1.ABSTRACT Sound operated switch is one of the interesting applications of 555 timer IC.

The circuit uses a555 timer IC and transistor BC547 for its operation. The electrets microphone is used to provide the pulse to the 555 timer. The operation is simple. Clap and the lamp turns on. Clap again it turns off.The electrets microphone picks up the sound of your claps, coughs, and the sound of that knocked off the table. It produces a small electrical signal which is amplified by the succeeding transistor stage.Two transistor cross connected as a bistable multivibrator change state at each signal. One of thesetransistors drives a heavier transistor which controls a lamp.The transistor type is not critical and any n-p-n silicon transistors can be used. 2. INTRODUCTION Clap switch is an beginners project done using 555 timer IC. Its application is interesting thatwe can switch on an off by just clapping the hands. Simp ly b y lying on th e bed even we can switch on and off the light. The circuit which is provided in this report is the most simple andeconomical circuit for a clap switch. Since it uses a simple condenser mike to produce the pulsesignal more voltage is not necessary. It can be used for controlling ornamental lightning circuit COMPONENTS USED MICROPHONE: Function of microphone :it is a transducer which convert the energy from one form to another form . it convert sound energy to electrical energy Types of microphones

microphones were not created equal. Microphones fall into two overarching categories, dynamic and condenser microphones. Here's a look at the difference between dynamic and condenser mics to help you choose the right type of microphone for your own needs.

1. Technology - Dynamic and condenser mics are fundamentally different in the way that they receive and process sound. Dynamic mics operate by induction, while condenser microphones operate by conduction. We won't get too into the specifics, but it is important to know that condenser microphones require an electrical signal to polarize the film of the mic and record a sound, which makes them exceptionally receptive but means that they either need to have a battery or a source of power. This source of power, commonly known as "phantom power", is provided by a mixer, PA, or recording hardware. Dynamic microphones don't need this source of power, but no damage will be caused by running the phantom power through them, although a hum may be generated. It's important to wait until either mic type is plugged in to turn on phantom power--NEVER turn on phantom power before plugging a microphone in. A condenser microphone has a quicker response to transients, meaning that most condenser mics are more sensitive than dynamic mics. However, dynamic microphones can usually take quite a bit more damage before breaking. Some dynamic mics, like the Shure SM57, are legendary for their ability to take a fall. 2. Cost - Dynamic microphones are typically less expensive than condenser microphones, since they're less complex technically. Decent dynamic microphones can be had for as little as $100, while good condenser microphones are generally $300 and up. The different applications of the mics contributes heavily to their cost as well, however; the relatively high popularity of dynamic microphones drives their cost down. 3. Application - Condenser microphones are most often used for recording. There are a great array of condenser mics out there, and their application is often specific to the instrument that they were designed to mic; there are extremely expensive condenser mics designed for certain types of vocals, for instance, as well as guitar amps, orchestras, and pretty much anything else. Dynamic microphones can be used for recording as well, though usually they're used to mic instruments with fairly flat responses (drum mics, for instance, are often dynamic). Most live microphones are dynamic mics, because of their relative hardiness and inexpensiveness. Do you have any questions about dynamic or condenser microphones? Post in our comments section below.

When selecting microphones to use both live and in your home studio, you'll commonly come across two different types of microphones, dynamic and condenser. Let's look at both of these microphone types, and what their advantages and disadvantages are.

