an example.
A1.1

1.1

(a) Clothing polyester, nylon, dyes

(b) Food
fertilizers, insecticides, food additives

(c) Housing
metals, alloys, cement, glass, plastics

(d) Transport
metals, alloys, fuels, glass, plastics

(e) Medicines
drugs, antibiotics, artificial hormones

(f) Amusement park facilities

metals, alloys, cement, glass, plastics, semi-conductors

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

1.3

Classification of matter

N3

1.3

Elements

Note 3 Refer to Supplementary information: Kinetic theory of matter in the Teachers Guide.

An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into anything simpler by chemical methods.

Oxygen, hydrogen and carbon are elements. Until January 2008, scientists have discovered or reported 118 elements. (You can find the names of the elements in the Periodic Table on the front inside cover of the book.) ( ) 2008 1 118

Percentage by mass of elements in nature

The percentage by mass of elements in nature is shown in Figure 1.1. 1.1

oxygen 46.6%

silicon ( 27.7%

iron all other elements 1.5% magnesium 2.1% potassium 2.6% sodium 2.8% calcium 3.6% 5.0%

aluminium 8.1%

Figure 1.1 Percentage by mass of elements in nature.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

Oxygen is the most abundant element in nature it alone takes up almost 50% by mass of all elements. See Figure 1.2. 1.2 50%

air

Figure 1.2 Oxygen is present as a free element in air, and in combined forms in water and sand.

water sand

Class practice 1.2

By referring to the Periodic Table (on the front inside cover), state which of the following substances are elements: (a) Phosphorus (c) Ammonia (e) Sulphuric acid (b) Sodium chloride (d) Glucose (f) Mercury (a) (c) (e) (

1.2
) (b) (d) (f)

Compounds

A1.2 Phosphorus and mercury are elements. The others are not. (Note: A substance with a name consisting of two words (e.g. sodium chloride) is not an element. A substance with a name of only one word (e.g. ammonia) may or may not be an element. The only sure way is to check the name against the Periodic Table.)

A compound is a pure substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined together.

Many common substances are compounds, such as water, common salt and sugar. Another example of a compound is copper(II) chloride. It is made up of the elements copper and chlorine chemically combined. In this case, the word equation is: copper + chlorine reactants (reacting substances) copper(II) chloride + products (substance produced) ( ) ( ) (II) (II)

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

Example 1.1 Statements about elements and compounds

This question consists of two separate statements. Decide whether each of the two statements is true or false; if both are true, then decide whether or not the second statement is a correct explanation of the first statement. When two or more elements are mixed and heated, a compound is always formed. A compound is a pure substance made up of two or more elements that are chemically combined. Solution The first statement is false. A compound may or may not form, depending on which elements are mixed and heated together. The second statement is true.

1.1

Decomposition of compounds
We may also decompose (break down) a compound into its constituent elements (or simpler substances) using electricity (electrolysis) or heat. However, we can never decompose an element chemically. ) ( ) (

Properties of compounds compared with those of constituent elements

Once formed, a compound has its own physical and chemical properties. The properties are entirely different from those of the constituent elements.

Mixture
A mixture consists of two or more pure substances (elements or compounds) which have not chemically combined together. ( )

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

A pure substance is either an element or a compound. An impure substance is always a mixture. There are three kinds of mixtures:

element/element mixture element/compound mixture compound/compound mixture

/ / /

Example 1.2 Distinguishing between elements, compounds and mixtures

1.2
(a)

(a) Give an example of (i) a pure substance which is an element. (ii) a pure substance which is a compound. (iii) an impure substance. (b) Explain why the example given in (a) (iii) is a mixture. Solution (a) (i) Copper wire (used as electrical wire) is pure copper, an element. (ii) Distilled water is pure water, a compound. (iii) Sea water is an impure substance (impure water). (b) Sea water consists of water (a compound), sodium chloride (a compound) and other substances (compounds and elements), which have not chemically combined together.

(i) (ii) (iii) (b) (a) (iii)

(a) (i) (ii) ) (iii) ) (b) ( ) )

( (

( ( ) (

Try Chapter Exercise Q33

33

Differences between mixtures and compounds

If we just mix iron filings and sulphur powder, there is no heat change. We get a mixture of the two elements. Iron and sulphur still retain their original properties in the mixture.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

Properties of iron, sulphur, iron/sulphur mixture and iron(II) sulphide (the compound formed from iron and sulphur) are compared in Table 1.1.

1.1 (II) ( )

Note 4 Another example of element, compound and mixture that can be used to further elaborate the point (students can be involved in giving the differences between element and compound):

Property or test

Iron
black solid

Sulphur
yellow solid

Iron/sulphur mixture

Iron(II) sulphide

Appearance

yellowish grey solid

black solid

Action of magnet

attracted by magnet

not attracted by magnet

only iron attracted by magnet

not attracted by magnet

Action of water

sinks

most sulphur sinks, while a little floats

all iron and most sulphur sink, while a little sulphur floats

sinks

Action of dilute hydrochloric acid

liberates hydrogen gas

no reaction

only iron reacts to liberate hydrogen gas

gives toxic hydrogen sulphide gas (with smell of bad eggs) ( )

Structure

Table 1.1 Comparison of properties of iron, sulphur, iron/sulphur mixture and iron(II) sulphide. N4 (II)
Property or test Hydrogen Oxygen Hydrogen/oxygen mixture Colourless gas Burns explosively or burns smoothly with a very hot flame water Colourless liquid Puts out fire Placed into a Rises in air balloon Sinks in air

Appearance When in a fire

Colourless gas Colourless gas Burns with a pop sound Supports burning

Rises or sinks depending on the composition of the mixture

Falls freely in air

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

Table 1.2 summarizes the main differences between mixtures and compounds.

1.2

Mixture
1. Composition by mass variable (the substances in the mixture can be mixed together in any proportion) ( ) ( 1 8) 2. Changes in formation no chemical reaction takes place; usually no heat change in making a mixture fixed

Compound
(e.g. in water, the ratio by mass of hydrogen to oxygen is always 1 : 8)

a chemical reaction takes place; heat is usually given out or absorbed when a compound is made

3. Melting point (m.p.) and boiling point (b.p.)

melts or boils over a wide range of temperatures (i.e. does not have a sharp m.p. or b.p.) ( )

melts or boils at a definite temperature (i.e. has a sharp m.p. and b.p.) ( )

4. General properties

each constituent substance retains its own properties

properties are entirely different from those of its constituent elements

5. Separation of constituents

constituents can be separated by physical methods, based on differences in physical properties

constituent elements can only be separated by chemical methods, not by physical methods

Table 1.2 Main differences between mixtures and compounds.

Class practice 1.3

List (a) five elements (b) five compounds and (c) five mixtures.
A1.3 (a) Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, iron, sulphur (b) Water, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sodium chloride, iron(II) sulphide (c) Air, sea water, town gas, sodium chloride solution, wine (Other answers may be given.)

