1

Chapter 1
Review of Literature
Recovery can take place only with
in the context of relationships; it cannot
occur in isolation. In her renewed
connections with other people, the
survivor recreates the psychological
faculties that were damaged or
deformed by the traumatic experience.
(Herman, 1997)
This chapter details the prevalence of child sexual abuse in the
Indian context, with in the existing theoretical knowledge and
the empirical evidence about its impact in adult life. It then
explores the concepts of emotional intelligence; groups in
general and encounter groups in particular.
Introduction
According to American Psychiatric Association (APA, 1994) a traumatic experience
is one which is both life threatening and will cause the individual to experience fear,
horror, or helplessness. The range of symptoms includes re-experiencing, avoidance
and emotional numbing, and hyper-arousal. Commenting on the significance of the
devastating effects of traumatic events upon a persons personality, Herman (1997)
says, traumatic events are extraordinary not because they occur rarely, but because of
their overwhelming impact on the individuals. Childhood traumatic experience, unless
dealt with, affects ones personality across the years even in adulthood. After any
abusive experience, irrespective of the perpetrator being the member of the family or
an outsider, the child seeks consolation and support from the members of the family.
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When the needed support is not available, then the child grows up with the effects of
the abusive experience.
The core experiences of psychological trauma are disempowerment and
disconnection from others. Recovery therefore is based upon the empowerment of the
survivor and the creation of new connections (Herman 1997, p. 133). Saying this,
Herman points to the fact that the impact of traumatic experiences upon the
individuals personality is alienation from external and internal reality of self; and the
indication of recovery from the trauma is by reconnecting with those alienated
aspects. Though the effects of traumatic experiences are devastating, recovering from
these experiences and living life in fullness is always possible.
Child sexual abuse (CSA) is one of those traumatic experiences whose effects are
carried into adulthood. The 57
th
session of the UN Commission on Human Rights
(2001) reports that sexual abuse statistics vary between countries and reports, but are
consistently alarming: One country's research indicates that up to 36% of girls and
29% of boys have suffered child sexual abuse; another study reveals up to 46% of
girls and 20% of boys have experienced sexual coercion. In 2002, the WHO estimated
that worldwide 150 million girls and 73 million boys under 18 years of age
experienced some form of forced sexual intercourse or violence. A leading English
Daily reported the cases such as: an Austrian father Fritz, sexually abusing his
daughter Elizabeth from the time she was 11 years old (Times of India, May, 2008);
and an Italian father raping his daughter from the time she was 9 years old (Times of
India, March, 2009) etc. show that this is not a past reality but the present one.
As the above numbers bring forth the scenario of CSA worldwide, in Indian society
too this is one of the common issues though it has been denied until recently. The
reports of Samvad (1993) an organization in Bangalore states that 348 girl students
from schools and colleges show that approximately 24% had experienced sexual
abuse at least once in their lives. Of these 21% were less than 10 years of age, 14%
were between 10 to 14 years of age and 54% were between 15 years of age at the time
of abuse. A study conducted by Panchal and Nahida (1997) between the years 1994
and 1995 with 150 minor-age girls in Bombay, India showed that 58 of the 150 minor
girls were sexually abused before the age 10 and of this 50 had been abused by a
3
family member or friend of the family. The latest survey commissioned by the
government states that 53% of children in India are subjected to sexual abuse (Times
of India, April 10, 2007). Dr Loveleen Kacker the official in charge of Child Ministry
and who compiled the report states a disturbing finding that 70% had not reported the
abuse to anyone.
Daily news paper reports like A coach (sports) has been charged for trying to outrage
the modesty of a minor in Jabalpur (Hindustan times, August 8, 2009);
Businessman raped daughter for 9 years in Mumbai (Times of India, March 20,
2009) Teacher strips girls to take measurement in Bhopal (The Times of India, 30
July 2009); CJM court (Court of the Chief Judicial Magistrate) summons 5 cops in
minor sexual abuse case in Guwahati (The Assam tribune; July 27; 2009) etc stand
witness to the fact that child sexual abuse is part of the existing reality. These voices
bring to light the prevalence of CSA in society and emphasize the need to pay
attention to this issue.
The above reports give glimpses of the prevalence of CSA in the Indian context. It
also highlights the fact that the survivors are slowly raising their voices in reporting
the abuse. Recovering and Healing from Incest (RAHI) Delhi, an organization
working for the cause of the survivors of CSA had run a survey among 600 English
speaking middle and upper class women in Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta, Goa and
Chennai ranging from 15 to 66 years. The report says:
x 76% had been Sexually Abused (SA) in childhood.
x 40% of them had been SA by at least one family member.
x 71% had been SA by relatives and family members.
x 2% reported SA before they were four years of age.
x 17% between 4 & 8 years of age.
x 28% between the ages of 8 and 12 years.
x 35% between 12 and 16 years. (Ailawadi, 1998)
The above report indicates that majority of the women who participated in the study
were abused by family members or someone close in the family. Though this report
does not indicate if the abuse was a single experience or multiple and over a period of
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time; it clearly points out that female children of all ages are vulnerable to sexual
abuse. The above numbers also stress the magnitude of the problem of CSA in the
society in the form of survivors and the urgency of the need to pay attention to this
issue. Almost all the above reports except the survey commissioned by the
government of India are urban based and focused on girl children. This highlights the
fact that the magnitude of this problem in the rural context, the major geographical
occupant in India is missing.
One of the severest impacts of CSA on the survivors is distortion in emotional
experience and expression (Banyard et. al, 2001; Luterek et. al, 2005). This difficulty
in dealing with painful emotions is reflected in the way they experience and express
their emotions and the coping strategies they develop to deal with the day-to-day
emotion loaded situations. The aspect of personality that deals with emotional
experience and expression is called as Emotional Intelligence (Mayer and Salovey,
1990). Thus, this study focuses on understanding survivors ways of management of
emotions from the perspective of emotional intelligence.
Bass and Davis (1988) state that one of the major problems faced by women who
have been sexually abused as children is a continuing sense of isolation and
differentness resulting from having been forced into a secretive and taboo practice.
Even when incest is disclosed in individual therapy, it is still done in a private and
confidential context and inadvertently serves to maintain the coercive secrecy and
isolation common to the daily life of a survivor. Saxe et.al (2005) and Ailawadi
(1999) state that the group often serves as a new family for its members, which
makes it easier to deal with the family of origin problems since they can often be
rehearsed and worked through in the group without fear of rejection or reabuse.
McCrone et.al. (2005), report that individual therapy is far more expensive in terms of
money and time compared to group psychotherapy.
Therefore, it is evident that if and when the woman feels comfortable with the idea of
attending a group with other women survivors of CSA, the experience in the group
can be very beneficial. It provides an environment that encourages interactions and
supportive relationships between group members. In a group, individuals who have
been victimized begin to see themselves as helpful to others, thus increasing their self
5
esteem and sense of control. The group provides stimulus for identifying and
exploring feelings about CSA and long held irrational beliefs connected to it. It
provides an opportunity to practice new social skills. Given the focus upon emotional
experiences and expressions during the group process, this study focuses upon
Encounter Group.
In Encounter group work, the actual experiences are the subject matters with the here
and now focus in order to facilitate interaction among the group members.
Personal and interpersonal issues are the direct focus of the group interactions. These
interactions lead to deeper intra and interpersonal explorations where emotions play a
greater role. Thus, encounter group process emphasizes on emotional experience and
appropriate expression.
Therefore, this study makes efforts to understand the influence of Encounter group
process on emotional intelligence of women survivors of child sexual abuse. It is
assumed that the findings of this study will be of help in designing interventions in
helping women survivors of child sexual abuse in particular and women survivors of
trauma in general. The following sections of this chapter details the issue of Child
Sexual Abuse, emotional intelligence and encounter groups.
1.1 Child Sexual Abuse
Child sexual abuse is one of the three traumas that brought a revolution in the public
consciousness (Herman, 1997). It is believed that years ago Freud and Janet realized
existence of CSA during their investigations with their women hysteric patients. It is
considered that because of this revelation there was an outpour of criticism. Janet held
to her views and lost her reputation where as Freud changed his stand and told the
world that the revelations of his patients were of their infantile fantasies (Herman,
1997; Cameron, 2000). In the 1980s when the concept of post traumatic stress
disorder (PTSD) was legitimized, it became clear that the psychological patterns seen
in survivors of rape, domestic violence and incest were the same as those seen in war.
It was then that this issue was included as one of the traumatic experiences and caught
the attention of researchers for further exploration. Research findings showed that
child sexual abuse can be categorized as one of the traumatic experiences that have a
6
long standing affect upon human personality (Roth etal 1997; Finkelhore and Brown
1985; Vythilingam et.al, 2002;, Aspelmeir et.al, 2007).The credit of bringing the issue
of CSA into the public domain goes to the feminist movement (Herman and
Hirschman, 1977). Gordon (2004) states that as with adult rape, child sexual
abuse without feminist interpretation supplies evidence and arguments for constricting
and disempowering children. (Cited in Angelides, 2004, p. 141)
Child sexual abuse is defined in a number of ways by researchers. The definition
varies according to the activities, and the relationship of the victim and the
perpetrator. MacLeod and Saraga (1988) consider the definition given by Schecter
and Roberge as the most widely used and quotes it as The involvement of
developmentally immature children and adolescents in sexual actions which they
cannot fully comprehend, to which they cannot give informed consent, and which
violates the taboos of social roles (p. 19). This definition is criticized for not
considering the threat or force that can be part of the abuse and the possibility of adult
power over the child leading to coercion.
Another definition that is frequently seen in literature (Briere 1992; Morrison & Ferris
2002) describes child sexual abuse as a sexual contact between a child and an
individual in a position of power and authority. They define it as a sexual act imposed
on a child who lacks emotional, maturational, and cognitive development and ranges
from fondling to intercourse between a child in mid-adolescence or younger and a
person at least five years older. Looking at this definition it is clear that it is not
precise about the upper age limit of the child and the possibility of coercion.
American Psychological association defines CSA as sexual activity between a minor
and an older person in which the dominant position of the older person is used to
coerce or exploit the younger.
Thus, several researchers tried to operationalize and define child sexual abuse. After
examining researchers operational definitions Peters et.al (1986) summarize that
every definition includes 3 aspects. They are the upper age limit of the victim at the
time of abuse; the types of sexual behaviours included and the criteria used to define a
sexual encounter as abusive. At the same time Faller (2003) observed the type of
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sexual behaviour; the parameters of abusive and non abusive sexual encounters and
patterns of sexual abuse as different components in definitions of child sexual abuse.
Luterek, Orsillo & Mars (2005) define CSA as sexual contact that ranged from
fondling to intercourse occurring before the age of 13 years without consent or was
unwanted and perpetrated by a person who is at least 10 years older than the victim is.
This definition is clear about the age limit of the child and age difference of the
perpetrator; and this gives a range of behaviours that could be considered as abusive
and specifies that apart from the issue of consent, this definition considers traces of
unwillingness in the child as refusal. It is thus seen that defining the experience of
CSA is complicated given the complexity of the issue of CSA and multiple factors
involved in it.
Though majority of the above statements portray girls as victims of CSA, in reality
both boys and girls are the victims where the abusers can be either a man or a woman
(Finkelhore 1984; Hunter 2006). Virani (2000) in her book The Bitter chocolate,
states that 5 out of every 8 girls and 3 out of every 8 boys; i.e. 62.5% of girls and
37.5% of boys, from the ages of few months all the way up to 16 years of age, are
victims of Child Sexual Abuse in India. The reports of World Health Organization
(WHO) (2002); United Nations (UN) commission on human rights (2001) and Virani
(2000) show that both the boys and girls are victims of CSA. In addition, at the same
time it is evident from the above reports that the number of girl victims is more
compared to boys.