Condenser Microphones

Condenser microphones are the most common types of microphones you'll find in studios. They have a much greater frequency response and transient response - which is the ability to reproduce the "speed" of an instrument or voice. They also generally have a louder output, but are much more sensitive to loud sounds. Condenser microphones are generally much more expensive than dynamic microphones, but keep in mind, many cheap condensers exist. The problem is that most of these mics are coming from a couple factories in China, and all sound the same -very brittle and with little low end. They require the use of a power supply, generally 48 volt "phantom power", and that's supplied very easily by most mixing boards or external power supplies (look for a switch that says "P 48" or "48V" on the channel strip or on the back of the mixer.) Condenser microphones are generally used only in studios because of their sensitivity to loud sounds and the fact that they're quite a bit more fragile than their dynamic counterparts. That being said, you'll find them onstage at live music venues for use as drum overheads or for use in orchestral or choral sound reinforcement. With condenser microphones, you'll find two different types: small diaphragm, and large diaphragm. Large Diaphragm Microphones - Large diaphragm microphones (LDMs) are generally the choice for studio vocals, and any instrument recording where a more "deep" sound is desired. A large diaphragm microphone generally warms up the sound of what it's recording, which also leads to the myth that most LDMs reproduce low frequencies better than small diaphragm mics; this isn't true, in fact, small diaphragm mics are much better at reproducing everything evenly, including bass. You'll want a pop screen if using a condenser microphone for vocals; they're so sensitive to transient noises that the "P" and "SH" sounds you make will cause distortion. Small Diaphragm Microphones - Small diaphragm microphones (SDMs) are generally the best choice where you want a solid, wide frequency response and the best transient response, which as we mentioned before, is the ability for your microphone to reproduce fast sounds, such as stringed instruments. SDMs are also the preferred choice for concert taping. Good suggestions for condenser microphones include the Oktava MC012 ($99), RODE NT1 ($199), and AKG C414B ($700) Dynamic Microphones Compared to condenser microphones, dynamic microphones are much more rugged. They're also especially resistant to moisture and other forms of abuse, which makes them the perfect choice onstage. Dynamic microphones like the Shure SM57 and Shure SM58 are legendary for not only their good sound quality, but the amount of abuse they can withstand. Any good rock club probably has at least 5 of each of these microphones in various states of aesthetic ruin; however, they still turn on and more than likely sound just as they did the day they came out of the package. Dynamic microphones don't require their own power supply like condenser microphones. Their sound quality is generally not as accurate, however. Most dynamic microphones have a limited frequency response, which makes them well-suited, along with their ability to withstand high sound pressure levels, for loud guitar amps, live vocals, and drums. That being said, there's a few companies right now producing "boutique" dynamic microphones -- some with characteristics similar to that of a condenser with the sustainability of a dynamic. Good dynamic microphones include the Shure SM57 ($99), Sennheiser E602 ($100), and the Shure SM58 ($109). Selecting Between The Two Let's take a look at what you might be doing, and then we'll suggest a microphone for your use. Recording Vocals At Home - You'll want a large-diaphragm condenser microphone if you have phantom power; if not, you might want to consider a large-diaphragm dynamic microphone like the Shure SM7B ($350). If you're on a budget, you won't get much better than a Shure SM58. Recording Acoustic Guitar - You'll want a good small-diaphragm condenser microphone. A good choice is the Oktava MC012 ($99), Marshall MXL 603S ($99), or, more expensively, the Neumann KM184 ($730). Recording Cello/Upright Bass - You'll want a large-diaphragm condenser microphone. This is because, while the strings resonate quickly, the slower transient response of the large-diaphragm microphone will lend to better low frequency reproduction

on these instruments. Concert Taping - You'll want a pair of small-diaphragm condenser microphones for stereo recording. The small diaphragm allows for faster and more accurate transient replication, and better low end reproduction. Drums - Here, you'll want a combination of dynamic and condenser microphones. You need a dynamic mic on the drums themselves - Shure Beta 98 (condensers) are great on toms, and Shure Beta 57 or SM57, along with the Heil PR20, sound great on snare, Heil PR40 and Shure Beta 52 are great on kick. Then for overhead mics and cymbals, you'll want small diaphragm condenser microphones, since they give you the best frequency and transient response. However, some dynamic microphones -such as the Heil PR series and Shure SM57 -- can be interchanged for condensers with great results.