1.3
(a) (b) (c)

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

Classification of matter
Based on what we have discussed in this chapter, we can classify matter as shown in Figure 1.3. 1.3

Matter

separation by physical methods

Mixtures
direct mixing

Pure substances

chemical decomposition

Compounds
chemical combination

Elements

Figure 1.3 Classification of matter.

1.4

Properties of substances

1.4

The properties of any substance can be classified into its physical properties and chemical properties, as explained below.

Physical properties
Physical properties of a substance are those properties that can be determined without the substance changing into another substance.

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

Typical physical properties include appearance (colour and physical state), odour (smell), taste, hardness, density, solubility (in various solvents), melting point, boilng point, N5 malleability (ability to be rolled into sheets), ductility (ability N6 to be drawn into wires), electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.
Note 5 The solubility of a solute (X) in a solvent (Y), at a given temperature, is the maximum mass (in g) of X that can dissolve in 100 g of Y at that temperature. The relationship between solubility behaviour and solubility (at 20C) is roughly as follows: Very soluble: > 10 g Soluble: 1 10 g Slightly soluble: 0.01 1 g Insoluble: < 0.01 g

( ) ( ( ) ) ( )

Chemical properties

Chemical properties of a substance are the chemical reactions of the substance, and the respective conditions under which each reaction takes place.

For example, an effervescent tablet reacts with water quickly to release carbon dioxide. This is a chemical property of effervescent tablet.
Note 6 3 Gold is the most malleable element 1 cm of gold can be rolled into a thin foil enough to cover up a football field! Gold is also the most ductile element 1 g of gold can be drawn to 2400 m (or 1 ounce to 43 miles)!

( )

1.3
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Example 1.3 Distinguishing between physical and chemical properties of substances

(a) Explain why boiling point is regarded as a physical property. Illustrate your answer by using water as an example. (b) What is the boiling point of water at 1 atmospheric pressure? (c) State three other physical properties of water. (d) State one chemical property of water. Solution (a) We can determine the boiling point of water by heating water until it boils, and then measuring the temperature of the boiling water. During the measurement, liquid water changes to steam, but no new substance is formed. Note: Steam is water in gaseous state it is still water. (b) 100C (c) (i) Water is a colourless liquid at room conditions. (ii) Melting point of water = 0C at 1 atmospheric pressure 3 (iii) Density of water = 1 g cm at room conditions (d) Water reacts with iron and air to form rust at room conditions.

(a)

( ) (b) 100C (c) (i) (ii) = 0C (iii) = 1 g cm (d)

3

Try Chapter Exercise Q31

31
9

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

1.5

Physical and chemical changes

1.5

Changes can be classified as either a physical change or a chemical change.

Physical change

A physical change is a change in which no new substances are formed.

Change of state is a common example of physical change. See Figure 1.4. 1.4

heat absorbed heat given out

solid

sublimation deposition
co nd en sa tio n bo ilin g
ng ezi fre

gas

g ltin me

Figure 1.4 Change of state is a common example of physical change.

liquid

Chemical change
A chemical change is a change in which one or more new substances are formed.

Thus, the main difference between chemical and physical N7 changes is whether new substances are formed.
Note 7 In some cases, classification into physical change or chemical change may not be easy (e.g. in dissolution process).

10

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

Class practice 1.4

State whether each of the following is a physical change or a chemical change. Give your reasons. (a) A magnesium ribbon burns in air. (b) Sugar dissolves in water. (c) Water changes to ice in a freezer. (d) Iron rusts.
A1.4 (a) Chemical change (b) Physical change (c) Physical change (d) Chemical change (b) and (c) are physical changes because no new substances are formed. (a) and (d) are chemical changes because new substances are formed.

1.4

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1.6

Working in chemistry laboratory

1.6

Observation in chemistry
Observation in chemistry includes four activities:

Seeing with eyes Feeling with hands Smelling with nose Hearing with ears

Note 8 Some students have the misconception that they need not mention the colour of a substance if it is colourless or white. Another misconception is that when no observable change is noticed, just write down no observation. Actually no observable change is an important observation!

Tasting with the tongue is also one way of observation, but it is not allowed in the laboratory.

Example 1.4 Making observations in a reaction

Add a small piece of magnesium ribbon to a test tube containing dilute sulphuric acid (Figure 1.5). What changes can you observe? Solution

Note 9 This question asks for observations. Thus it is wrong to put down something like: Hydrogen is evolved from the magnesium surface. as it is impossible to tell whether the bubbles are hydrogen or not.

1.4
gas bubbles

1.5)

(1) There is effervescence colourless gas bubbles N8 are evolved from the magnesium surface. Figure 1.5 Magnesium reacting with (2) A steamy fume is given dilute sulphuric acid. out. (3) The magnesium ribbon gradually becomes smaller in size; it eventually dissolves completely to form a Note 10 colourless solution. (4) The test tube becomes hot. is detected. In fact hydrogen has no smell. The (5) A hissing sound is heard.
choking smell detected is due to other gases N10 Another observation may be: A choking smell N9

magnesium ribbon

dilute sulphuric acid

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) ( (1) ) (2) (3)

(Note: All the above are observable changes, but only (1), (2) formed by the reaction of dilute sulphuric acid and (3) are visible changes.)
and the impurities present in magnesium.

11

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

Interpretation and prediction in chemistry

For all the experiments you will do in this course, try your best to:

(1) (2) (3)

Observe carefully and fully when doing experiments. Report experimental results clearly and accurately. Analyse the results and try to interpret them. Then draw conclusions and make predictions.

(1) (2) (3)

Class practice 1.5

Scientists make predictions. Which of the following predictions, do you think, are highly reliable? (a) Movement of the planets A1.5 (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Occurrence of a sun eclipse Weather forecast Occurrence of an earthquake Tidal movement Eruption of a volcano
(a), (b) and (e).

1.5

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Laboratory safety
To avoid accidents, always remember: Laboratory safety is of first importance in any experimental work.

12

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

Basic laboratory safety rules

(1)

Do not work in the laboratory unless your teacher is present.

(1)

(2) (3)

Follow strictly the instructions given by your teacher. Never run around or play in the laboratory. Do not leave your bench unless it is necessary.

N11 N12

(2)

(3)

(4)

Dispose of solid waste (e.g. broken glass, filter paper, copper turnings, etc.) in the waste bin, never in the sink. (4) ) (

(5)

Clean up all the spillage (on the floor or bench) at once. Clean up the bench after experiment. (5)

(6)

Report all accidents and breakages to your teacher at once. (6)

(7)

In case any chemical gets into eyes, flush the eyes with running cold water immediately for at least three minutes.

N13

(7) 3 (8)

(8)

For chemical burns on skin, place the affected area under slowly running cold water until the pain fades.

(9)

Take all necessary safety precautions.