It is considered that the child sexual abuse of boys by older women may be more
common than child sexual abuse of boys by older men. (Hunter 2006) and many
incidences between boys and older women are not reported (King et al., 2000; West,
1998 cited in Hunter, 2006). The reason given was, the boys do not necessarily define
their early sexual experiences as abusive and sexual exploitation of boys by older
women is often mistakenly viewed as desirable, and therefore their victimization is
minimized or denied. Ramona (2005); Rogers & Davis (2007) state that 47% of men
in their study believed that a male victim of a female perpetrator would have enjoyed
the experience; men will deride male victims in the belief that men should always
take, rather than resist, any opportunity of sex with a woman.
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Considering the above said, it is evident that there are stereotyped understandings
filtering the reality of boys being the victims of CSA. In the same line, there are also
different notions about actual prevalence of males being victims of CSA. Angelides
(2004) reported that incestuous abuse of boys is relatively rare although traumatic for
the child when it occurs and they also reported that it is considered that sexual
relations with women as consensual where as with men as abusive. Nelson & Oliver
(1998) state that mother and son incest is extremely underreported rather than
extremely rare. Rogers & Davis (2007) investigated attitudes toward child victims of
incestuous abuse among health professionals (health visitors, nurses, and medical
students) and found that 33% of the sample believed girls would be more seriously
affected by incest than boys. The reality of India also mirrors the same where there
are more reports of CSA by girls than by boys (Virani, 2000). Added to this there are
more studies related to women survivors of child sexual abuse than male survivors of
CSA (Dhaliwal et.al. 1996; Finkelhore 1984).
Though CSA is reported by both boys and girls, the studies show that low self-esteem
and problematic behaviors were more apparent in girls than in boys (Tong et al,
1987), the symptoms of abuse intensify with the severity of abuse in women than in
men (Scott et.al, 1999); women experience severe conflict in self about who is
responsible for the abuse (Ramona, 2005). Added to the above reasons, researchers
past experience in helping women in dealing with their emotional problems through
counseling led to this study which focuses on women survivors of child sexual abuse.
Many studies (Banyard & Williams 1996; Brier N.J & Elliott M.D 1994; Madu S. N,
2001) have shown that the severity of CSA depends upon the relationship with the
perpetrator, the age at which the child is abused and the amount of force used.
Camerons (2000) study had brought to light that the victims of this experience suffer
severe damage to the personality at each stage of development depending upon the
age at which the experience had occurred. There are studies (Bass and Davis 1988;
Banyard et.al, 2001) which confirm that the effects of this experience in the childhood
are lasting and the victims suffer even as adults. The following section gives the
effects of the experience of child sexual abuse upon an adult survivor.
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1.1.1 Impact of Child Sexual Abuse on Women
The overwhelming effects of child sexual abuse on the adult personality is reported
by authors as emotional effects, interpersonal effects, behavioral effects, cognitive
effects, physical effects and sexual effects.
i) Emotional effects: Guilt is a predominant emotional response for many survivors
(Tsai and Wagner, cited in Sanderson 1995). Other broadly noticed emotional
reactions with which victims struggle are depression, low self esteem, and anxiety.
Anger and fear are intensified depending upon the ego strength of the person. Some
times this is localized upon men in general (Brayden et al, 1995). The loss of a core
sense of self has been noted to be one of the symptoms of sexual trauma in childhood,
which leads to the intensification of all other symptoms (Classen et al, 1988).
ii)Interpersonal effects: Saxe (1993); Alcoff and Gray (1993) report that the survivors
experience a sense of being branded, stigmatized or marked someway, and cut off
from ordinary human interaction and try to isolate selves from others. In majority of
the survivors, their relationship with men gets affected. Sanderson (1995) states
Hermans report that majority of the survivors tend to overvalue and idealize men.
Their feelings of anger were predominantly directed towards other women, including
themselves.
Clinical observations suggest that women often feel anger, rage, and hostility towards
their mothers because the mother did not protect them from the sexual abuse and
therefore to some extent are seen as responsible for its occurrence and maintenance
(Haaken 1996). Brayden et al, (1995) state that the experience also effects parenting
ability. Some feel unworthy of motherhood, some others go through persistent anxiety
about their child becoming a victim and some others experience emotional and
physical distance from their children thus providing opportunities for sexual abuse.
Survivors report fear of intimacy and difficulty to develop satisfying intimate
relationships. Meiselman K.C (1978) view that survivor, because of her childhood
abuse may not have learnt the necessary skills either to protect herself adequately, or
10
to assert herself in a relationship. This might lead them to revictimization in the
relationships reinforcing their fear about relationships.
iii) Behavioral effects: Both clinical literature and empirical research shows that
many survivors of CSA indulge in self-destructive behaviours which may become life
threatening. Most self-destructive behaviors are expressed through self-mutilation,
suicide, eating disorders, chemical addictions and substance abuse (Sanderson 1995,
Hall and Lloid, 1993). Hall & Lloyds (1993) findings show that some survivors
display self-destructive addictions such as gambling, stealing etc. Obsessive /
Compulsive disorder is another commonly noticed emotional reaction in the victims
of CSA.
iv) Cognitive / Perceptual effects: Elhai et al, (2001) state that the cognitive effects
commonly noticed in the survivors are denial, cognitive distortions, dissociation,
amnesia, multiple personality, nightmares, and hallucinations like auditory, visual and
tactile hallucinations.
v) Physical effects: Researchers like Nelson, (2002); Wenninger & Heiman (1998)
report that generally noticed physical problems in the survivors are gynecological
problems, asthma, respiratory problems and multiple allergies, intestinal disorders,
back pain, migraines, chronic pelvic pain /groin pain, stiffness and muscular tension
in jaw, neck and shoulders, chronic fatigue and obesity and eating problems. Hall &
Lioyd, (1993) state that sleep disturbances is another complain generally heard from
the survivors of CSA.
vi) Sexual Effects: Sanderson (1995) enumerates sexual effects of CSA on survivors
as impaired motivation, Phobias / aversions, impaired arousal, impaired orgasm,
sexual dysfunction like vaginismus, dyspareunia etc. Another general inability that is
noticed among survivors is inability to separate sex from affection, over sexualisation,
promiscuity, and prostitution evident (Bass and David 1988; Sanderson 1995).
Meiselman (1978) also reports that 30% of incest survivors either adopt a lesbian
lifestyle or experienced homosexual feelings though these did not manifest
themselves until after many years of heterosexual experience.
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The above literature shows that the experience of child sexual abuse disturbs the
person emotionally, cognitively and interpersonally and affects the person at different
realms of the personality. The factors upon which the severity of the effects depends
and several other areas related to this experience have been reported by researchers.
The following section presents these explorations in nutshell.
1.1.2 Studies on Child Sexual Abuse
The empirical explorations brought to light the fact that the issue of CSA has drawn
the attention of researchers very strongly from 1990s. Based on the studies reviewed
the key categories that emerged were: factors that effect severity of the symptoms of
CSA, the relationship between the experience of CSA and mental health and PTSD
symptoms in the survivors; impact of CSA upon self confidence, resilience factors in
the survivors of CSA and impact of different ways of helps given to the survivors.
i) Relationship between factors of abuse and their lasting effects on survivors:
Research on long term effects of CSA is centered on understanding the relationship
between various factors of abuse and the adult victims psychological functioning.
Research studies (Banyard & Williams 1996; Bradley et.al 2005) report that there is a
significant association between experiencing force as part of CSA and higher levels of
emotional distress, anxiety and sleep disturbances in adulthood. Brand and Alexander
(2003) state that none of the abuse characteristics were significantly related to out
come however the social support available to the victim determines the outcome of
CSA. The factors of abuse that are considered in the above studies are: experience of
physical force at the time of abuse; severity of abuse; age at which abuse occurred;
perpetrator victim relationship; and the support system available for the child after
the experience of abuse.
The studies, which focused upon the Perpetrator victim relationship and long term
effects / PTSD symptoms surprisingly, reported contradictory findings. Ketring et. al
(1999) reported severe PTSD symptoms when the perpetrator is father/father figure or
some one with whom the child is closely related; where as Lucenko (2000) reported
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no difference in the impact of traumatic experience based on the familial relationship
of the victim and perpetrator; and the survivors abused by caretakers show low PTSD
symptoms. At the same time, Banyard and William (1996) report women with
intrafamilial abuse show higher levels of sleep problems, more dissociation
experiences and more symptoms on TSC40 checklist.
Hence it can be stated that the results of the systematic study of the issue of long term
effects of CSA seem to be still at an initial stage as contradictory findings are noticed
while understanding the relationship between the effect of the experience of CSA and
some factors like age at which abuse had happened; relationship with perpetrator etc.
ii)Mental health consequences of CSA: Studies of Banyard et al, (1996; 2001);
Wenninger & Ehler, (1999); Elhai et al, (2001); Feinauer et al, (2003) etc. stated that
long term mental health consequences of CSA reveal a strong association between
CSA and mental health symptoms like depression, dissociation post traumatic stress
symptomatology. Eftekhari, et. al. (2009) report that a history of multiple and chronic
trauma exposure, specifically childhood sexual abuse (CSA) may developmentally
impair an individuals ability to regulate his or her emotions resulting in worse mental
health outcomes. Feinuer et al, (2003) report that severe abuse impairs existential
wellbeing. Emotion-focused types of coping were used more frequently than
problem-focused coping strategies. Avoidance and not seeking social support are
related to higher levels of distress and depression in adulthood. (Brand & Alexander,
2003)
Contradicting Finkelhors (1984) theory, studies of Banyard and Williams (1996) and
Banyard et.al. (2001) did not find any significant relationship between penetration
or/and intra-familial abuse and more negative outcomes. Another contradictory
finding of these two studies is that higher the age at which abuse occurred; the more
severe were the symptoms reported by survivors.
iii) Effect of CSA on perception of self and physical wellbeing: Vigil & Byrd-Craven,
(2005) state that CSA is associated with earlier reproductive development and an
earlier onset of reproductive behaviour and lowers victims sense of attractiveness.
Wenninger & Heiman (1998) reported that CSA survivors evaluated their health more
13
negatively, indicating they were feeling less healthy or more vulnerable to illness than
the comparison subjects. They also reported less body esteem regarding their sexual
attractiveness. Pritt (1998); Wenninger & Ehlers (1999) state that the women who
have been sexually abused as children showed more pessimistic and less optimistic
aptitude towards life and negative dysfunctional beliefs concerning safety, trust,
esteem, and intimacy. Overall, it is evident from the above literature that the
experience of CSA affects ones perception of self and wellbeing.
iv) Effect of CSA on relational ability: Victims of CSA reported difficulty in
developing satisfying intimate relationships as they lack the ability to trust themselves
and others. Sanderson (1995); Bass and Davis (1988) emphasize that these women
may lack desire to invest in intimate relationships because it might demand them to
face the fears associated with closeness. Feinauer, Callahan & Hilton, (1996) after
studying the effect of CSA on relational ability of the survivors came out with the
facts that symptoms associated with CSA, such as lack of secure adult attachment,
depression, avoidance, dependence, self defeating and boarder line personality
disorders interfere with relationship adjustment in adult survivors of CSA. Liem,
OToole & James (1992) reported that victims of CSA find it difficult to maintain
intimate relationships and express higher needs of power in relationships. Griffing,
et.al (2005) stated that victims continue to return to abusive relationships due to their
emotional attachment to the batterer. Aspelmeier, et.al (2007) report that the history
of CSA was consistently associated with higher levels of trauma-related symptoms
and lower levels of attachment security in close-adult, parent-child, and peer relations.