Sound is an amazing thing. All of the different noises we hearare caused by minute pressure differences in the air around us. What's amazing about it is that the air transmits those pressure changes so well -and so accurately -- over relatively long distances. If you've read How CDs Work, you learned about the very first microphone. It was a metal diaphragm attached to a needle, and this needle scratched a pattern onto a piece of metal foil. The pressure differences in the air that occurred when someone spoke toward the diaphragm moved the diaphragm, which moved the needle, which then recorded on the foil. When the needle was later run back over the foil, the vibrations scratched on the foil would then move the diaphragm and re-create the sound. The fact that this purely mechanical system works shows how much energy the vibrations in the air can have. All modern microphones are trying to accomplish the same thing as the original, but do it electronically rather than mechanically. A microphone wants to take varying pressure waves in the air and convert them into varying electrical signals. There are several different technologies commonly used to accomplish this conversion. Take a look at the next page to learn more about different types of mics -- including one of the first invented by Alexander Graham Bell.

Liquid Microphones
Liquid microphones, invented by Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson, were among the first working microphones to be developed, and they were a precursor to what would later become the condenser microphone. Early liquid microphones used a metal cup filled with water and sulfuric acid. A diaphragm was placed over the cup with a needle on the receiving side of the diaphragm. Sound waves would cause the needle to move in the water. A small electrical current ran to the needle, which was modulated by sound vibrations. The liquid microphone was never a particularly functional device, but it makes a great science experiment [source: Pemberton].

Carbon Microphones
The oldest and simplest microphone uses carbon dust. This is the technology used in the first telephones and is still used in some telephones today. The carbon dust has a thin metal or plastic diaphragm on one side. As sound waves hit the diaphragm, they compress the carbon dust, which changes its resistance. By running a current through the carbon, the changing resistance changes the amount of current that flows.

Fiber Optic Microphone

Fiber-optic systems, which use super-thin strands of glass to transmit information instead of traditional metal wires, have been revolutionizing the field of telecommunications in recent years, including microphone technology. So what's the big deal? Unlike conventional mics, which are often big and send an electrical signal, fiber optic microphones can be extremely small, and they can be used in electrically sensitive environments. They can also be produced with no metal, which makes them very useful in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) applications and other situations where radio frequency interference is an issue [source: Fibersound Audio].

Dynamic Microphones
A dynamic microphone takes advantage of electromagneteffects. When a magnet moves past a wire (or coil of wire), the magnet induces current to flow in the wire. In a dynamic microphone, the diaphragm moves either a magnet or a coil when sound waves hit the diaphragm, and the movement creates a small current.

Electret Microphone
Electret microphones are among the most widely used microphones on Earth. Because they're cheap and relatively simple, electret mics are used in cell phones, computers and hands-free headsets. An electret microphone is a type of condenser microphone in which the external charge is replaced with an electret material, which by definition is in a permanent state of electric polarization [source: BeStar Acoustic Components].
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Ribbon Microphones
In a ribbon microphone, a thin ribbon -- usually aluminum, duraluminum or nanofilm -- is suspended in a magnetic field. Sound waves move the ribbon, which changes the current flowing through it. Ribbon microphones are bidirectional meaning they pick up sounds from both sides of the mic. The RCA PB-31 was one of the first ribbon microphones. It was produced in 1931, and changed the audio and broadcasting industries because it set a new standard when it came to clarity. Several other

microphone makers made comparable models, including the BBC-Marconi Type A and ST&C Coles 4038.

Laser Microphone
A laser microphone works by capturing vibrations off of a plane, like a windowpane, for example, and transmitting the signal back to a photo detector, which converts the reflected laser beam into an audio signal. When sound hits the windowpane, it bends and causes the laser beam to bend, which can be translated to sound using a photocell. In recent years, scientists have been developing a new type of laser microphone that works by streaming smoke across a laser beam that's aimed at photocell, which is then converted to an audio signal [source: Van Buskirk].

