VTU E-learning Notes

Antennas and Propagation

Sub:Antennas and Propagation Code: 06EC64

Poornima.G, Associate Professor, Dept of E&C, BMSCE, Blore

Unit 7:
RADIO WAVE PROPAGATION: Introduction, Ground wave propagation, free space propagation, groundreflection, surface wave.

RADIO PROPAGATION What is Radio? Radio is a Transmitter or a Receiver. The Radio Transmitter induces electric and magnetic fields. The electrostatic field Components is 1/d3, induction field components is 1/d2 and radiation field components is 1/d.The radiation field has E and B Component. Surface area of sphere centered at transmitter, the field strength at distance d = EB 1/d2. Two main factors affect signal at the Receiver. One is distance (or delay) that results in path attenuation, second is multipath that results in Phase differences

Green signal travels 1/2 farther than Black to reach receiver, who sees Blue. For 2.4 GHz, (wavelength) =12.5cm. Your ability to work with radio is based on 4 factors: 1. Your skill as a radio operator ( knowing your regs. etc..); 2. Your equipment and how you use it; 3. The antennas you use; 4. Understanding radio wave propagation.
Poornima.G,Associate Professor,BMSCE,Blore

VTU E-learning Notes

Antennas and Propagation

Antennas: The antennas are the transducers. The transmitting antenna changes the electrical energy into electromagnetic energy or waves. The receiving antenna changes the electromagnetic energy back into electrical energy. These electromagnetic waves propagate at rates ranging from 150kHz to 300GHz. POLARIZATION: The polarization of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field with respect to the Earth's surface and is determined by the physical structure of the antenna and by its orientation.Radio waves from a vertical antenna will usually be vertically polarized and that from a horizontal antenna are usually horizontally polarized. PROPAGATION Propagation means how radio waves travel from one point A to another point B. What are the events that occur in the transmission path and how they affect the communications between the points? Electromagnetic Waves (EM waves) are produced when the electrons in a conductor i.e antenna wire are made to oscillate back and forth. These waves radiate outwards from the source at the speed of light(300 million meters per second). Electromagnetic Waves are of two types (i)Light Waves (waves we see) (ii)Radio Waves (waves we hear).Both of these EM Waves differ only in frequency and wavelength. EM waves travel in straight lines, unless acted upon by some outside force. They travel faster through a vacuum than through any other medium. As EM waves spread out from the point of origin, they decrease in strength in what is described as an "inverse square relationship".

Poornima.G,Associate Professor,BMSCE,Blore

VTU E-learning Notes

Antennas and Propagation

Electric Field, E

Direction of Propagation

Magnetic Field, H
The two fields are at right-angles to each other and the direction of propagation is at right-angles to both fields. The Plane of the Electric Field defines the Polarisation of the wave. The radio waves can further be classified as Transverse and longitudinal. The Transverse Waves Vibrates from side to side;i.e, at right angles to the direction in which they travel for eg:A guitar string vibrates with transverse motion. EM waves are always transverse.

For Longitudinal radio waves vibrations are parallel to the direction of propagation. Sound and pressure waves are longitudinal and oscillate back and forth as vibrations are along or parallel to their direction of travel

Poornima.G,Associate Professor,BMSCE,Blore

VTU E-learning Notes

Antennas and Propagation

Factors affecting the propagation of radio wave are (i)Spherical shape of the earth:-For Free Space RW travel in straight line. But communication on the earth surface is limited by distance to horizon and requires change in propagation. (ii)Atmosphere-Height of about 600km.Is divided into layers. RW near the surface is affected by troposphere. Higher up RW is influenced by ionosphere. (iii)Interaction with the objects.

Atmosphere:Is divided into Troposphere(earths surface to about 6.5 mi), Stratosphere(extends from the troposphere upwards for about 23 mi), Ionosphere(extends from the stratosphere upwards for about 250mi) Beyond this layer is Free Space.