(9)

For more details on the safety precautions in a chemistry laboratory, refer to the Laboratory Handbook.
Note 11 For example, never heat strongly when only gentle heating is required; never use concentrated acid/alkali when only a dilute one is needed; never use excessive amounts of chemicals; never do any experiment not allowed/instructed by the teacher.

Note 12 In case students are working in groups, it is a good practice to appoint a group leader, by rotation each time. He is the only person allowed to get and return apparatus and chemicals. In so doing, movement in the laboratory can be minimized.

Note 13 Remind students that the only reliable immediate treatment for all chemical burns is washing with a lot of water.

13

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

Class practice 1.6

Study the following picture and point out all the improper actions that are against the rules of laboratory safety.
A1.6

1.6

Hazardous chemicals
Hazardous chemicals are substances which may cause injury to N14 people or damage to property. Chemicals can be classified according to their hazardous nature. A bottle containing a hazardous chemical should display the appropriate hazard warning label(s) to warn the users. Figure 1.6 shows examples of some common hazard warning labels. 1.6

Note 14 Some household chemicals have potential risks. Take the example of bleaching solution. It liberates toxic chlorine gas when mixed with an acidic substance.

Figure 1.6 Some common hazard warning labels. 14

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

Common laboratory apparatus

Many different pieces of apparatus are required when we do experiments in the laboratory. Figure 1.7 shows some of the common laboratory apparatus. 1.7

Flat-bottomed flask

Round-bottomed flask

Clamp and stand

Conical flask

Wire gauze

Evaporating dish (basin)

Tripod

Crucible

Pipeclay triangle

Bunsen burner

Spatula

Heat-resistant mat

Pestle

Mortar

N15

Desiccator

Test tube holder

Test tube rack

Test tube

Boiling tube

Reagent bottle

Note 15 Brown reagent bottles are for holding chemicals that decompose in the presence of light. Colourless reagent bottles are for most other chemical solutions.

Gas syringe

Measuring cylinder

Beaker

Funnel

Plastic washbottle

Safety spectacles

Figure 1.7 Common laboratory apparatus.

15

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

Class practice 1.7

Name the apparatus in the following figures.
(c) (i) (j) (a) (d) (e) (g) (f) (k) (p) (l) (o)

1.7

(b)

(h)

(q)

(m) (n)

(t) (s)

(u)

(v)

(w)

(y) (x)

(z) (aa) (bb)

(r)

(cc)

(dd)

(ee)

(ff)

(gg)

Flat-bottomed flask (a) _________________________ Round-bottomed flask (b) _________________________ Clamp (c) _________________________ Retort stand (d) _________________________ Conical flask (e) _________________________

(l)

Crucible tongs _________________________

Reagent bottle (w) _________________________ Gas syringe (x) _________________________ Measuring cylinder (y) _________________________ Beaker (z) _________________________ Funnel (aa) _________________________ Plastic washbottle (bb) _________________________ Teat pipette (cc) _________________________ Thermometer (dd) _________________________ Watch glass (ee) _________________________ Separating funnel (ff) _________________________ Glass rod (gg) _________________________

Spatula (m) _________________________ Heat-resistant mat (n) _________________________ Pestle (o) _________________________ Mortar (p) _________________________ Desiccator (q) _________________________

(f)

Wire gauze _________________________

Evaporating basin (g) _________________________ Tripod (h) _________________________

(r) (s) (t)

Test tube holder _________________________ Test tube rack _________________________ Test tube _________________________

(i) (j)

Crucible _________________________ Pipeclay triangle _________________________

Boiling tube (u) _________________________ Dropping bottle (v) _________________________

Bunsen burner (k) _________________________

16

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

Key terms
Page 1. chemical change 2. chemical property 3. chemistry 4. compound 5. element 6. hazard warning label 7. laboratory safety 8. mixture 9. observation 10. physical change 11. physical property 12. sublimation 13. word equation 10 9 1 3 2 14 12 4 11 10 8 10 3

Summary
1.1 1. What is chemistry about? is a branch of science. It is the study of various substances, about their compositions, structures, properties and the changes among them.
Chemistry

1.2 2.

Chemistry in our daily lives today

Chemistry

plays a major role in clothing, food, housing, transport and medical care.

1.3 3. 4. 5.

Classification of matter
element An chemical methods.

is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into anything simpler by is a pure substance made up of two or more elements chemically combined.

compound

mixture A consists of two or more pure substances (elements or compounds) which have not chemically combined.

17

Chapter 1 Fundamentals of chemistry

1.4 6.

Properties of substances of a substance are those properties that can be determined without the substance changing into another substance. Examples: appearance, colour, odour, taste, hardness, density, solubility, melting point, boiling point, malleability, ductility, electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity.
Physical properties

7.

of a substance are the chemical reactions of the substance and the respective conditions under which each reaction occurs. For example, a chemical property of sodium is: sodium reacts with water to form sodium hydroxide.

Chemical properties

1.5 8.

Physical and chemical changes A

physical change

is a change in which no new substances are formed.

Examples: change of state, passing electricity through a light bulb. 9. A formed.

chemical change

is a change in which one or more new substances are

Examples: burning of a candle, rusting of iron.

1.6 10.

Working in a chemistry laboratory

Observation

in chemistry includes four activities:

Seeing with eyes Feeling with hands Smelling with nose Hearing with ears
11. 12. 13.
Laboratory safety

is of first importance in any experimental work. Refer to p.13

for basic laboratory safety rules. are displayed on bottles containing hazardous chemicals, which must be handled with great care. Some common laboratory apparatus are shown in Figure 1.7 on p.15.
Hazard warning labels

18

Chapter 2 The atmosphere

2.1

Getting to know our planet Earth

2.1

An introduction to the Earth

Here are some data about the Earth: Age: 4.5 billion years Shape and size: roughly spherical, about 6400 km in radius Mass: 6 10
24

kg

N1

6400 6 10
24

Surface: 70% covered by water, 30% covered by land, surrounded by a gaseous layer (about 80 km thick) called the atmosphere
Note 1 99.99% of the total mass of the atmosphere is within 80 km of the surface of the Earth.

70%

30% 80

Class practice 2.1

(a) Why did most people in ancient times believe that the Earths shape was flat? (b) Give one piece of evidence to support that the Earth is spherical in shape.
A2.1 (a) People in ancient times had little scientific knowledge. In fact, any visible portion of the Earth appeared more or less flat to the eyes. (b) Satellite photos clearly show that the Earth is roughly spherical. (Other answers may be given.)