Reports of the studies focused upon relational realm are consistent with each other
highlighting that the experience of CSA affects relational ability of the victims
significantly.
v)Possibility of positive resolution of CSA: Tedeschi and Calhoun (2004) state that
prior research with victims of other types of trauma has documented that some
survivors perceive themselves as having become better persons as a result of coping
with their experience. In the similar lines, the study of Wright, Crawford & Sebastian,
(2007) exploring the effects of positive resolution of CSA state that 50% of the
participants reported personal growth and development, spiritual/religious growth,
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increased knowledge of sexual abuse, improved relationships with others, newly
acquired coping skills and improved parenting skills as a result of positive resolution
of CSA..
Banyard and William (2007) also reported that resilience was often stable and was
protective, associated with reduced risk for re-exposure to trauma. Re-traumatization
is reported as a risk factor for negative changes in competence and resilience.
Valentine & Feinauer (1993) after their study Resilience factors associated with
female survivors of CSA identified 6 factors that helped the survivors to live life.
They are: the ability to find supportive relationships outside the family; self regard or
the ability to think well of oneself; religion or spirituality; external attributions for
blame and cognitive style and inner directed locus of control.
The above literature focused on the capacity of the survivors to resolve the effects of
CSA positively highlights the fact that if needed support is given, survivors can
recoup their potentials and protect themselves. This provides a direction to the current
study to explore the influence of encounter group process on emotional intelligence of
the survivors of CSA.
1.1.3 Gaps in Literature
As it is seen from the above literature, there are varied opinions about the impact of
CSA based on the familial relationship of the victim and perpetrator. This is evident
in the reports of Ketring et. al (1999) and Lucenko (2000). There are also
contradictory opinions about the age at which abuse occurred and the severity of the
symptoms. Finkelhors (1984) findings contradicts with Banyard and Williams
(1996) stating that higher the age at which abuse occurred; the more severe are the
symptoms. So these areas need further exploration to understand the intervening
situations which bring about this change.
Though the studies of Taylor et. al. (1997); Luterek et.al. (2005) report that the
experience of CSA affects emotional integrity of the victims very severely there were
15
no studies reported exploring the emotional intelligence of women survivors of child
sexual abuse.
It is evident from the literature review, of the varied influences of the experience of
CSA upon ones psyche, there is increasing confirmation that the survivors ability to
experience and express emotions gets affected even in adulthood due to the abusive
experience. Adult survivors of CSA report either uncontrollable emotions like anger,
shame (Andrews 1995); decreased positive affect (Taylor, et. al. 1997, Luterek et.al.
2005) or suppression of emotions (Luterek et.al 2005). Berenbaum (1996) stated that
Alexithymia, which is characterized by difficulties identifying and distinguishing
between feelings and bodily sensations, difficulties describing emotional experience,
and externally oriented thinking, has been shown to be prevalent among CSA
survivors.
In short, it is clear that the ability to deal with emotions is affected in the survivors
due to abusive experience, thereby their ways of coping with day-to-day life
experiences. The ability to deal with emotions is called as emotional intelligence
(Salovey & Mayer 1990). Drawing on this understanding, this study aims at looking
at the change in the emotional intelligence of the survivors of CSA. Hence, the next
section focuses on the concept Emotional Intelligence.
1.2 Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence is an evolving concept that was conceptualized in the 1990s.
It is considered as reconceptualization of emotion and cognition. (Brackett et.al. 2004)
As any new development will be looked at with apprehension and fascination,
Emotional Intelligence also is still a context of debate and investigation. Exploration
of the role of Emotional intelligence in ones personality and it is interaction with
different aspects of the individual is a potential area for research. The following
sections look at how emotional intelligence is defined, different debates about it,
models of emotional intelligence, and the empirical explorations related to this
concept.
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1.2.1 Evolution of the Concept of Emotional Intelligence
The relationship between emotion and thought is one of the much debated issues in
psychology. The age old notions like what you think you become etc portray the
way thought was upheld over the emotion. Aristotle (cited in Salovey et.al 2008)
argued that in humans, intellect is the highest thing and the objects it apprehends are
the highest things that can be known. Emotions are considered inferior and disorderly
elements of human nature. Women who were viewed as emotional are considered
secondary to men. Moreover, being emotional is viewed unlike of a man. the Stoic
view of emotions as more or less irrational persisted in one form or another well into
the 20th century (Salovey et.al, 2008, pg 548).
Contemporary psychologies have moved away from the view that reason is superior
to emotion and began to emphasize on the functionability of emotion. Darwin was the
first one who spoke about the functionability of emotions in his book The
expressions of emotions in man and animal (1872). Salovey et.al (2008) state
Darwin revealed that emotions serve at least two functions. One is energizing
adaptive behaviour such as flight and procreation. The second one is giving rise to a
signaling and communication system that confers a significant survival advantage on
the entire species as well as individual organisms.
In the 1930s psychometrician Robert Thorndike mentioned the possibility that people
might have a social intelligence which he considered as an ability to perceive their
own and others internal states, motivations and behaviours, and act accordingly. Four
years later in 1934, David Wechsler, the psychologist who developed several well-
known intelligence tests, wrote about the non-intellective aspects of a person that
contribute to overall intelligence.
In 1983, Howard Gardner, in his book Frames of Mind, outlined seven distinct forms
of intelligence of which intrapersonal intelligence is one of them. He defined it in a
very similar way to the current conceptualization of emotional intelligence. The core
capacity at work here, he wrote, is access to ones own feeling lifeones range
of affects or emotions: the capacity instantly to effect discriminations among these
17
feelings and, eventually, to label them, to enmesh them in symbolic codes, to draw
upon them as a means of understanding and guiding ones behaviour. (pg. 538)
Rapid development of psychology in 20
th
century set a stage for new ways of thinking
about emotion and thought. They considered that Thorndikes social intelligence;
Wechslers non intellective aspects of person and Gardners interpersonal
intelligence as earlier expressions of emotional intelligence. As a result, in 1990s
Peter Salovey and John Mayer gave the name emotional intelligence and defined it.
This was later popularized by Daniel Goleman (1995).
1.2. 2 Issues of Debate Related to Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence as a developing concept is viewed critically by several
scientists. Two important criticisms frequently heard about EI are; can it be
considered Intelligence and can it be measured? Mayer et.al (2004) view that
emotions and cognition represent different functions of the same mind as same radio
broad casting news and music.
Salovey and Mayer (1990) argue that life tasks that are described by Canter and her
colleagues and constructive thinking defined by Epstein are laden with affective
information and need to be processed differently from cognitive information. They
also say that emotional intelligence is part of Gardners understanding of social
intelligence, which he referred as personal intelligence. Like social intelligence,
personal intelligence includes knowledge about self and others. Brackett et.al (2004)
considers emotional intelligence as a way of reconceptualizing emotion and reason. In
this context they quote Isen et.als (1978) idea of cognitive loop that connects
emotion and judgment. This perspective is supported by Bower (1981) who
introduced the activation model of memory demonstrating that happy moods activate
happy thoughts and sad moods activate sad thoughts.
Brody (cited in Salovey et.al, 2004) argues that EI to be Intelligence it should be a
latent variable. Agreeing to the views of Brody, Mayer et.al (2004) says that we view
this as a fertile ground for future research... such evidence does not, to or knowledge,
exist for such newer, specific intelligence, such as spatial intelligence (p. 250)
18
Researchers have commonly claimed that EI predicts important educational and
occupational criteria beyond that predicted by general intellectual ability. Cumulating
literature around 1980s documented how cognition and affect are integrated
processes; influence many aspects of cognitive functioning, including memory,
attention, and decision making (Roberts et. al, 2001).
The other issue debated is if EI can be measured. Mayer and Salovey (2000) with
their four-branch ability model of emotional intelligence developed a test instrument
named as Mayer Salovey Curuso Emotional Intelligence Test to measure
Emotional Intelligence (MSCEIT) (Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2004). The research
centered on this issue using Mayer Salovey Curuso Emotional Intelligence Test,
the tool to measure emotional intelligence emphasized that emotional intelligence can
be measured (Roberts et. al 2001; Warwick et al, 2004).
1.2.3 Defining Emotional Intelligence
Salovey & Mayer (1990) defined emotional intelligence as a subset of social
intelligence, which involves the ability to monitor ones own and others emotions,
to discriminate among these emotions and to use this information to guide ones
thinking and actions.
After further studies on this concept in 1999, Mayer et. al gave a different definition
stating that Emotional Intelligence refers to an ability to recognize the meaning of
emotions and their relationships, so as to reason and problem-solve on the basis of
them. It involves the capacity to perceive emotions, assimilate emotion related
feelings understand the information of those emotions and manage them (pg. 267). In
a later definition, efforts were made to represent systematically the process of
emotional management. Here the emphasis began with making meaning of emotions
and proceeded to the ability to solve problems as part of being emotionally intelligent.
Later in 2004, they revised this definition to one where the cognitive processes are
clearly emphasized. This definition states that emotional intelligence is The capacity
to reason about emotions, and of emotions to enhance thinking. It includes the ability
to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist
19
thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively
regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth (pg, 197).
Other researchers like Mathew et.al (2002) defined EI as competence to identify and
express the emotions, understand the emotions and assimilate emotions in thought and
regulate both positive and negative emotions in self and others. (pg. 15)
Based on the academic work of Mayer & Salovey, Hein (2005) defined EI as an
innate potential to feel, use, communicate, recognize, remember, learn from, manage
and understand emotions. He emphasizes that EI is an innate potential that depends
on the ability to feel feelings, and to remember them.
All the above definitions highlight emotional intelligence as not only the ability to
perceive emotions but also emphasize the cognitive processes such as reasoning out
the emotions, their meaning; assimilating the reasoned information and locating
relationships between the emotions. They also focus on aspect of skill involved in
using this information during interpersonal interactions. Defining the concept of
emotional intelligence, theoreticians have also conceptualized emotional intelligence
into different models.
1.2.4 Different Models of Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence is conceptualized into two models by different psychologists.
One is the ability model of emotional intelligence that is proposed by Mayer and
Salovey (1997) and the other one is the mixed model of emotional intelligence of Bar-
On (1997). And Goleman (1995) propounded a third model of emotional intelligence.
The Ability model (Mayer & Salovey, 1997) considers emotional Intelligence as an
ability to perceive and express emotions, assimilate emotion in thought, understand
and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion in the self and the other. They
considered that emotional intelligence comprises four skills and called them as four
branches and finally named their model as four-branch model of emotional
intelligence. These four branches are: Perceiving emotions; Using emotions to
20
facilitate thought; Understanding emotions; and Managing emotions in a way that
enhances personal growth and social relations.