The ionosphere is the uppermost part of the atmosphere and is ionized by solar radiation. Ionization is the conversion of atoms or molecules into an ion by light (heating up or charging) from the sun on the upper atmosphere. Ionization also creates a horizontal set of stratum (layer) where each has a peak density and a definable width or profile that influences radio propagation. The ionosphere is divided into layers.

Poornima.G,Associate Professor,BMSCE,Blore

VTU E-learning Notes

Antennas and Propagation

About 120 km to 400 km above the surface of the Earth is the F layer. It is the top most layer of the ionosphere. Here extreme ultraviolet (UV) (10-100 nm) solar radiation ionizes atomic oxygen (O). The F region is the most important part of the ionosphere in terms of HF communications. The F layer combines into one layer at night, and in the presence of sunlight (during daytime), it divides into two layers, the F1 and F2.The F layers are responsible for most sky wave propagation of radio waves, and are thickest and most reflective of radio on the side of the Earth facing the sun. The E layer is the middle layer, 90 km to 120 km above the surface of the Earth. This layer can only reflect radio waves having frequencies less than about 10 MHz. It has a negative effect on frequencies above 10 MHz due to its partial absorption of these waves. At night the E layer begins to disappear because the primary source of ionization is no longer present. The increase in the height of the E layer maximum increases the range to which radio waves can travel by reflection from the layer. The D layer is the innermost layer, 50 km to 90 km above the surface of the Earth. when the sun is active with 50 or more sunspots, During the night cosmic rays produce a residual amount of ionization as a result high-frequency (HF) radio waves aren't reflected by the D layer. The D layer is mainly responsible for absorption of HF radio waves, particularly at 10 MHz and below, with progressively smaller absorption as the frequency gets higher. The absorption is small at night and greatest about midday. The layer reduces greatly after sunset. A common example of the D layer in action is the disappearance of distant AM broadcast band stations in the daytime.

Poornima.G,Associate Professor,BMSCE,Blore

VTU E-learning Notes

Antennas and Propagation

Radio Propagation Modes:

RADIO WAVES

SPACE

GROUND

SKY

REFLECTED

DIRECT

SURFACE

Ground Wave Propagation:Propagation of EM wave near earth surface (including troposphere).When the Transmit and Receive antenna are on earth there can be multiple paths for communication. If the Transmit and Receive antenna are in line of sight (LOS) then direct path exist. The propagating wave is called direct wave. When EM wave encounters an interface between two dissimilar media, a part of energy will flow along the interface Known as Surface Wave. At LF and MF this is predominant mode of energy transfer for vertically polarized radiation. Interaction with the objects on ground will manifest as, Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction, Scattering. Waves are collectively called as Space Wave. FREE SPACE: Implies an infinite space without any medium or objects that can interact with the EM wave. Antenna is kept in free space and radiation fields are in the form of spherical waves with angular power distribution given by the antenna pattern. It assumes far-field (Fraunhofer region) d >> D and d >> , where D is the largest linear dimension of antenna, is the carrier wavelength. With no interference and obstructions. The received power at distance d is
Poornima.G,Associate Professor,BMSCE,Blore

VTU E-learning Notes

Antennas and Propagation

Pr=K Pt / d2 where Pt is the transmitter power in Watts, a constant factor K depends on antenna gain, a system loss factor, and the carrier wavelength. Pr=PtGtGr 2 / (4R)2 Where Pt=Transmit power, Gt=Transmit gain antenna, Gr=Receive gain antenna Transfer of electromagnetic energy from transmit antenna to receive antenna take place in a straight line path such communication link is called line of sight link. The factor [ / (4R)]2 is due propagation and is called free space path loss.It represents the attenuation of the signal due to the spreading of the power as function of distance are R.In decibel units the path loss is expressed as: PL=10log10(4R/ )2 dB Ground Reflection:

In LOS model, the assumption is that there is only one path for propagation of EM Wave from transmit antenna to receive antenna. The two antennas are kept in free space with no other objects intersecting radiation from transmitter antenna. If two antennas are situated close the ground due to discontinuity in the electrical properties at the air ground interface any wave that falls on the ground is reflected. The amount of reflection depending on factors like angle of incidence, Polarization of wave, Electrical Properties of the Ground i.e conductivity and dielectric constant, the frequency of the propagating wave. Thus, the field at any
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Poornima.G,Associate Professor,BMSCE,Blore

VTU E-learning Notes

Antennas and Propagation

point above the ground is a vector sum of the fields due to the direct and the reflected waves. . Direct Wave:It is limited to line-of sight transmission distances .The limiting factors are antenna height and curvature of earth. The Radio horizon is about 80% greater than line of sight because of diffraction effects. A Part of the signal from the transmitter is bounced off the ground and reflected back to the receiving antenna. If the phase between the direct wave and the reflected wave are not in phase can cause problems Detune the antenna so that the reflected wave is too weak to receive

To compute the fields of a transmit antenna above an imperfect ground. Used to design of communication links. To select the locations of the transmit and receive antennas and their patterns. Consider a transmit antenna located at point P at a height ht. Receive antenna located at point Q at a height hr from the surface of the ground. Let the horizontal distance between the two antenna be d. The electromagnetic wave from transmit antenna can reach the receive antenna by two possible paths (a) direct path (b) ground reflected path. The total electric field at the field point Q is given by the vector sum of the electric field due to the direct wave and ground reflected wave. Assumptions:1. The transmit antenna and the field points are located in the y-z plane. 2. The transmit antenna is an infinitesimal dipole oriented along the x-axis.

Poornima.G,Associate Professor,BMSCE,Blore

VTU E-learning Notes

Antennas and Propagation

The electric field is of infinitesimal dipole oriented along the x-axis is given by E = -jk(I0 dl/4)(e-jkR/R)(acoscos-asin) - R is the distance from the antenna to the field point. In the y-z plane, =90o . Since cos90o = 0. The -component of the electric field is zero. The -component of the electric field at Q due to the direct wave is given by E1= -jk(I0 dl/4)(e-jkR1/R1) The field at Q also has a contribution from the wave that travels via the reflected path PXQ. The location of the point of reflection X depends on ht, hr, and d. At X the incident and reflected rays satisfy snells law of reflection (angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection). The incident ray PX the reflected ray XQ and the normal to the surface are all contained in the y-z plane. The y-z plane is also known as the plane of incidence. The incident field at X is given by Ei= -jk(I0 dl/4)(e-jkR'2/R'2) - R'2 is the distance from the transmitter to X and the incident E field vector is perpendicular to the plane of incidence. At X the reflection co-efficient , is given by =Er/Ei = (sin- ( r-j )-cos2))/ sin+ ( r-j )-cos2) Electric field is perpendicular to the plane of incidence. At Q is given by E = E1+E2 E = jk I0 dl/4(e-jkR1/R1 + e-jkR2/R2) Field point Q is far away from the transmitter R2R1.Total electric field E = E1+E2
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Poornima.G,Associate Professor,BMSCE,Blore

VTU E-learning Notes

Antennas and Propagation

E = jk (I0 dl/4)(e-jkR1/R1) (1+ e-jk(R2 R1)) A product of the free space field and an environmental factor, F given by F = (1+ e-jk(R2 R1)) The total field at Q due to an infinitesimal dipole at (0, 0, ht) oriented along the z-direction. The electric field of a z-directed infinitesimal dipole is E= ajk(I0 dlsin/4)(e-jkR1/R1) Electric field is parallel to the plane of incidence

The electric field is parallel to the plane of incidence and the reflection coefficient, at X is given by = (( r-j )sin- ( r-j )-cos2) / (( r-j )sin+ ( r-j )-cos2) The total field at point Q is given by E= jk(I0 dlsin/4)(e-jkR1/R1) F Where F = (1+ e -jk(R2 R1) ) R1 = d2 +(hr- ht)2 d1+( hr- ht/d)2 For dhr and dht Using the first two significant terms in the binomial expansion of 1+x, 1+x1+x/2 for x1;
Poornima.G,Associate Professor,BMSCE,Blore