2.1
(a)

(b)

Structure of the Earth

The Earth has a layered structure
The Earth consists of four layers, namely crust (570 km thick), mantle (about 2900 km thick), outer core and inner core.
Note 2 Like the core (outer core: 28905150 km from surface, and inner core: 51506360 km from surface), the mantle can also be divided into the upper mantle (35660 km from surface) and the lower mantle (6602890 km from surface). N2

( 2900

5 70 )

19

Part I Planet Earth

Class practice 2.2

(a) The diagram below is the structure of the Earth. Label the different layers of the Earth. (b) Add approximately to scale, the atmosphere to the diagram and label it. (b) (a)

2.2

( )

A2.2 inner core outer core crust

(Hints: atmosphere, crust, mantle, inner core, outer core)

mantle

atmosphere

The Earths crust

The Earths crust is made up of rocks (see Chapter 4) and soils.
N3

Planet Earth as a source of chemicals

The Earths crust, the oceans and the atmosphere are the major sources of chemicals.
Note 3 While the Earth is a very abundant source of chemicals for humans, some resources (like petroleum or some metals) are running out. Scientists are now looking into space for chemicals, including nearby planets (e.g. Mars) and satellites (e.g. the Moon). It is also hopeful that new chemicals that are not available on Earth may be found from other extra-terrestrial bodies.

2.2

The atmosphere

The atmosphere and air

Note 4 Notice that atmosphere and air are two similar but not identical terms. For example, we can say, We breathe in air, but we cannot say We breathe in atmosphere.

2.2
N4

The atmosphere is a gaseous layer (about 80 km thick) surrounding the Earth.

Note 5 The atmosphere has a layered structure similar to that of the Earth. From lower layer to outer layer: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and magnetosphere.

N5

( 80 )

Air is a gaseous mixture making up the atmosphere.

20

Chapter 2 Note 6 The atmosphere is like a greenhouse, making weather on Earth suitable for living things to live. The atmosphere keeps in a lot of the heat energy from the Sun The atmosphere to give the Earth a small temperature difference between day and night (unlike the Moon, where day and night temperature changes are very extreme). However, too much greenhouse gases, like CO2, in the atmosphere can cause the temperature of the atmosphere to rise, causing ice caps at the pole to melt and subsequent catastrophic consequences. CO2, if present in a suitable concentration in the atmosphere, is NOT a pollutant at all as it is needed for green

Example 2.1 Understanding the importance of the atmosphere on the Earth

2.1
N6

Explain why the atmosphere is important to life on the plants, which are the starting point of nearly all food chains. SO2 and NOx are present Earth. in the atmosphere long before there are humans on Earth. SO is produced in volcanic
2

Solution

eruptions and hot springs, and NOx is produced during rainstorm with lightning. However as volcanoes on Earth became less active, the SO2 level had dropped to a level suitable of living things to live. Human industrial activities raised these gas

The atmosphere is important because it (1) contains a lot of free oxygen which supports life. (2) provides a moderate climate for living things to live. (3) protects living things from the high-energy radiations from outer space. concentrations to such levels as to endanger humans and other
species on Earth, which we now call air pollution.

(1) (2) (3)

Class practice 2.3

1. There are 8 planets in the solar system. Is the Earth the only planet (a) that has an atmosphere? (b) that has an atmosphere which can support life? 2. Imagine you are on the Moon. Suggest why you could not find any living things there.
A2.3 1. (a) No. (7 planets have an atmosphere.) (b) Yes. 2. There is no air on the Moon.

2.3
1. (a) (b) 2. 8

Composition of air
Air is mainly a mixture of two gases nitrogen and oxygen (Figure 2.1). 2.1)
1% other gases (including argon 0.93%, carbon dioxide 0.03% and small amounts of water vapour) 1% ( 0.93% 0.03% )

Note 7 Refer to Supplementary information: A simple experiment to determine the percentage of oxygen in air in the Teachers Guide.

oxygen 21% nitrogen 78%

N7

Figure 2.1 Percentage composition by volume of clean air.

21

Part I Planet Earth

We should note that air also contains small amounts of water vapour and other gases. One of them is argon. It is very unreactive and is called a noble gas.
A2.4 Elements nitrogen, oxygen helium, neon argon, krypton xenon Componds carbon dioxide water vapour

Class practice 2.4

2.4

Air contains mainly nitrogen and oxygen. It also contains other gases such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon. Classify the constituents of air into elements and compounds.

2.3

Separation of oxygen and nitrogen from air

2.3

The components of air can be separated according to their differences in boiling points. The air is first liquefied by repeated cooling and compression (Figure 2.2). The liquid air is then warmed up bit by bit very slowly. Different gases in air boil at different temperatures, so we can collect them one by one. Nitrogen (boiling point 196C) boils off as gas first. Argon follows (boiling point 186C) and then oxygen (boiling point 183C). This process is called fractional distillation of liquid air. 196C) ( 183C) 186C) ( ( ( 2.2)

air in

liquefaction unit

nitrogen gas (b.p. 196C) ( 196C)

filter argon gas (b.p. 186C) water vapour and carbon dioxide removed as solids at 80C 80C air compressed and then cooled air allowed to expand it gets very cold (200C) and some turns to liquid ( 186C)

oxygen gas (b.p. 183C) ( 183C)

Figure 2.2 Separation of oxygen and nitrogen from air by fractional distillation. 22

( 200C )

liquid air at 200C 200C

Chapter 2 The atmosphere

Class practice 2.5

The table on the right shows the boiling points of some of the gases found in air. (a) Rearrange the gases into the order in which they would boil off during fractional distillation of liquid air. (b) List the gases which would still be gaseous at 200C.
Gas Argon Nitrogen Neon Oxygen Xenon Carbon dioxide Helium Krypton
Boiling points of some gases.

2.5
Boiling point (C) (C) 186 196 246 183 109 78 269 153
A2.5 (a) Helium Neon Nitrogen Argon Oxygen Krypton Xenon Carbon dioxide 269 246 196 186 183 153 109 78

(a)

(b)

200C

(b) Neon and helium.

2.4

Properties of oxygen

2.4

Physical properties of oxygen

Oxygen is a colourless, odourless gas. It is slightly denser than air (1.1 times as dense as air). It is slightly soluble in water.

) ( 1.1

Chemical properties of oxygen

Oxygen is very reactive. It reacts with many substances to form oxides. In many reactions, so much heat is given out that the substances burn in oxygen (or air) with a flame. ( )

Test for oxygen

Oxygen is a good supporter of burning (combustion), that is, it allows substances to burn in it. Put the glowing splint into a test tube containing the gas to be tested. If the gas is oxygen, the splint immediately relights N8 that is, bursts into flame.
Note 8 Sometimes a small pop sound is heard when a glowing splint is put into a tube of oxygen. This is because when the splint relights, it gets hot quickly and the wooden splint is decomposed to give off combustible gases. The combustible gases then burn in oxygen to give a small pop sound. This doesnt mean the tube contains hydrogen.

23

Part I Planet Earth

Check your concept

Oxygen gives a pop sound with a burning splint. Oxygen relights a glowing splint, but does not give a pop sound with a burning splint. Hydrogen gives a pop sound with a burning splint, but does not relight a glowing splint.