The Mixed model defines emotional intelligence as an array of noncognitive
capabilities, competencies and skills that influence ones ability to succeed in coping
with environmental demands and pressures. (Bar-On, 1997, pg 14) Mayer et al
(2000) comment that Bar On model of emotional Intelligence was supposed to
answer the questions like why are some individuals more able to succeed in life than
others? and he stated that Bar On reviewed psychological literature on personality
characteristics that appeared related to success in life and identified 5 broader areas of
functioning relevant to success. These five areas are considered as the components of
emotional intelligence by the mixed model. They are; Intrapersonal skills that are
subdivided into emotional self - awareness, assertiveness, self regard, self-
actualization, independence; Interpersonal skills, subdivided into interpersonal
relationships, social responsibility, empathy; Adaptability scales, subdivided into
problem solving, reality testing and flexibility; Stress-management scales, subdivided
into stress tolerance and impulse control and General mood, subdivided into
happiness and optimism.
The Bar On conceptualization of emotional intelligence combines mental abilities
with other characteristics that are considered separate from mental abilities like
personal independence, self regard, mood etc. Though his model predicts success, it
is considered from the perspective of potential rather than as an end product (Meyer et
al 2000).
The third model of emotional intelligence as discussed by Goleman in his book
Emotional Intelligence (1995), defines emotional intelligence as The abilities called
here emotional intelligence, which included self control, zeal and persistence, and the
ability to motivate oneself (Goleman 1995, p xii) { and} There is an old
fashioned word for the body of skills that emotional intelligence represents;
character (Goleman 1995, p. 28). Opengart (2005) in her study Emotional
Intelligence and Emotion Work: Examining Constructs from an Interdisciplinary
framework, categorizes Golemans model as a third model of emotional intelligence
naming it as The Personality model.
21
There is confusion in the literature about Golemans stand on the models of emotional
intelligence. Mayer et.al (2001) in their paper Emotional Intelligence and Emotional
Giftedness considered Golemans model as an evolution from their ability model.
Golemans equating of emotional intelligence with character invites one to consider
as mixed model. Added to this in his recent book Working with emotional
Intelligence he divides the main domains of emotional intelligence into twenty-five
different emotional competencies. Here he included different political awareness,
service orientation, self confidence, conscientiousness, achievement drive etc.
(Goleman, 1998, pg. 26 28).
The five domains of emotional intelligence that are given by Goleman (1995) as an
adaptation from Salovey are; knowing ones emotions; recognizing a feeling as it
happens; monitoring feelings from moment to moment. The second one is
management of emotions which includes; handling feelings so that they are
appropriate, ability to sooth oneself, ability to take off rampant anxiety, gloom or
irritability. The third one is motivating oneself, which consists of: marshalling
emotions in the service of a goal, delaying gratification and stifling impulsiveness,
being able to get into the flow state. In addition to, the fourth one is recognizing
emotions in others: empathic awareness, attunement to what others need or want. The
last one is handling relationships; skills in managing emotions in others, interacting
smoothly with others.
The three models of emotional intelligence conceptualized EI from different
perspectives. Bar -On and Golemans models are very inclusive adding up different
capacities like assertiveness, independence, optimism, social responsibility etc (Bar
On, 1997). Goleman included marshalling emotions, delaying gratification etc and
goes to the extent of saying there is an old fashioned word for the body of skills
that emotional intelligence represents; Character (1995) In contrast Mayer and
Saloveys ability model confines itself to the interaction of emotion and cognition. So
the central difference among these models is that mental ability model focuses mainly
on interaction of emotion and cognition and mixed models include several
components as emotional intelligence. Adopting one or more of these models, and
exploring related factors, several studies have been conducted in relation to emotional
intelligence. The following section discusses these empirical explorations.
22
1.2.5 Studies Related to Emotional Intelligence
The studies reviewed in this section are published from the year 1998 to 2009 as the
key explorations of the concept began only then. They are divided into 3 categories.
They are: those centered on the issues of measurement of emotional intelligence;
those which have explored the relationship between Emotional intelligence and
different aspects; and finally those that explored the possibility of developing
emotional intelligence through training. The first category of studies focused on the
measurability of emotional intelligence with different tools like ability measures
(MSCEIT) and self report measures (EQ-i) etc. The other studies investigated the
relationship of emotional intelligence with different aspects like well being, (Austin,
Saklofske & Egan 2005; Mikolajczak et. al 2007); life satisfaction, (Gannon &
Ranzini 2004; Palmer et.al. 2002); predictor of stress (Hunt & Evans 2004,
Mikolajczak et. al, 2007) and the issues of measurement (Mayer et. al 2003; Brackett
& Mayer 2003) of Emotional intelligence.
i) Issues of Measurement: Studies that are centered on measurement issues of
emotional intelligence focused upon exploring accuracy of different tools such as
ability measures like MSCEIT (Mayer, Salovey Caruso emotional Intelligence Tool),
self report measures of EI like; Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) (Bar On 1997)
and the self-report EI test (SREIT) (Schutte et. al, 1998), measure emotional
intelligence. Roberts et al. (2001) emphasized that emotional Intelligence meets the
criteria for intelligence. Brackett et al (2003) reported that the reliability of the tool
MSCEIT is very high and suggest that EI as a mental ability exists as a distinct,
clearly defined construct that has evidence of incremental validity. Daya & Carroll
(2004) stated that in regard to mixed models, most of the attributes measured by the
EQ-I and SREIT significantly overlap with existing measures, which suggests that
these scales have a breadth of coverage that is not all that different from well-studied
personality and well-being scales. Brackett et. al (2006) states that Emotional
intelligence defined and operationalized as mental ability with the MSCEIT, can
readily measure and predict important psychological and behavioral outcomes. The
study by Dawda and Hart (2000) highlighted that the EQ-i domain and component
scales had good item homogeneity and internal consistency. Tett et. al. (2005)
23
confirm that trait-EI can be measured using self-reports and is conceptualized as a
distinct multidimensional domain. The findings of Schutte et. al (1998) indicate that
the 33-item scale promises a reliable, valid measure of emotional intelligence as
conceptualized by Salovey and Mayer (1990). Ciarrochi, Chan & Bajgar (2001)
emphasize that the self-report measures of emotional intelligence are distinctive and
useful measure.
The above studies looked at the reliability and validity of the tools of EI report varied
outcomes. Brackett et. al (2003) stated that the attributes measured by mixed model
based tools EQ-i and SREIT overlap with personality and wellbeing scales. Where as
Tett et. al (2005) and others state that these tools have internal consistency and can be
used as reliable tools in measuring emotional intelligence. Thus, there is a need for
further exploration in understanding the validity and reliability of the measuring tools
of EI.
ii) EI and its relationship with other factors: This section discusses the studies that
aimed at understanding different domains or branches of emotional intelligence,
relationship between emotional intelligence and; gender, personality disorders,
wellbeing, interpersonal interactions, predictability of PTSD, conflict resolution etc.
The studies that focused on understanding the existence of the factors like emotion
perception, emotion regulation etc. as part of emotional intelligence and their
influence on other factors like social intelligence, interaction etc. confirmed that
emotion perception is part of emotional intelligence and the successful social
adjustment is related to variation in self-perceived mood, and on a more accurate
perception of variations in others mood (Engelberg & Sjoberg, 2004; Austin et. al
(2005). The presence of emotion regulation as being part of emotional intelligence is
confirmed by Lopes et. al, (2004: 2005). They reported that emotion regulation
abilities are related to indicators of social intelligence and emotional intelligence
explains the ability to be friendly and is positively related to social interactions and
self perceived success in impression management.
24
Leible and Snell (2004) explored the relationship between personality disorders and
emotional intelligence. The results indicated a significant relationship between
personality disorders and six aspects of emotional intelligence namely: emotional
clarity, emotional attention, emotional regulation, private emotional awareness,
private emotional preoccupation and public emotional monitoring. Petrides et. al.
(2007) stated that emotional intelligence is significantly related to depression and nine
distinct personality disorders.
Austin et.al (2005) and Carmeli et. al (2009) report that emotional intelligence and
psychological and physical wellbeing were found to be positively related. The studies,
which explored the relationship between emotional intelligence and life satisfaction,
stated that EI accounts for individual difference in life satisfaction. Palmer et. al
(2002) made efforts to understand the relationship between life satisfaction and
emotional intelligence comparing emotional intelligence with the personality
variables. They reported that emotional intelligence does contribute to individual
differences in life satisfaction and at the same time, they reported that personality
variables have more predictability of life satisfaction than EI.
Studies that have explored the capacity of emotional intelligence in predicting stress
stated, women reporting higher in PTSD symptoms whilst there were no gender
differences in coping strategies. (Hunt, Evans, 2004); less burnout and somatic
complaints (Mikolajczak, Menil & Luminet. 2007); low scores on EI report higher
perceived stress (Pau & Craucher, 2003; Pau et. al. 2007) and more fatigue (Brown &
Schutte 2006). Gohm et. al. (2005) reports emotional intelligence is potentially
helpful in reducing stress for some individuals, but unnecessary or irrelevant for
others.
The above literature shows varied results related to the stress predictability of EI. Of
the studies reviewed in this section, Gohm et. als. (2005) study showing lack of
significant correlation between EI and experience of stress in the respondents of the
study stand apart from other studies as they show significant correlation between
these two factors.
25
Schutte et. al (2001) conducted 7 studies examining the link between emotional
intelligence and interpersonal relations. The results indicated significant positive
correlation between EI and empathetic perspective (1 & 2 studies), EI and social skills
(study 3), (Engelberg and Sjoberg, 2005) EI and cooperative responses towards
partners (study 4), EI; close and affectionate relationships (study 5), and satisfaction
in relationships. (Studies 6 & 7) Brackett et. al (2005) emphasized that couples with
both partners low on EI tended to have the lowest scores on depth, support, and
positive relationship quality and the highest scores on conflict and negative
relationship quality. Counter to their hypotheses, couples with both partners high on
EI did not consistently have higher scores on positive outcomes and lower scores on
negative outcomes than couples with one high EI partner.
Jordan et.als, (2002) study to understand the relationship between emotional
intelligence and conflict resolution brought out that individuals with higher levels of
emotional intelligence are more likely, or are more able to engage in collaborative
conflict resolution. Individuals with lower levels of emotional intelligence were more
likely to engage in greater use of the conflict resolution strategies of forcefulness and
avoidance.
Gender difference in emotional intelligence is another important factor that drew the
attention of the researchers. Good number of studies reported women scoring
signifcantly higher in EI than men (Brackett et. al 2004; Rooy, 2005; Bindu &
Emmanuel, 2006; Guastello and Guastello, 2003; Mayer et. al 2000; Daya & Carroll,
2004). Brackett et. al (2004) states that lower EI in males and the inability to perceive
emotions and to use emotion to facilitate thought, was associated with negative
outcomes, including illegal drug and alcohol use, deviant behaviour, and poor
relations with friends. They also stated that emotional intelligence was more
predictive of the Life Space criteria for men than for women. The researchers reason
for this difference is that, women are in a lower position than men in the society so
they have to read the emotions carefully. Where as Hunt (2004); Petrides & Furnham,
(2000); and Ciarrochi, Chan & Bajgar, (2001) reported men scoring higher in
emotional intelligence than woman.
26
In the above studies Hunt (2004); Petrides & Furnham, (2000); and Ciarrochi, Chan &
Bajgar, (2001) report that men score higher in emotional intelligence than women are
contradictory as the others confirmed it the other way. Difference of opinion is also
noticed in understanding the influence of emotional intelligence on life satisfaction.
Palmer (2002) emphasized that emotional intelligence contribution to life satisfaction
is significant. Where as Gannon & Ranzini; (2004) reported that the relationship is not
so significant.