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VTU E-learning Notes

Antennas and Propagation

R1 d[1+1/2*( hr- ht/d)2] R2 d[1+1/2*( hr+ ht/d)2] The path difference R2- R1 is given as R2- R1= 2 hr ht/d For (hr ht/d); =k(R2- R1)=4 hr ht/d The path difference is small so that sinxx and cosx1 ; e-jk(R2 R1)=cos()-jsin() 1-jk2 hr ht/d For low angle of incidence -1 F=F =F jk2 hr ht/d Taking into account the ground reflection, the power received by the receive antenna can be written as Pr=PtGtGr 2 / (4R)2 F 2

For hr and ht small compared to d R1d

Therefore the received power is approximately given by PrPtGtGr (hr ht)2/d4 For large d the received power decreases as d4. This rate of change of power with distance is much faster than that observed in the free space propagation condition. Taking into account the ground reflection, the power received by the receive antenna can be written as Pr=PtGtGr 2 / (4R)2 F
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Poornima.G,Associate Professor,BMSCE,Blore

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VTU E-learning Notes

Antennas and Propagation

For hr and ht small compared to d R1d Therefore the received power is approximately given by PrPtGtGr (hr ht)2/d4
SURFACE WAVE

Travels directly without reflection on ground. Occurs when both antennas are in LOS Space wave bend near ground follows a curved path. Antennas must display a very low angle of emission. Power radiated must be in direction of the horizon instead of escaping in sky. A high gain and horizontally polarized antenna is recommended. If dipole and the field points are on the surface of the earth but separated by a distance d, We have R2= R1=d and =0 If ground has finite conductivity (typically 10-3S/m-30*10-3S/m) then = -1, The EF due to the direct and ground reflected wave will cancel each other. The EF due to the direct and ground reflected wave is also known as surface wave. Surface wave constitute the primary mode of propagation for frequencies in the range of few KHz-several MHz. In AM broadcast application, A vertical monopole above the ground is used to radiate power in the MW frequency band. The receivers are placed very close to the surface of the earth and hence they receive the broadcast signal via surface wave. Achieve Propagation over hundreds of kilometers. Attenuation factor of the surface wave depends on 1. Distance between the transmitter and receiver. 2. The frequency of the electrical properties of the ground over which the ground propagates. At the surface of the earth the attenuation is also known as the ground wave attenuation factor and is designated as Asu The numerical distance p=(R/)cosb, where b is the power factor angle b=tan-1( r+1/)
Poornima.G,Associate Professor,BMSCE,Blore

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VTU E-learning Notes

Antennas and Propagation

Where R is the distance between the transmit and receive antennas and is given as =/ 0 For r the power factor angle is nearly zero and the ground is almost resistive. For a 1MHz wave propagating over a ground surface with =12*10-3S/m and r=15 the valve of is 215.7 and is much greater than r. The power factor angle is 4.250 . At higher frequency 100MHz the valve of is 2.157 and power factor angle becomes 82.320 For large numerical distance the attenuation factor decreases by a factor of 10 for every decade i.e 20dB/decade.Thus attenuation is inversely proportional to p and R. The electric field intensity due to the surface wave is proportional to the product of Asu and e-jkR/R. The EF due to the surface wave at large distance from vertically polarized antenna is inversely propositional to the surface of the distance or the power is inversely propositional to R4. The EF of a vertically polarized wave near the surface of the earth have a forward tilt. The magnitude of the wave tilt depends on the conductivity and permittivity of the earth. The horizontal component is smaller than the vertical component and they are not in phase. The EF is elliptically polarized very close to the surface of the earth.

Poornima.G,Associate Professor,BMSCE,Blore

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