) ( )

Oxygen relights a glowing splint. This can be used as a test for oxygen.

Key terms
Page 1. argon 2. atmosphere 3. fractional distillation 4. glowing splint 5. noble gas 21 20 22 23 21

24

Chapter 2 The atmosphere

Summary
2.1 1. 2. 3. Getting to know our planet Earth The Earth is composed of the atmosphere surrounded by the The atmosphere is a
gaseous crust

mantle

core

and

. layer surrounding the Earth.

chemicals

The Earths crust, the oceans and the atmosphere are major sources of useful

2.2 4.

The atmosphere The atmosphere is important because it

contains a lot of free provides a moderate living things protects

5.

oxygen climate

which supports life for living things to live

from the high-energy radiations from outer space

Air contains 78% by volume of nitrogen, 21% of oxygen, 0.93% of argon, 0.03% of carbon dioxide, noble gases trace amounts of other and water vapour.

2.3 6.

Separation of oxygen and nitrogen from air Nitrogen and oxygen can be obtained by
fractional distillation

of liquid air.

2.4 7. 8.

Properties of oxygen Oxygen is a good supporter of We can test for oxygen with a
combustion glowing

(burning). It relights a splint.

glowing

splint.

25

Part I Planet Earth

3.1

Introducing oceans and seas

3.1
70% 97%

The Earth is sometimes called a water planet. This is because 70% of it is covered by water. 97% of this water occurs in oceans and seas.

3.2

Composition of sea water

3.2
3.5% ( ) 1000 35

Sea water is a solution containing about 3.5% by weight of dissolved substances. (In other words, there is 35 g of dissolved substances in 1000 g of sea water.)

A solution is a homogeneous (uniform) mixture of two or more substances. ( )

Most of the dissolved substances are salts. The main one is common salt sodium chloride. The composition of sea water is almost constant, although it may vary slightly according to location and depth (Figure 3.1). (
magnesium chloride 14.6% sodium sulphate common salt (sodium chloride) ( ) 68% 11.4%

( 68%) 3.1)

calcium chloride 3.1% other salts 2.9%

Figure 3.1 The salt composition by weight of a typical sea water sample.

26

Chapter 3 Oceans

Check your concept

All the dissolved substances in sea water are salts. There are dissolved substances in sea water other than salts. For example, gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide, organic substances like urea can also be found in sea water.

3.3

Extraction of common salt from sea water

3.3
( )

Common salt (sodium chloride) is the most abundant resource in sea water. It is an important substance, useful at home and in industry.

Evaporation of sea water

Common salt can be separated from sea water by evaporation. Sea water (solution) is led into a special enclosure exposed to direct sunlight. Water (solvent) evaporates and the sea water is becoming more and more concentrated. At some point of the process, the sea water becomes so concentrated that some salts (solute) can no longer dissolve in it. Crystals of salts appear. The sea water at this stage is said to be a saturated solution. A saturated solution is a solution in which the solvent has dissolved the maximum amount of the solute it can at a particular temperature. Natural evaporation is a slow process. In the school laboratory, we can obtain common salt from sea water quickly by heating it to dryness. We may use either set-up, as shown in Figure 3.2.
sea water evaporating basin sea water evaporating basin wire gauze heat heat tripod steam water

) ( )

3.2

Figure 3.2 Getting common salt from sea water in the laboratory. (a) Direct heating

(b) Heating with a steam-bath 27

Part I Planet Earth

To obtain pure sodium chloride

If sea water is heated to dryness as above, what is left would be a powder, not crystals. Moreover, other salts would be present besides sodium chloride. To obtain pure sodium chloride, we can use filtration followed by crystallization.

Filtration
Firstly, any insoluble substances such as sand should be removed from sea water by filtration. To filter, sea water is poured onto a piece of folded filter N1 paper in a filter funnel (Figure 3.3). A glass rod is used to guide the flow (Figure 3.4). A piece of filter paper acts as a sieve in filtration. There are many tiny holes in it. These holes allow very small particles of solvent and dissolved solutes to pass through as filtrate. Larger insoluble particles remain on the filter paper as residue.
Note 1 Refer to Supplementary information: Folding filter paper in fluted form in the Teachers Guide.

3.3) ( 3.4)

one layer

three layers

fold fold

N2

filter paper filter funnel

Figure 3.3 A piece of filter paper is folded into a conical shape and placed in a funnel.
Note 2 Some teachers may like to teach students to fold the filter paper in the fluted form. The fluted form of filter paper is more difficult to fold but more efficient in filtration than the conical form as shown in figure 3.7.

glass rod

sea water

folded filter paper residue filter funnel

filtrate

Figure 3.4 Filtration of sea water.

28

stand

Chapter 3 Oceans

Crystallization
After the removal of insoluble impurities, pure crystals of common salt can be separated out by crystallization. Sea water is allowed to evaporate slowly at room temperature (Figure 3.5). The solution becomes more and more concentrated. Eventually, the solution becomes saturated (with N3 respect to sodium chloride). Further evaporation of the solution will cause pure sodium chloride crystals to separate out. As evaporation continues, the solid crystals slowly grow in size.
Note 3 Other dissolved salts may be present in smaller amounts than sodium chloride. The solution is still not saturated as far as these salts are concerned.

( 3.5)

sea water

more concentrated solution

solution saturated with respect to sodium chloride

sodium chloride crystals

water slowly evaporates at room temperature

Figure 3.5 Crystallization from sea water by slow evaporation.

The sodium chloride crystals can be filtered from solution and then dried by filter paper.

Isolation of pure water from sea water

Figure 3.6 shows a simple set-up for distilling sea water to get pure water. If we boil the sea water, water turns into vapour. The hot water vapour condenses back to a liquid in the cold receiver test tube. 3.6

Learning tip The solution to be distilled should contain only non-volatile solutes, those which will not easily vaporize on heating. ( )

29

Part I Planet Earth

thermometer clamp boiling tube delivery tube

sea water heat

receiver test tube ( ) end of delivery tube should be above the distillate

Figure 3.6 Distillation of sea water using simple apparatus.

anti-bumping granule (to prevent bumping of solution)

water (cooling agent) ( )

pure water (distillate) ( )

In distillation, the pure liquid that distils over is called the distillate. The solid left behind is called the residue. We can also carry out the above distillation using Quickfit apparatus (Figure 3.7). ( 3.7)

Distillation involves boiling of a solution followed by condensation of the vapour formed.

thermometer

screw-cap adaptor water out (to sink) rubber tubing thermometer bulb pear-shaped flask anti-bumping granule heat

solution

Liebig condenser cold water in (from tap)

receiver adaptor

(a)

test tube (as receiver)

Figure 3.7 (a) A set of Quickfit apparatus. (b) Distillation using Quickfit apparatus. (a) (b) 30

cold water

(b)

distillate

Chapter 3 Oceans

3.4

Tests for sodium and chloride ions in common salt

3.4

Chemical analysis
Chemical analysis is an important part of chemistry. It is a process to find the chemical identity or composition of a given sample.