A gender based study conducted by Lopes et. als (2005) centered on theory of
emotional intelligence (EI) as a framework to examine the role of emotional abilities
in social functioning revealed that women scored higher in Emotional intelligence
than men and at the same time lower in social performance. Like wise Bindu &
Thomas (2006) reported that a persons performance in the cognitive domain can be
predicted well if we have additional information regarding his or her non-cognitive
domain i.e. EI. In case of a female group, maladjustment was an important predictor
of all dimensions of EI. It is interesting to note in the findings that in men the
samples interpersonal efficacy had no significant correlates.
The above studies thus reveal that women have better emotional awareness than men
and at the same time when it comes to social performance men scored better than
women. As social skills are one of the domains of Emotional intelligence, having a
better emotional intelligence should lead to better social skills. Lopes et. als (2005)
explanation for these results is that women are culturally permitted to be emotional
and at the same time emotional expression operates within social norms, and the
norms governing appropriate gendered behavior for men and women are different.
One of the needs stressed by several researchers is to investigate whether emotional
intelligence can be changed through training (Goleman, 1995, Hunt & Evans 2004). A
few empirical studies available in relation to training emotional intelligence are in the
context of job where EI is looked at as a medium for enhancing problem solving
ability, leadership qualities and capacity to work in teams etc. there by increasing
organizational outcome. Dulewicz and Higgs (2004) emphasize emerging consensus
about enhancement of EI. Added to this the study of McEnrue et.al (2009) Emotional
intelligence development: leveraging individual characteristics states that receptivity
27
to feedback was directly associated with EI training gains while the interactions SE
(self efficacy) RF (receptivity to feedback) and SE-OE (openness to experience)
interactions were predictors of EI training gains.
1.2.6 Gaps in Literature
The above empirical literature shows varied findings in few contexts denoting the
need for further exploration in those areas. Some of the areas where the differences in
the findings noticed were; the difference in the outcomes of Brackett et. al (2003) and
others and Tett et. al and others (2005) relating to the reliability and validity of the
self report measures of the emotional intelligence, specially trait- emotional
intelligence tools need to be further explored. Another area was gender differences in
emotional intelligence. Mayer et. al (2000) and others reported women having higher
scores on EI and Hunt (2004) and others stated that there were no gender difference
noticed in their studies. These differences in the results call for further exploration.
Emotional intelligence seems to enhance the ability to manage ones emotions and
problem solving capacity in day-to-day situations (Mayer et. al, 1999). However, the
few studies reported regarding the influence of training on EI is done only in
organizational context but not in day-to-day interpersonal situations.
Emotional intelligence is the personal ability of an individual, enabling the person to
manage and regulate emotions. This managing and regulating of emotions will bring
change in the behaviours of the person enabling the person to change ones
behaviours along with changing emotions. Hunt and Evans (2004) stated that people
with high score of emotional intelligence using monitoring strategies and those with
lower scores using blunting strategies emphasizing the reality that emotional
intelligence does influence the way one copes with stressful situations of life. Chan
Davids (2003) study reveals that the higher the level of emotional intelligence, the
more the use of coping by valuing peer acceptance and involvement in activities
demanding higher Social Skills and in addition good utilization of Emotions, and the
lesser the level of EI, the more the use of coping by attempting avoidance. As these
few studies emphasize the influence of emotional intelligence on ones coping
28
strategies the coming section focuses upon understanding the relationship between the
coping strategies and Emotional Intelligence.
1.2.7 Coping and Emotional Intelligence
Coping is the effort made in dealing with stressful situations; and coping strategies are
the way we think and do to mange stress and the emotions associated with it
irrespective of the efforts being successful or not. Coping strategies are defined by
Lazarus and Folkman (1984) as Cognitive and behavioral efforts that an individual
uses to manage negative or stressful situations which might be fleeting or chronic, and
expected or unexpected (p.153). So to be successful, coping needs to be flexible and
adopted to the requirements of the situation, which usually changes as the event
follows (Lazarus & Lazarus 1994).
i) Classifications of Coping Strategies
There are two widely known classifications that are seen in the existing literature
related to coping strategies. The first one is a classification given by Lazarus and
Folkman (1984) and the second one is from Moos and Billings (1982).
Lazarus and Folkmans classification of coping strategies: Lazarus & Folkman,
(1984) noted two types of coping strategies namely; emotion focused coping strategy
(EFCS) and problem focused Active Coping (PFAC). These two types of coping
strategies are recognized globally. Emotion Focused Coping Strategy (EFCS) is
defined as those which are internal and private, are mounted to control distress and
dysfunction it might cause when there is little or nothing else we can do (Lazarus &
Folkman1984, pg 158). They are aimed at dealing with the upsetting emotions and
helping the person to come back to normal or happy state. They change depending on
the way of thinking about what is happening from a threatening perspective to a more
positive or realistic perspective.
They divided the coping that centers on emotion into two types. One is avoidance and
the other one is reappraisal of personal meaning. In avoidance, the efforts were made
not to think about what is troubling or try as best as possible to push it out of our
29
conscious awareness. Different people adopt different measures to avoid. Some of
them are like; sleeping when they are disturbed, using drugs, engaging in sports, and
adopting different defenses like denial, reaction formation, projection etc. Reappraisal
of personal meaning involves changing the personal meaning about the stressful event
by appraising it in a more benign and less threatening way. The new appraisal needs
to be based on the reality.
Second type of coping strategy is Problem Focused Active Coping (PFAC) that is a
way of dealing with stress by acting to change the circumstances that are causing the
stress. Here the energies of the person are directed towards solving the problem when
one is faced with a stressful or a threatening event. Some of the behaviours that are
involved in this strategy are confrontation, seeking social support etc.
The classification given by Moos and Billings (1982) talks about 3 types of coping
strategies namely; appraisal focused coping, emotion focused coping and problem
focused coping. This classification is adopted for the purpose of this study.
Classification of coping strategies given by Moos and Billings: Moos and Billings
gave a classification where they describe 9 behavioral responses under three broader
categories i.e. Appraisal focused, Emotion focused and problem focused coping
strategies.
Appraisal Focused Coping: During this type of coping, the energy of the individual is
directed towards cognitive functioning in trying to understand and looking for the
most appropriate ways of dealing with the situation. This coping includes three types
of behavioral responses namely, logical analysis, cognitive redefinition, and cognitive
avoidance.
Logical analysis includes trying to identify the cause of the problem, paying attention
to one aspect of the situation at a time, drawing on relevant past experiences and
mentally rehearsing possible actions and their consequences. The second type,
cognitive redefinition involves the strategies by which an individual accepts the
reality of the situation, but restructures to find something favorable. For example
reminding self that things could be worse, thinking of self as well off in respect to
30
others, concentrating on something good that might develop from the situation, and
altering values and priorities inline with changing realities. The third strategy
cognitive avoidance comprises denying with fear or anxiety under stress, trying to
forget the whole situation, refusing to believe that the problem really exists, and
engaging in wishful fantasies instead of thinking realistically about the problem.
Emotion focused coping: These strategies are mainly aimed at reducing emotional
distress or pain. This coping also include 3 types of behavioral responses namely,
affective regulation, resigned acceptance and emotional discharge.
Affective Regulation involves the efforts to control the emotion aroused because of
the problem by consciously postponing, paying attention to an impulse (suppression),
experiencing or working through ones feelings, trying not to be bothered by
conflicting feelings, maintaining a sense of pride and keeping a stiff upper lip,
tolerating ambiguity by withholding immediate action. The second response, resigned
acceptance includes responses like waiting for time to solve the problem, expecting
the worst, accepting the situation as it is, deciding that nothing can be done to change
and submitting to fate. The third behavioral response i.e. emotional discharge include
verbal responses to let off steam, crying, smoking, over eating, and engaging in
impulsive acting out.
Problem focused Coping: This type of coping strategies directs the energy in
identifying the problem and trying to look for different options in solving the
problem. This includes the responses like seeking for information or advice, taking
problem solving action and developing alternative rewards.
The first response seeking information or advice involves seeking more information
about the situation, obtaining direction and guidance from authority, talking with
someone close, and taking needed help from others. The second response taking
problem solving action includes making alternative plans, taking specific action to
deal directly with the situation, learning new skills directed at solving the problem and
compromising to try to resolve the issue. The last one developing alternative rewards
comprises attempts to deal with the problematic situation by changing ones activity
and creating new resources of satisfaction. For example building alternative social
31
relationships, developing greater autonomy and independence, and engaging in
substitute pursuits like doing volunteer work etc.
Looking at the reality of life situations, one knows that depending upon ones
emotional strength; a person gets affected by a stressful event. Initially a person
automatically gets engaged in emotion focused coping strategy and then moves to
problem focused strategy. In the process of using both the above strategies appraisal,
focused coping is helpful. Generally, all through if a person uses all energies only in
facing ones own emotions it is not a healthy situation. In the same way, not only do
we have to deal with the problem, but we must also learn to manage our own
emotions. Hence, one needs to use three types of coping in dealing with the situation.
This means in most situations these three coping strategies are conjoined. Considering
these facts the following section gives the empirical understanding of the linkage
between emotions and the coping.
ii) Studies on Coping
Research studies in this field show that individuals who use defensive or emotion-
focused strategies in response to problems have little potential (Folkman and Lazarus,
1980). Ader et al., (1991) stated that the preoccupation with emotional upset may
inhibit individuals with low self-esteem from engaging in assertive and adaptive
coping behaviours to combat stress, and low self-esteem may lead to performance
defcits, negative mood states and motivational defcits, which in turn lead to a
reduction in the exercise of adaptive problem-orientated coping and the relative
infrequent opportunity to gain successes and bolster self-esteem.
Another important aspect the studies report is gender differences in the selection of
coping strategies where males are seen adopting more problem focused strategies and
females adopting a more emotion-focused approach (Lawrence e. al. 2006). The same
type of differences are noticed in the studies cited above where women were
considered to be emotional but when it comes to their social interaction skills scored
lesser than men. It is clear that there are recorded gender differences between
emotional experiences and expression and in the usage of coping strategies.
32
It is evident that the emotional intelligence gets reflected in the way one copes with
the stressful situations. Researchers have revealed the concept of the emotional
intelligence and debated that different people have different levels of emotional
intelligence. The question that rises is how to help people to raise their emotional
intelligence. Cherniss and Goleman (1988) reports that people of all ages can become
more socially and emotionally competent. Drukat and Wolff (2001) after their study
Emotional Intelligence of Groups reported individual emotional intelligence has a
group analog, and it is just as critical to groups effectiveness (pg, 82). They also
emphasized that group context will provide a better and challenging atmosphere for
an individual to understand and enhance their emotional intelligence. At the same
time literature related to survivors of CSA emphasizes groups provide a better
atmosphere for women survivors to help them selves in dealing with the effects of the
experience of child sexual abuse. For these reasons, this study adopts a group context
to help survivors of child sexual abuse in dealing with their emotions.
The type of group, which directly aims at helping an individual to move towards
personal empowerment by learning emotional experience and expression, is called
encounter groups (Egan, 1970). Hence this study aims at understanding the
influence of encounter groups on emotional intelligence of women survivors of Child
sexual abuse. To minimize the methodological confusion existing in encounter group
literature regarding the aspects that constitute group process (Diamond et. al., 1975;
Fuhriman, 1984) aspects like stages of group development, etc. are adopted from
group work literature. For this reason, initially we focus upon related literature
regarding groups in general, and then we narrow down our focus to encounter groups
literature and finally we discuss the reasons for incorporating certain aspects from the
groups into encounter groups.