Test for sodium ions

Some metals and metal compounds, when burnt or heated strongly, produce a characteristic coloured light. A simple test the flame test, is based on this principle. The procedure of the flame test is shown below: 1. Moisten a clean platinum wire with concentrated N4 hydrochloric acid (Figure 3.8a). 2. Dip the wire into a crushed sample (or solution) of the salt to be tested (Figure 3.8b). 3. Heat the end of the wire strongly in a non-luminous flame (Figure 3.8c).
Note 4 Often a nichrome wire is used in place of the platinum wire, which is very expensive.

1. ( 2. ) 3.8b) 3. ( 3.8c) 3.8a) ( (

non-luminous flame

flame colour due to metal ions

sample of the salt to be tested platinum wire

concentrated hydrochloric acid

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 3.8 Performing a flame test to identify metal ions in a sample.

31

Part I Planet Earth

By observing the colour of the flame at the wire, we can identify some types of metal ions.

The results of flame test of some metal compounds are as follows:

Compound containing
Potassium ion Sodium ion Calcium ion Copper(II) ion Lilac

Flame colour

Brilliant golden yellow Brick red Bluish green (II)

Learning tip The flame colour due to potassium ion is lilac, but it is crimson when viewed through cobalt glass.

Test for chloride ions

To show that chloride ions are present in sea water, we can use the following test: Silver nitrate solution is added to a sample of sea water, followed by excess dilute nitric acid. The appearance of a white precipitate (insoluble in acid) indicates the presence of chloride ions. ( )

Learning tip The use of excess dilute nitric acid prevents formation of other precipitates (e.g. silver carbonate, silver sulphite) which will be soluble in dilute nitric acid.

( )

The word equation for this reaction is: sodium chloride + silver nitrate silver chloride + sodium (white precipitate) nitrate +
( )

32

Chapter 3 Oceans

3.5

Tests for the presence of water in a sample

3.5
(II)

Test by anhydrous copper(II) sulphate

Water turns white anhydrous copper(II) sulphate blue.

(II)

Test by dry cobalt chloride paper

Water turns blue dry cobalt chloride paper pink.

Learning tip Cobalt chloride test paper is also called cobalt(II) chloride test paper. (II)

Check your concept

All liquids contain water. Many liquids do not contain water. Some liquids, like oil and dry-cleaning liquid, do not mix with water.

3.6

Electrolysis of sea water and uses of products

3.6
( )

Sea water is an important source of common salt (sodium chloride) which has many uses. Moreover, by the electrolysis of sea water, many useful products may be obtained.

33

Part I Planet Earth

Electrolysis means decomposition by electricity. It is usually carried out by passing a direct electric current through an aqueous salt solution. When sea water is electrolysed, the products are hydrogen, chlorine and sodium hydroxide. See Figure N5 3.9.
electrolysis

3.9 + +

Sea water

Note 5 During electrolysis of sea water or brine, the anodic gaseous product contains trace amount of oxygen, though the major product is chlorine.

hydrogen gas + chlorine gas + sodium hydroxide solution

hydrogen gas chlorine gas

sea water graphite electrode () () direction of electron flow graphite electrode (+)

Figure 3.9 Electrolysis of sea water.

Some uses of products from the electrolysis of brine.

Brine
electrolysis

hydrogen

chlorine

sodium hydroxide

Uses: as rocket fuel, make margarine, acid, etc. ammonia and fertilizers, make hydrochloric

Uses: water sanitation, make bleach, plastics (e.g. PVC), solvents, pesticides, etc.

Uses: aluminium extraction, soap, paper industry, treatment of acidic/heavy metal effluents from factories.

( )

34

Chapter 3 Oceans

Key terms
Page 1. chemical analysis 2. crystallization 3. distillate 4. distillation 5. electrolysis 6. filtrate 7. filtration 8. flame test 9. residue 10. saturated solution 11. solute 12. solvent 31 28 30 30 33 28 28 31 28 27 27 27

35

Part I Planet Earth

Summary
3.1 1. Introducing oceans and seas 70% of the Earth is covered by and seas. Composition of sea water
solute Sea water contains about 3.5% by weight of dissolved substances. The main in sea water is common salt (sodium chloride). solution A is a homogeneous (uniform) mixture of two or more substances. saturated solution solvent A is a solution in which the has dissolved the maximum amount of the solute it can at a particular temperature. water

. 97% of this

water

occurs in oceans

3.2 2. 3. 4.

3.3 5. 6. 7. 8.

Extraction of common salt from sea water

filtration Pure common salt can be extracted from sea water by crystallization . distillation Pure water can be isolated from sea water by . condensation Distillation involves boiling of a solution followed by During distillation, the pure liquid that distils over is called the residue behind is called the .

and then

distillate

of the vapour formed. ; the solid left

3.4 9. 10.

Tests for sodium and chloride ions in common salt is a process to find the chemical identity or composition of a given sample. flame test Some metal ions can be identified by the . Some characteristic flame colours are:
Chemical analysis

Compound containing
Potassium ion Sodium ion Calcium ion Copper(II) ion

Flame colour
Lilac Brilliant golden yellow Brick red Bluish green

11.

silver nitrate To test for chloride ions in sea water, we add solution, nitric acid followed by excess dilute , to a sample. A white silver chloride precipitate forms if chloride ions are present.

3.5 12.

Tests for the presence of water in a sample and used to detect the presence of water in a given sample. Electrolysis of sea water and uses of products
hydrogen Electrolysis of sea water produces useful chemicals: sodium hydroxide . Refer to p.34 for their uses. Anhydrous copper(II) sulphate dry cobalt chloride test paper

can be

3.6 13.
36

chlorine

and

Chapter 4 Rocks and minerals

4.1

Rocks

4.1

What are rocks and minerals?

In science, the word rock has a more specific meaning:

A rock is a solid mass of a mineral or a mixture of minerals.

A mineral is a naturally occurring solid with a definite crystalline structure and chemical composition.

A mineral can be a solid element (e.g. graphite), or in most cases a solid compound (e.g. aluminium oxide). ( ( ) )

Example 4.1 Extracting minerals from rocks

Common salt (sodium chloride) is usually obtained from sea water. However, there are underground deposits of sodium chloride (called rock salt) in some countries, e.g. U.K. (a) Is rock salt a mineral? (b) Suggest two methods to extract rock salt from underground. Solution (a) Yes. (b) (i) By mining. Use explosives to break up the rock salt. Then use trucks to carry away the rock salt. (ii) Pump water into the underground deposit. Rock salt dissolves in the water, leaving most other minerals behind. Then pump the salt solution up to the ground. (ii)
Rock salt

4.1
( ) ( ) (a) (b)

(a) (b) (i)

37

Part I Planet Earth

Uses of minerals
There are more than 2200 minerals in the Earths crust. Most are useful for many purposes. Some uses of minerals: 2200

Graphite is used to make pencil lead. Rock salt is used in cooking. Jade is a gemstone used for decoration and in jewellery. Marble is used as floors in commercial buildings. Gold is used in jewellery.