33
1.3 Groups
Personality and Social theorists like Bandura, Sullivan, Durkheim etc. and group
theorists confirmed that human beings are social beings and they grow into maturity
through their interactions with others in the groups to which they belong. Konopka
(1972) theorizes that the individual is not a separate entity but is a whole, interrelated
with others. By this, he implies that the individuals personality development is
interdependent. The basic principle of the group is, during social interactions the self
gets affected and affects the other individuals too. Kemp (1970) defines group as an
aggregate of organisms in which the existence of all is utilized for the satisfaction of
some needs of each (pg. 26).
Groups are the means of change in different disciplines like sociology, psychology
etc. and each discipline has its own understanding about the definition of the groups
depending upon the purpose. Gibb (1970) comments that sociology and psychology is
cross-fertilizing each other in the small group arena. Kemp (1970) considers that all
disciplines agree with the fact that in the group there must be interactions and as a
result of these interactions modifications occur in the individual at some level.
Another converging point across the disciplines about the groups is that they are
social microcosms where the members if given enough time and space, begin to
interact with each other as they interact with others in their social sphere, creating in
the group the same interpersonal universe they have always inhabited (Egan 1970;
Solomon and Berzon 1972; Konopka, 1972; Brown 1993; Yalom 1995).
As emphasized in literature, the agreement of group theorists about the importance of
the interactions in the group, it also indicates that depending upon some of the aspects
like size and type of interaction in the group (Rice A. K 1974; Johnson & Johnson,
1975); intimacy and depth of interaction (kemp, 1970); time period and purpose;
(India: Ministry of welfare, 1987) etc. small group experiences differ. Thompson and
Khan (1976) state that whatever might be the factors that are playing role and the
type of experiences group members have assumed, and even if all the events that are
taking place in the group are contributed by different people, everything can be
treated as if it was a product of a single entity. In this context some features in the
34
group are considered by group theorists (Kemp 1970; Shaw 1981) to be common in
all the groups. They are:
Group Purpose: This is the goal for which the group has come into existence. The
specific reason for which a group has come into existence is important in deciding
other factors like group size, duration, type of interventions etc. These are usually
expressed as type of goals the members want to achieve by joining the group.
Group size and composition: Depending upon the purpose of the group, the size and
composition of the group is decided. Thomas and Fink (1963) made important
distinctions among dyads, triads and large groups. He states that a dyad can be
destroyed with the withdrawal of a single member. Triads tend to divide into a dyad
and into an isolate. He quotes Nixon (1979) who states that groups of 5 members
indicate highest level of satisfaction. As the groups become larger the members
participation tends to decrease since there are several options available. A frequently
researched question regarding group composition is the effect of gender composition
on group process. Martin and Shanahan (1983) gave a comprehensive report after
their research in this issue saying that homogenous groups are more effective.
Group Structure: Shaw (1981) Defined group structure as the pattern of relationships
among differentiated parts of the group (pg 263). Garvin (1983) identified 5 types of
group structures. They are: sociometric structure; communication structure; role
structure; power structure; and leadership structure.
Group Process: This refers to the interactions and changes that are happening in the
group over time. It is very complex phenomenon that is difficult to visualize.
Group Culture: Members bring to the group their beliefs, traditions, values that they
acquired through their life experiences. Hartford (1971) has pointed out The culture
not only develops with in the group but also is influenced by the surroundings of the
group, the prevailing customs and norms of the community Normative behaviours
develop out of the cultural expectations of a particular group at a specific time (pg
270).
35
Group Development: The literatures on groups include a variety of models of group
development (Tuckman, 1965; Corey & Corey, 1982; Berman - Rossy, 1993). Despite
theoretical differences, all assume a process of orderly progression and growth
through a series of interdependent stages or phases (Berman-Rossi, 1993). Pedigo and
Singer (1982) mention Kaplan and Roman (1963) saying that the small groups go
through specific phases as it develops from undifferentiated to differentiated
condition. Phases of group development is defined as Regular and predictable
changes over the period of time during which the members constitute themselves as a
group. These changes are relatively independent of the characteristics of the
members, the nature of the groups task or purpose, and the situation in which
the group exists. These changes may be looked upon as relatively distinct and
discrete phases or stages in group behavior. Though the amount of time devoted
to any one phase will depend largely on the total length of time the members will
be a group, the nature and sequence of the changes will not be affected
significantly (Cissna, 1984, pg. 6).
Most researchers would agree that some categorization of behavior is possible
according to some time dimensions, which are divided into different phases. Covering
both group interpersonal and task activities, Tuckman (1965) described and labeled 4
stages of group development: forming, storming, norming, and performing. Similarly
Corey and Corey (1989) too gave 4 phases of group development namely: Initial
phase, Transition phase, working phase and termination phase. Papell & Rothman,
(1966 in Rose 1989) gave three phases of group development depending on the
intensity of interactions. They are; initial phase, middle phase and termination phase.
According to Corey and Corey (1989) Initial phase is characterized by participants
trying to test issues of trust, learning the norms of the group, less risk taking
behaviours and getting acquainted with the group. The characteristics of middle phase
are high levels of trust and cohesion, willingness to take risk, effective dealing of
conflicts, spontaneous feedback, confrontation etc. The characteristics of the phase of
termination are lessening of intensity of involvement, fears and anxiety of separation,
evaluating the achievement of group goal, planning for future etc.
During all stages of group development, depending upon the purpose of the group the
interventions change i.e. the interventions in social learning groups differ from that of
36
growth groups. Konopka (1972) believes that the members in the growth oriented
group need direct help with their problems and their personal development where as
the members in the social action group needs help in being effective on behalf of
solving problems that do not lay within self or in ones relationship with others. As
this study aims at understanding the influence of group process upon emotional
intelligence of the women survivors of CSA, the group chosen for this purpose is
considered as growth enhancement focusing on personality development. Hence, the
following section gives a brief summary of the historical development of growth
groups.
1.3.1 Historical Background
Encyclopedia of Social Work (1984) gives LeBon as the first social scientist to deal
with the small group phenomenon in The Crowd (1895) where he described the
contagious affects that arise in group situations. McDougall (1920) was another
pioneer in seeking ways to analyze group events. He was followed by Simmel (1950),
a sociologist who wrote about the effect of the size of the group. He also noted that
small groups require more participation than the large groups. Freud (1922) also
contributed to understand groups, analyzing the emotional reactions to group leaders
and these effects on the interaction among members.
As we look at the origins of the disciplines, namely psychology the understanding of
the individual and the group seem to be different prior to 19
th
century. Initially the
focus of psychology was individual and the intra personal dynamics of the individual.
Later though Freud (cited in Stoller 1970) stated the importance of analyzing the
emotional reactions to group leaders and these effects on the interaction among
members, this was not pursued. McLeod & Polley (2004) say, The humanistic
approach began with a focus on groups where as Psychoanalytic approach started with
a focus on individuals (pg. 344). During 20
th
century, this traditional view has given
way to the understanding of groups as society. Added to that John Deweys and
Allports emphasis on the influence of groups upon individual had raised curiosity in
several sociologists and psychologists leading to the study of persons and her/his
group life at an increasing pace. Another important contribution was made by Moreno
37
in 1930s emphasizing the patterns of interpersonal relationships in the group as key
to understand the group phenomenon.
In 1947, Kurt Lewin a Gestalt Psychologists initiation of t-groups was an important
land mark in the history of the development of the groups. He is known to be the first
person who began to study groups scientifically. He with his associates created the
Research Centre for Group Dynamics in 1946, which was shifted to the University
of Michigan in 1947 after his death.
Later, in 1960s Carl Rogers came up with the concept of Encounter where he
perceived deep intra and interpersonal encounters occur in the context of the group.
He considered that this is a common phenomenon in any intensive group experiences
and looked upon t-groups, sensitivity training groups and encounter groups having
these intensive experiences. He used these three names as synonyms to a greater
extent. At the same time, Rogers (1970) emphasized on experiencing and expressing
intense emotions in the here and now group context as important characteristic of
encounter group process. As the broader focus of this study is to understand
experiencing and expressions of emotions of women survivors in a group context,
encounter groups are chosen for the purpose of this study. The following section gives
in detail about encounter groups and their empirical explorations.
1.3.2 Encounter Groups
In Early 90s William James remarked in his book Psychopathology of the average
that very few individuals actualize 10% of their potentials during their lifetime. With
the same belief Rogers began in 1960s encounter group processing for normal
people who wish to better their lives and are aiming towards self actualization.
Though initially encounter groups were thought to be the best for the normal people,
in the course of time i.e. by late 70s therapeutic influence of the group process was
recognized. Then encounter groups were started for people with special issues where
the focus was upon attitudinal change, skill development that involves emotional
experience and exploration (Diamond & Shaphiro, 1975, Rogers 1974). Encounter
group is defined as a place to which people come to learn about themselves for a
38
wide variety of reasons but without any implication that they are in difficulty
(Stoller, 1970).
Rogers interest in helping people to actualize potentials impelled him to think in
several ways. This raised interest and concern for helping people evolved as Person
Centered Community Group (Bazarth, 1992) which was named as encounter group
by Carl Rogers in 1960. Initially these groups were conducted with 30 to 800
members calling them as community groups with the basic premise of the person
centered approach i.e. dedication of the facilitator to the natural growth process of the
individual and of the universe. Slowly the number had come down to 10 12. John K
Wood, who has been one of the facilitators with Roger in hundreds of groups states
that when we worked with 800, many people said, I feel uncomfortable in this
large group to really be myself. I need to be in a smaller group. We divided into
groups of 100 to 150 and immediately these people expressed relief and there was
considerable personal sharing of feelings and meaningful encounter, slowly number
came down to 10 or 12 for the purpose of more intimate sharing (Bazrath, 1992).
Back (1988) views that at the height of the encounter group movement, roughly 1965
to 75 various presentations in media gave the term "encounter group" a definite
meaning. a meeting, lasting from a few hours to more than a week, in pleasant
surroundings, quite expensive, but with ostentatious simplicity; the time was patterned
in exercises that were to lead to self-realization, a term rich in connotation but not
otherwise defined; the centerpiece of the enterprise was the conduct of group sessions
in which participants were supposed to give free reign to their feelings and which also
included many structured exercises which were supposed to help in this effort; the
group sessions lasted from a few hours to marathons of twenty-four to forty-eight
hours. They led to intenseso-called peakexperiences, short-range extreme
attachment to the group. Subjective feelings changed, proclaiming the desired self-
realization (pg. 51). This understanding of the encounter groups reveal the
intensity of involvement demanded from the group members and deeper self-
realization as the assumed outcome of the encounter group process.
Later Gerard Egan introduced more structure in to encounter group process by
introducing the term contract. He says, I believe that a degree of structure in
39
encounter groups makes them more effective, for then both the goals of the
experience and the means of achieving them are clear. A contract is one way of
providing such structure. (1971, 13) According to him by becoming the member of
an encounter group, an individual is entering in contract with:
Group goals are mainly one or other form of interpersonal growth, which involves
becoming aware of present interpersonal style and discovering more effective ways of
being present to others.
Leadership where the leader remains as a mere facilitator and leadership is considered
as a set of group functions which must be fulfilled if the group is to achieve its goals.
Therefore, all the members of the group are to assume the responsibility of initiating
the kind of interactions outlined.
Laboratory where Egan considers the experiences in encounter group as a laboratory
for a number of reasons like:
- It is learning by doing: Learning to relate with others more efficiently by
actually relating with members of the group
- One will receive feedback getting an understanding of how one comes
across to others so that one can decide upon what changes one needs to
make in behaviours for more efficient relating
- The experiences are designed to allow one to experiment with new
behaviours.