Minerals and ores

Most minerals require treatment before they become useful. For example, many minerals are metal-containing compounds. Before we can use the metals, we have to extract them from their ores first.

An ore is a mineral from which a constituent (usually a metal) can be profitably extracted. ) (

Some common ores are shown below. Bauxite the main ore of aluminium. It is mostly aluminium oxide. Copper pyrite the main ore of copper. It is mostly copper iron sulphide. Haematite the main ore of iron. It is mostly iron(III) oxide. (III) (II)

4.2

Extraction of metals from their ores

4.2

Extracting metals from ores

An ore of a metal is typically a compound of the metal.

38

Chapter 4 Rocks and minerals

To obtain a pure metal from its ore, the following processes are usually involved: 1. 2. 3. 4. Mining of the ore (that is, digging the ore from the ground) Concentrating the ore Extraction of the metal from the concentrated ore Purification of the impure metal 1. 2. 3. 4. ( )

Extraction of iron from haematite

Haematite contains mainly iron(III) oxide. We can obtain iron from the ore by heating it with coke (carbon) to a high temperature in a blast furnace. The overall reaction can be represented by a word equation:
heat

(III) ( )

iron(III) oxide + carbon

iron + carbon dioxide

N1

(III) +

Extraction of aluminium from bauxite

Bauxite is first treated to give pure aluminium oxide. The aluminium oxide is then electrolysed in molten state to produce aluminium metal.
electrolysis

aluminium oxide

aluminium + oxygen

Extraction of silver from its ores

Silver is an unreactive metal. It can be extracted from its ores (e.g. silver glance) by heating alone. Silver oxide decomposes on heating to produce the metal and oxygen. A glowing splint can be used to test for any oxygen evolved.
heat

silver oxide

silver + oxygen

Limited reserves of natural resources

Natural resources such as ores are limited in amount and non- N2 renewable. It is obvious that we must use natural resources wisely, so that they can last longer.
Note 1 The overall equation is a simplified one. The reactions involved are: carbon + oxygen carbon dioxide carbon dioxide + carbon carbon monoxide iron(III) oxide + carbon monoxide iron + carbon dioxide Note 2 Ma On Shan used to be an iron ore mine until after World War II. This means that the iron ore mine in Ma On Shan was operative up to the 1950s. As the amount of iron ores became limited, the mine closed down. This example may help students to appreciate that natural resources are non-renewable.

39

Part I Planet Earth

4.3

Limestone, chalk and marble

4.3

Rocks containing calcite

Limestone, chalk and marble are common rocks. They have one thing in common they all contain the same mineral calcite (a crystalline form of calcium carbonate). These three forms of naturally occurring calcium carbonate have different appearances. Their hardness also differs. Limestone is the most common form of calcium carbonate. It is hard and strong, yet inexpensive. It is therefore widely used in the building industry. Chalk is slightly softer and is also used in buildings. Marble is a crystalline solid and is very hard. It can be smoothly polished to give a beautiful appearance. It is often used for building statues, monuments, and as floors and walls in some buildings. ( ) ( )

Uses of limestone
Limestone is used as a building material. Blocks of limestone can be used to construct buildings and roads. Limestone has many other uses as well. Limestone is used to make footpaths. Limestone is a raw material for making cement. Limestone is used in neutralizing water and soil affected by acid rain.

4.4

Weathering and erosion of rocks

4.4

Weathering and erosion

In fact, all rocks exposed on the Earths surface are slowly worn away by weathering and erosion.

Weathering of rocks is the slow process (usually over thousands of years) in which exposed rocks are broken down into smaller pieces. ) (

40

Chapter 4 Rocks and minerals

Weathering occurs through the actions of water, wind, air and changes in temperature. Erosion of rocks is the slow process in which weathered rock pieces are transported away by gravity, wind and water. Erosion can also have a broader meaning. It may also refer to the process which involves both weathering of rocks and transportation of weathered rock pieces to another place.

Types of weathering
Rocks can be weathered in two ways:

Physical weathering Chemical weathering

Physical weathering
Weathering by temperature changes Changes in temperature can break rocks. This happens when rocks get hot in the daytime but cool down quickly at night. The effect is even much more common in deserts. Weathering by frost action Rainwater can fill cracks in rocks. When the temperature drops below 0C, water freezes, and expands to form ice. This forces rocks to break apart. We call this frost action. See Figure 4.1.

0C 4.1

rainwater gathers in crack

ice

eventually a piece of rock breaks off

water freezes and expands

rock the crack gets bigger

Figure 4.1 Expanding ice breaks rocks.

temperature falls below 0C 0C

41

Part I Planet Earth

Note 3 Rainwater containing dissolved carbon dioxide corrodes limestone areas and underground caves are resulted. Over a long time as more calcium hydrogencarbonate solution sips through cracks in cave ceilings, dissolved calcium carbonate slowly deposits and forms stalactites and stalagmites. stalactite

Chemical weathering
Attack by acid

stalagmite

Rainwater attacks rocks, especially those containing calcium N3 carbonate. It is because carbon dioxide in air dissolves slightly in rainwater, forming an acidic solution. carbon dioxide + water carbonic acid
(acidic)

+
( )

The carbonic acid formed reacts with calcium carbonate: calcium carbonate + carbonic acid calcium hydrogencarbonate Calcium hydrogencarbonate is soluble in water and thus the limestone is slowly worn away. The results of this natural chemical weathering process include: +

Formation of sinkholes in limestone areas Damage to limestone statues

Attack by oxygen Oxygen in air can attack some rocks, especially those containing iron. This causes the rock to wear away slowly.

4.5

Chemical changes involving calcium carbonate

4.5

Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate

When limestone (mainly calcium carbonate) is gently warmed with a small Bunsen flame, there seems to be no visible change. However, when it is heated strongly with a roaring nonluminous flame (at about 900C), it decomposes to give calcium oxide and carbon dioxide gas (Figure 4.2). 4.2) ( ) ( 900C) (

42

Chapter 4 Rocks and minerals

test tube holder calcium carbonate roaring nonluminous flame Bunsen burner test tube holder

roaring nonluminous flame

calcium carbonate

Figure 4.2 Heating calcium carbonate strongly to make quicklime (calcium oxide). ( )

Bunsen burner

strong heat

calcium carbonate

calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

Calcium oxide is commonly known as quicklime. When treated with water, it turns into calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), producing a lot of heat at the same time. calcium oxide + water calcium hydroxide
(slaked lime)

+
( )

On stirring calcium hydroxide with water, a white suspension is formed. (Calcium hydroxide is only slightly soluble in water.) If the suspension is filtered, a clear solution called limewater is produced.