The core interactions which are considered as the core of the encounter group
experiences and therefore the heart of this contract are; self disclosure, the expression
of feeling, listening, support, confrontation, responding to confrontation, flight and
freedom.
In the year 1975, Diamond and Shapiro after reviewing literature on encounter groups
and observing methodological flows that can occur during the scientific study of these
groups; proposed a model called as Experimental paradigm model. This model
consists of the following steps.
40
1. Determination and specification of the group goals
2. Screening of group members
3. Pre testing: Biographical and subjective expectational scales; self report measures,
behavioral and psycho physiological measures, observer reports etc are collected.
4. Conducting of the group Process
5. Post Testing: Tested about the level of achievement of goal.
6. Follow up: 3 6 month follow up
7. Follow up 1 -3 years after group process
8. Data analysis.
Thus, they tried to bring in more structure in conducting encounter group process to
rectify the methodological flaws noticed during the scientific study of encounter
group process. Whatever might be the changes proposed by different theorists like
Egan (1970), or Diamond and Saphiro (1975), the basic theoretical orientation of
encounter groups remains the same as given by Carl Rogers.
i) Theoretical Understanding of the Encounter Group
Encounter groups though evolved from t- groups and had gone through several
structural changes over the years; the theoretical orientation remains the same, as it
was give by its author Carl Rogers in 1960s. He stressed upon the potential of person
centered approach in enabling people to deal with their problems and to live life more
lively. Thus though others tried to bring in more structure in to Encounter groups, the
basic theoretical approach remains the same as of Rogers person centered approach
.
Person Centered Approach as theoretical orientation of Encounter
Groups: Roger (1974) considered t-groups, sensitivity training groups and encounter
groups as synonyms of a group process involving intensive group experiences. At the
same time, he emphasized that the theoretical orientation of encounter groups need to
be person centered approach.
Rogers (1957) stated that there are six necessary and sufficient conditions required for
change in helping relationship, which he gives as basic principles of person centered
approach: The first one is Therapist-Client Psychological Contact denoting a
41
relationship between client and therapist in which each person's perception of the
other is important. Second, one is Client incongruence or Vulnerability. This means
the incongruence that exists between the client's experience and awareness. Third one
is Therapist Congruence or Genuineness. The therapist is congruent within the
therapeutic relationship. The therapist is deeply involved in his or herself - they are
not "acting" - and they can draw on their own experiences (self-disclosure) to
facilitate the relationship. The fourth one is Therapist Unconditional Positive Regard
(UPR). The therapist accepts the client unconditionally, without judgment,
disapproval or approval. This facilitates increased self-regard in the client, as they can
begin to become aware of experiences in which their view of self-worth was distorted
by others. Fifth, one is Therapist Empathic understanding. The therapist experiences
an empathic understanding of the client's internal frame of reference. Accurate
empathy on the part of the therapist helps the client believe the therapist's
unconditional love for her/him. The sixth one is Client Perception of at least a
minimal degree, the therapist's unconditional positive regard and empathic
understanding. Carl Rogers from his experience of conducting several encounter
groups summarizes encounter group process under the following heading.
ii) Encounter Group Process
Though the encounter groups are not primarily therapy groups, the process of group
work ensures therapeutic experience to its group members as several therapeutic
factors are involved in it (Frank, 1971; Yalom, 1995, Corey and Corey 1992). Some
of the factors which Frank (1971) considers important for therapeutic experiences in
the group are confiding relationship with the group members, provision of new
information based on the concerns of the group members, and facilitation of
emotional arousal which is a prerequisite to attitudinal and behavioral change. These
are the basic aspects of encounter group process too.
Though existence of therapeutic factors is innate during encounter group process, they
are different from the therapy groups. Russel (2006), in his article Facts about
Encounter Groups: First facts enumerates the three characteristics of encounter
groups that makes them distinct from therapy groups. The first one is; the goal of
Encounter groups is "personal change" or growth and not psychotherapy; thus, "The
participant is usually not labeled a 'patient' and the experience is not ordinarily labeled
42
'therapy' (Liberman et.al 1973, p. 4). The second one is Encounter groups encourage
strong emotions that are open and confronting, i.e., "high stimulation." And finally the
third one is Encounter groups focus on the here and now.
In encounter groups the learning takes place through the interactions among the group
members, facilitator - group members, and through relationships and crises that occur
both to self and with the other. Fredrick (1969) views the encounter group as a setting
where people come together to rub up against one another so that they may experience
others and, ultimately, themselves more fully.
Egan (1974) gives some similarities of external characteristics among the groups like
encounter groups, which focus upon intensive group experience. They are: smaller
size of the group (8 18); relatively unstructured; chooses its own goals and personal
direction; the group experiences include some cognitive input, some content material
depending upon the need; in almost all instances in the group the leaders
responsibility is primarily the facilitation of the expression of both feelings and
thoughts on the part of the group members and both in the leader and the group
members there is some focus on the process and dynamics of the immediate personal
interaction. Some of the process patterns Rogers (1970) emphasized as part of the
encounter group process are:
a. Milling around: Since there is lack of basic structure for interaction, initially
the members go through confusion and frustration. In the process of facing
this confusion and frustration some one initiates a discussion suggesting some
thing as simple as saying let us introduce each other Then the members
continue to proceed.
b. Resistance to personal expression or exploration: During the period of
mulling around some members, reveal some of their personal attitudes more
easily. This might raise a very ambivalent reaction among other members of
the group. Initially members reveal their public self to one another in the
group. Gradually, fearfully and ambivalently they begin to reveal their inner
world.
43
c. Description of past feelings: In spite of ambivalence about the trustworthiness
of the members of the group and the risk of exposing one self, expression of
feelings does begin to assume a larger proportion of discussion. These feelings
that are expressed will be mainly connected to past experiences and their
expression will be mere reporting without much personal involvement.
d. Expression of negative feelings: Slowly the first expression of genuinely
significant here and now feelings come out in negative attitudes toward
other group members or toward the group leader.
e. Expression and exploration of personally meaningful material: The initial
confusion, the resistance to personal expression, the focus on outside events,
and the voicing of critical or angry feelings leads the members to revealing of
self to the group in a significant way. This stands as an indication of individual
members of the group realizing this as part of ones group. With the
experience of acceptance of self even after expression of negative feelings,
one realizes climate of trust, and freedom of course a risky freedom.
f. The expression of immediate interpersonal feelings in the group: The
members of the group move into open expression of feelings experienced in
the here and now context by one member about the other. They may be
either positive or negative or both. Each of these attitudes can be, and usually
is explored in the increasing climate of trust.
g. The development of a healing capacity in the group: One of the most
fascinating aspects of intensive group experience is the manner in which a
number of group members show a natural and spontaneous capacity for
dealing in a helpful, facilitative and therapeutic fashion with the pain and
suffering of the other.
h. Self acceptance and the beginning of change: The experience of feeling of
greater realness and authenticity leads a member towards learning to accept
and to be of self. This lays foundation for change.
44
i. The cracking of facades: As the time goes on the group finds it unbearable that
any member should live behind a mask or a front. The expression of self by
some members of the group has made it very clear that a deeper and more
basic encounter is possible, and the group appears to strive intuitively and
unconsciously towards this goal. Either gently or with demand at others, the
group insists that individual be one self and that the current feelings not be
hidden.
j. The individual receives feedback: In the process of freely, expressive
interaction the individual acquires the information how self appears to others.
This can be warm and positive or unpleasant and negative.
k. Confrontation: Sometimes it might occur that the term feedback is too mild
to describe the interactions that are happening in the group. Then it is better
said that one individual confronts another directly leveling with him. These
are usually decidedly negative.
l. The helping relationships outside the group sessions: In the course of time,
group members begin to become helpers to one another even out side the
group. This facilitates the process of continuing and maintaining the change or
growth that is happening in individuals due to the participation in the group.
m. The Basic Encounter: Rogers views this as a central experience where
members encounter very deeply both at intra and interpersonal level. He states
that The incredible fact experienced over and over by members of the group
was that when a negative was fully expressed to another, the relationship grew
and the negative feeling was replaced by the deeper acceptance of the other
thus real change seem to have occur when feelings were expressed and
experienced in the context of relationship (Rogers, 1974, pg.167).
n. Expression of positive feelings and closeness: As the sessions proceed there is
an increasing feeling of warmth, group spirit and trust built, not out of positive
attitude only, but out of a realness which include both positive and negative
feeling.
45
o. Behaviour changes in the group: Gradually the behaviours of the members in
the group changes towards being more assertive, spontaneous, being
thoughtful and helpful towards the other etc.
The above discussed patterns of interactions that are noticed during encounter group
process can be organized as a distinct phenomenon those are observed during group
process (Fuhriman et.al., 1984). Rogers (1970) summarizes these patterns of
interactions into 3 important phenomena that are noticed during encounter group
process. They are; experiencing and expression of intense emotions, self disclosure
and feedback. During the group process, interactions in the group play a major role
leading to deeper intra and interpersonal explorations among the members of the
group leading to deeper relationship with self and the other.
During the interactions and developing interpersonal relationships, emotions play a
central role. One of the major therapeutic factors in any therapeutic context is the
experience and expression of emotions. Frank (1971) says, The efforts of encounter
groups to stir their members emotionally are paralleled in dyadic therapy by the
revival of interest in emotional reaction (p. 308). Thus, experiencing and expression
of intense emotions is considered as a unique phenomenon of encounter group
process.
According to Egan (1970), a shift takes place in the self disclosure of the individuals
as the group matures over a period of time. It is a shift from history mode of
involvement to story mode of involvement in other words, impersonal to personal.
History mode is pseudo self disclosure. It is actuarial and analytic, and usually
has a strong there and then flavor. It clocks off the facts of the experience and even
interpretations of the experience but leaves the person of the revealer relatively
untouched. (p.235) Story is considered as an authentic self disclosure by Egan. It
reveals the person from within and gets the person involved with the listener.
Expressing the trust upon the listener the speaker reveals ones inner thoughts,
feelings and behaviours.
46
As the self disclosure deepens drawing the involvement of the group members,
supportive behaviours begin to evolve in the group. The supportive behaviours Egan
(1970) points out are; Listening and Feedback. As the group members grow in
listening, they become active listeners. In active listening, they listen by becoming
aware of feelings that arise within self and the other due to the contact with each
other. As the group members get involved with each other in self disclosure and
active listening; trust and freedom begin to build up in the group bringing
cohesiveness among the members. This trust and freedom is expressed in the way
they give feedback to each other. Feedback can be of two types. The first one is
confrontation and the other is appreciation. According to Egan (1970) confrontation
challenges confronted, pulls him up short, directs him to reflect upon or change
some aspects of his behaviour. As confrontation brings an awareness of the areas to
be changed, appreciation points to the areas to be strengthened. Both will deepen the
awareness of the person. Giving and receiving of confrontation and appreciation
involves important relational skills.
Thus, literature on encounter groups emphasize, experiencing and expressing intense
emotions, self disclosure and feedback as few important phenomenon to be noticed to
understand the encounter group process. The unique characteristic of encounter group
process i.e. experiencing and expressing intense emotions provide most favorable
context for the purpose of this study i.e. to understand the influence of encounter
group process on the emotional intelligence of the survivors of CSA. At the same time
given to the characteristics of survivors of CSA, namely distortion in emotional
experience and expressions (Luterek et. al, 2005) two other phenomenon namely;
conflict and group structures that are considered as part of group phenomenon by the
group theorists is adopted into encounter group phenomenon for the purpose of this
study.
Schmidt and Kochan (1972) consider conflict as a universal social process through
which disagreements between people or groups are addressed and sometimes
resolved. Conflict can be defined as the interference by one individual or group in the
attempts by another individual or group to achieve a goal. The literature on emotional
intelligence emphasize that the individuals with high emotional intelligence preferred
to seek collaborative solutions when confronted with conflict (Jordan et.al, 2002;
47
Ayoko, 2008). The emotional distortion of the women with CSA is reflected in the
lower levels of their emotional intelligence it is considered that observation of the
way of resolution of the conflict will play a major role in influencing and indicating
level of emotional intelligence of women survivors of CSA during encounter group
process.
Similarly, literature on women survivors of CSA (Griffing et.al, 2005; Liem et.al,
1992; Feiauer et.al, 1996) highlight that survivors have difficulties in interpersonal
relationships and tend to isolate themselves (Sanderson, 1995; Hall 1993) from
others. Hartford (1971) states that in a group people have some influence on each
other, choose each other, reject each other, or support each other on the basis of
various attractions. From these attractions and repulsions she considers that patterns
of affiliation and relationships emerge of which some patterns organize into group
structures. She emphasizes that as these relationships develop, the essence of the
group emerges where members begin to function together in taking action,
deliberating, establishing and achieving group goals. It is considered that observation
of the above changes happening in the relationships of women with in the group and
outside the group gives an indication of the influence of the group process upon them.
Changes in the patterns of relationships that are happening at different levels like
communication, roles, power, relationships and leadership are considered to be group
structures (Garvin, 1987). The group structures that aid in this process are:
Communication structure; it comprises who speaks to whom, about what and under
what circumstances.
Sociometric Structure; which includes the aspects of who likes whom or dislikes in
the group.
Power Structure brings to light who influences whom in the group and in what
manner.
Leadership Structure takes account of who contributes most to the determination and
accomplishment of group tasks as well as who contributes most to reducing tensions,
enhancing group cohesiveness, and securing compliance with formal and informal
rules.
Role Structure consists of who occupies formally recognized positions, such as
chairpersons, secretaries, and so forth, which fills positions, created by group
48
activities, and fulfils categories growing out of even more informal group interactions.
(Garvin, 1987)
The changes in the patterns of relationships in the above said group structures denote
changes happening in the group members as the sessions are proceeding. Garvin
(1987) considers that these changes enable us to understand the passage of group
through different phases of development.
As we focus upon different influences upon group members during the group process,
it is important to observe the negative influences in the group and to minimize them.
Some of the possible hazards of the group experience which Rogers (1970) cautions
about are:
x Some individuals may become deeply involved in revealing self and then be left
with problems which are not dealt with.
x The learned honest expressions might become threat for other members of the
family who havent had any idea about encounter groups.
x If it is a heterogeneous group having both men and women, the positive warm and
loving feelings developed in encounter group might lead to sexual component
leading to marital conflicts.
Encounter group process can be summarized as: an intensive group, with much
freedom and little structure, the individual will gradually feel safe enough to drop
some of ones defenses and facades; will relate more directly on feeling basis with
other members of the group; will also come to understand self and the relationship to
others more accurately; will change his personal attitudes and behaviour; and will
subsequently relate more effectively to others in his everyday life situations.
One of the factors that exert major influence upon change in group phenomenon
during any group process and the outcome of the group is leader or facilitator of the
group. As in any other group facilitator plays a major role during the encounter group
process too. Having its roots in positivistic psychology person centered approach
emphasizes in trusting individuals potential to solve ones own problems and in this
process visualizes the leader as a mere facilitator.
49
iii) Facilitator in Encounter Groups
The main function of the group leader in encounter groups is facilitative in nature.
The investigations of Yalom and Liberman (1971) and Liberman et.al (1972, in
Shapiro & Klein 1975) state that the leadership style strongly influences positive
outcomes as well as negative consequences like psychological causalities. Shapiro
and Klein (1975) state The most powerful influence in the encounter group is that
which is contributed by the leader; what he says and does, and how he is perceived
and responded to by group members, generally determine the climate of the group
(pg. 238).
The role of the facilitator in encounter group is opinioned in different ways by
different group theorists. Easton et. al (1972) view leader in encounter group on a
continuum which seemed to extend from leader as participant and leader with special
expert status. Rogers (1970) takes a similar position as Thomas, Warkentine, O
Banion and labeled self as a participant facilitator. For this reason, Rogers (1970)
preferred to call himself as facilitator of encounter group than a leader. Egan (1970)
also combined both stands of leader being a participant and a facilitator. He makes
leader too part of the contract of encounter group along with the participants and
recommends that the leader becomes less and less leader and more and more a
member. Given to the demand upon the facilitator in encounter group to balance
participative and facilitating roles, one needs a special training and enhancement of
facilitative skills.
Rogers (1970) considered 3 elements which need to be given importance while
training facilitators for encounter groups. The first one is experience of being a
participant in more than one small encounter group. The second one is cognitive input
sessions giving information about a wide spectrum of approaches used in groups. And
finally the opportunities to co-facilitate at least two encounter groups. Massarik
(1972) considers 4 criteria as most important to be included in the training for
encounter group facilitator. They are: conceptual knowledge; training experience;
technical skills; and humanness. The above two sets of recommendations for training
encounter group facilitator emphasize both knowledge about facilitating groups,
facilitative skills and personal characteristics of the facilitator.
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Carl Rogers (1971) considered the responsibilities of a facilitator during encounter
group process are: Climate setting; acceptance of the group; acceptance of the
individual; empathetic understanding; operating in terms of ones feelings
(nonjudgmental); expression of ones problems if needed; avoidance of interpretive or
process comments; physical movement and contact; and trust in the therapeutic
potential of the group. In the same context he states that some of nonfacilitative
behaviours are; pushing, manipulating a group by making rules for it and endeavoring
towards ones own unspoken goals; judging the success or failure of a group by its
dramatics; attacking the group; when ones own emotional problems are pressing; and
finally withholding self from personal and emotional participation in the group.
Russel (2006) considers emotional stimulation as the most important leadership
characteristic for differentiating encounter group process from other group processes.
The considerations expressed in the above literature regarding the role of facilitator in
the encounter groups can be summarized by saying that the encounter group facilitator
needs special skills to perceive the need of the group for direction, emotional
stimulation in the group members with the expression of unconditional positive regard
and acceptance. According to Rogers (1970) and Egan (1970), another important
aspect to be noted in facilitating encounter groups is the facilitator taking upon self
the diminishing role by taking back seat and allowing the members to take lead as the
group is getting mature.
Encounter groups had been in their peek during 1960 75 (roughly) (Back, 1988) was
explored empirically for their outcomes. The following section discusses about the
empirical explorations in the area of encounter groups.
The literature on encounter groups points to several positive outcomes due to the
encounter group experience. Reviewing 200 research studies, Gibb (1971) reports
increased awareness of social reality due to encounter group experiences correlated
with self actualization. (Solomom and Berzon (Eds), 1972; Berman & Zimpfer 1980)
Presenting a paper in a symposium based on his study Motschnig-Pitrik (2006) stated
that qualitative and the quantitative study confirmed that the vast majority of students
learned significantly on the level of personal attitudes and social skills by
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participating in the encounter group process. Cooper (1974) reported A large number
of trainees saw themselves and were seen by their family, friends and children as
slightly better able to cope with personal and family problems, more happy, better
able to get on with their children and/or significant person/s, and better able to
communicate (pg 48). The results of the study of Marks and Vestre (1974) indicated
that encounter groups increase an individual's capacity for intimate contact and, in
other ways change an individual's self-perception.
An important factor around which the personality development centers in encounter
groups is Feedback. In this regard, Brabender (2006) stated that the successful
members of the group tend to receive less negative feed back than unsuccessful
members and relative to self disclosure, feedback instigated more mature forms of
group interaction and greater group cohesion. The findings of Jacobs et. al. (1973)
would suggest that the credibility of positive behavioral feedback is enhanced by the
addition of positive emotional feedback concerning the reactions of the giver of
feedback. Negative behavioral feedback is best delivered in the absence of negative
emotional reactions.
The effectiveness of encounter groups was a matter of some dispute during 1970s,
and there was some discussion over the effectiveness of the group experience outside
the group. Outcome of few studies showed negative results (Solomon et. al. 1972).
These studies were also accused of biased sampling, lack of control groups and
unspecified group process. Bebout and Gordon (Cited in Solomon et. al, 1972) did an
extensive study with more than one thousand encounter group participants focusing
on description of the outcome i.e. significant changes in personal and interpersonal
domains. Their study shows that due to encounter group experiences, self esteem
increases, self concept changes in positive direction, self actualizing tendencies are
greater, alienation is reduced, and individual problems are lessened and people
become close with each other and feel less lonely.
After exploring the validity of the criticism faced by encounter groups, Lieberman,
Yalom and Miles (Cited in Solomon et. al, 1972) concluded that 7% of the
participants showed negative outcome i.e. suffering a psychological harm that is
evident 6 8 months after the termination of the group. They commented that these
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negative effects were not due to the encounter group work, but they had been showing
the symptoms even earlier. This study brings to light the fact that the screening of the
members before admitting them into the group is one of the important factors.
Majority of the empirical studies on encounter groups had focused upon the outcome
of encounter group process and the permanency of that outcome. The processes that
take place in the group bringing in those outcomes are not much explored. From the
literature it is evident that during the group process, interactions in the group play a
major role leading to deeper interpersonal relationships among the members of the
group. During the interactions and developing interpersonal relationships, emotions
play a central role. One of the major therapeutic factors in any therapeutic context is
the experience and expression of emotions. Frank (1971) says, The efforts of
encounter groups to stir their members emotionally are paralleled in dyadic therapy by
the revival of interest in emotional reaction (pg: 308).
Emotions alter thinking and behavioral patterns of individuals. These are internal
events that coordinate many psychological subsystems including physiological
responses, cognitions and conscious awareness. Emotions arise in response to a
persons changing relationships with others and convey meaning of those
relationships. Intelligence that is concerned with emotions is considered as non-
cognitive intelligence, named as Emotional Intelligence (EI). To explore the
influence of encounter group process on the emotional intelligence is the main
objective of this study.
1.4 Conclusion
Child sexual abuse is one of the issues that had raised alarm in Indian society in the
recent past. The survivors are affected physically, emotionally and cognitively. Of
these effects, emotional effect of the experience of the child sexual abuse on women
survivors is the one of the focal points of this study. The above discussion makes it
clear that the ability to manage emotions is considered as emotional intelligence and it
influences the coping strategies of the individual. Based on the literature it is
considered that the emotional intelligence of the survivors of child sexual abuse is
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considerably low due to the experience of CSA. Emotional intelligence is intra and
interpersonally oriented and the group context is felt important for helping women
survivors (Saxe, 1993; Ailawadi, 1998). Hence, encounter group process is considered
for this study along with adoption of conflict and group structures into its
phenomenon. Another reason for considering encounter group process for the purpose
of this study is its emphasis on emotional experience and expression during the group
process.
Child sexual abuse, emotional intelligence, coping strategies and encounter groups
being the areas of focus for this study, the existing literature in these areas is explored
in this chapter. After establishing theoretical linkages between them, the next chapter
focuses upon discussing the background for the present study, rationale, objectives
and the methodological issues.