Limewater test for carbon dioxide

Limewater is a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide in water. It is a clear colourless solution, which turns milky when carbon dioxide is passed through it for a few seconds (Figure 4.3). This is because the white insoluble solid particles of calcium carbonate formed are suspended throughout the mixture. calcium hydroxide + carbon dioxide
(colourless solution)

4.3)

+
( ) ( )

calcium carbonate + water

(white solid)

Learning tip Although limewater is a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide in water, it is only a dilute solution. This is because of the low solubility of calcium hydroxide in water. 43

Part I Planet Earth

limewater (colourless solution) ( )

limewater turned milky

(a) Figure 4.3 Carbon dioxide turns limewater milky.

(b)

Carbon dioxide is a colourless gas. It turns limewater milky.

The above changes can be summarized as shown in Figure 4.4:

4.4 step 1

step 4
pass in carbon dioxide (limewater test)

calcium carbonate
limestone )

strong heat

4
(

carbon dioxide given off

calcium hydroxide solution

limewater

calcium oxide
quicklime

step 3
add more water, stir well and then filter

step 2
add a little water

3
A4.1
heat

calcium hydroxide
slaked lime

Step 1: calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide Step 2: calcium oxide + water calcium hydroxide Figure 4.4 How some chemical changes involving calcium carbonate are related. Step 3: calcium hydroxide + water calcium hydroxide solution (limewater) Step 4: calcium hydroxide solution (limewater) + carbon dioxide calcium carbonate + water

Class practice 4.1

Write word equations for steps 14 in Figure 4.4. 4.4

4.1
1 4

44

Chapter 4 Rocks and minerals

4.6

Tests for calcium carbonate in a sample of limestone/chalk/marble

4.6

Test for calcium ions

Calcium compounds give a brick red flame in a flame test.

Test for carbonate ions

Dilute hydrochloric acid is added to each sample (Figure 4.5). If the sample is a carbonate, carbon dioxide is produced, which turns limewater milky. calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + carbon dioxide + water Limestone, chalk and marble all give a positive limewater test. + + + 4.5) (

dilute hydrochloric acid

delivery tube

solid sample under test limewater

Figure 4.5 Test for a carbonate by limewater test.

Check your concept

All rocks can react with dilute hydrochloric acid to give carbon dioxide. Most rocks are made up of silicates. Only those made up of carbonates can react with dilute acids to give carbon dioxide.

A4.2 calcium carbonate + nitric acid

calcium nitrate + carbon dioxide + water

Class practice 4.2

Write a word equation for the reaction between chalk and dilute nitric acid.

4.2

45

Part I Planet Earth

Example 4.2 Action of dilute acid on some rocks

You are provided with distilled water, dilute hydrochloric acid (an acid stronger than carbonic acid) and small pieces of the following rocks: limestone, chalk, marble, granite (a) Which rock samples have a visible change in distilled water? (b) Add dilute hydrochloric acid to the rock samples, as shown in Figure 4.6. (i) Which rock samples would give a visible change?
dropper

4.2
( )

(a) (b) 4.6 (i)

rock sample dilute hydrochloric acid watch glass

(ii)
Figure 4.6 Adding dilute hydrochloric acid to a rock sample.

(i) (i)

(iii)

Write a word equation for any reaction that occurs. (ii) What do you observe in (i)? (iii) Based on the results in (i), which rocks would be attacked by carbonic acid in rainwater? Solution (a) None of them. (b) (i) Limestone, chalk and marble. calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + carbon dioxide + water (ii) There is effervescence. (Colourless gas bubbles are given out.) (iii) Limestone, chalk and marble. (ii) ) (iii) ( (a) (b) (i)

35

Try Chapter Exercise Q35

46

Chapter 4 Rocks and minerals

Key terms
Page 1. bauxite 2. calcite 3. calcium carbonate 4. calcium hydroxide 5. chalk 6. erosion 7. haematite 8. limestone 9. limewater 10. marble 11. mineral 12. ore 13. quicklime 14. slaked lime 15. weathering 38 40 40 43 40 41 38 40 43 40 37 38 43 43 40

47

Part I Planet Earth

Summary
4.1 1. 2. 3. Rocks A
rock

is a solid mass of a mineral or a mixture of minerals.

mineral A is a naturally occurring solid with a definite crystalline structure and chemical composition. ore An is a mineral from which a constituent (usually a metal) can be profitably extracted. Some common ores include bauxite, copper pyrite and haematite.

4.2 4.

Extraction of metals from their ores Extraction of a metal from its ore usually involves four steps:

5.

Mining Concentrating Extraction Purification

of the ore (that is, digging the ore from the ground) the ore of the metal from the concentrated ore of the impure metal

Two examples of extracting metals from ores: (a) Iron can be extracted from iron ores by heating
heat
haematite

with carbon:

iron(III) oxide + carbon

iron + carbon dioxide

bauxite

(b) Aluminium can be extracted from

electrolysis

by electrolysis:

aluminium oxide

aluminium + oxygen

4.3 6. 7.

Limestone, chalk and marble

chalk , and same compound, calcium carbonate. Limestone marble

are different natural forms of the

Many minerals are very useful. An example is limestone. See p.40 for some of its uses.

4.4 8. 9.

Weathering and erosion of rocks of rocks refers to the slow process (usually over thousands of years) in which exposed rocks are broken down into smaller pieces. of rocks refers to the slow process in which weathered rock pieces are transported away by gravity, wind and water.
Erosion Weathering

48

Chapter 4 Rocks and minerals

10.

Rocks are weathered in two ways:

Physical Chemical

weathering (e.g. by temperature changes, frost action) weathering (e.g. attack by acid, attack by oxygen in air)

4.5 11.

Chemical changes involving calcium carbonate

Rainwater

attacks rocks, especially those containing calcium carbonate: calcium hydrogencarbonate

carbon dioxide

calcium carbonate + carbonic acid 12.

On strong heating, limestone (mainly calcium carbonate) releases calcium oxide and is changed into (quicklime).
heat

calcium carbonate 13. 14.

calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

calcium hydroxide

When calcium oxide (quicklime) is treated with water, it turns into (slaked lime).
Limewater

is a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide in water. It is a colourless solution, which turns milky when carbon dioxide is passed through it for a few seconds. This limewater test can test for carbon dioxide gas. calcium hydroxide + carbon dioxide
(colourless solution) (

calcium carbonate + water

white

solid)

4.6 15. 16.

Tests for calcium carbonate in a sample of limestone/chalk/marble Calcium compounds give a

brick red

colour in the flame test.

On treatment with dilute hydrochloric acid, calcium carbonate dissolves and releases carbon dioxide . calcium carbonate + hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + carbon dioxide + water

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