Condensor Microphones
A condenser microphone is essentially a capacitor, with one plate of the capacitor moving in response to sound waves. The movement changes the capacitance of the capacitor, and these changes are amplified to create a measurable signal. Condenser microphones usually need a small battery to provide a voltage across the capacitor.

Cardioid Microphone
If you're looking to record sound that's located in front of and on the sides of the mic -- but not behind it -the cardioid microphone is for you. A polar plot of the gain for cardioid is heart-shaped (hence the name), with the highest sensitivity located directly in front of the mic, and slightly less on the sides. Because of this, cardioid mics are ideal for recording live performances without capturing too much crowd noise, and many handheld microphones used to amplify vocals are cardioid mics [source: VoiceCouncil Magazine].

Crystal Microphones
Certain crystals change their electrical properties as they change shape (see How Quartz Watches Work for one example of this phenomenon). By attaching a diaphragm to a crystal, the crystal will create a signal when sound waves hit the diaphragm. As you can see, just about every technology imaginable has been harnessed to convert sound waves into electrical signals. The one thing most have in common is the diaphragm, which gathers the sound waves and creates movement in whatever technology is being used to create the signal.

Importance of condenser microphone

Condenser Microphones

Condenser microphones are often seen as the more refined cousins of dynamic microphones and traditiona they were more expensive than dynamic mics. They have a higher output and better frequency response an are generally regarded as studio recording microphones, though for some recording jobs such as drums, dynamic mics are hard to beat. However as a rule of thumb, for a really detailed, complex sound, vocals an acoustic instruments, a studio engineer will invariably use a condenser microphone. In this design the diaphragm acts as one plate of a capacitor, and sound vibrations produce changes in the distance between

the plates creating an electrical current. However, to work, condenser microphones need a power supply to charge the plate, and this is commonly provided as 48 volt phantom power from a mixing desk or from an internal battery. Originally the design was based around a valve or vacuum tube but as transistors appeare in the 60s so companies like Neumann replaced their valve microphones with solid state versions and valve microphones virtually disappeared for a number of years. However with old vintage valve mics exchanging hands for huge sums, in recent years there has been a renewed interest by manufacturers and now even th cheapest Chinese brands have a valve mic in their range. On the down side condenser microphones do suff from problems with condensation caused by humidity or water vapour in the air which can condense on the diaphragm if you bring a cold microphone into a warm studio. Also a vocalist working very close to a mic ca cause condensation from breath producing nasty crackles and fizzing noises. A correctly positioned pop shie usually avoids this in all but the coldest studios, and it is well worth while allowing a condenser microphone to warm up to room temperature before use. .

Phantom power for condenser microphone

Condenser (capacitor) microphones differ from dynamic and ribbon microphones because they are not self-generating. That is, they cannot generate electricity in response to an impinging sound wave. A condenser microphone modifies an external source of electricity to reflect the effects of a sound wave striking its diaphragm. Dynamic and ribbon microphones use magnetism to generate electricity in response to a sound wave: they are self-generating. Furthermore, both of these types of microphones are inherently low impedance devices. It is possible to connect a dynamic microphone element directly to a balanced, low-impedance mixer input. Many commercially made dynamic microphones do just that. On the other hand, a condenser micorphone is an inherently high-impedance device. How high? Verrrrrrry high. On the order of a billion ohms (1 Gigaohm). This is high enough that the inherent capacitance of a foot of shielded cable would audibly reduce the output of the microphone. (the cable capacitance and the capsule capacitance form a capacitive voltage divider) All condenser microphones have an impedance converter, in the form of a vacuum tube or field-effect transistor (FET), built into the microphone, and located extremely close to the microphone element. The impedance converter and the microphone element itself require an external power source. To be strictly correct, electret condenser microphones are a bit different as the microhone element does not require a power source for operation (it is more or less permanently self polarized). Regardless, the impedance converter still requires an external source of power.

What is it, exactly?

The obvious external power source for any modern microphone is a battery. About the only electronic

advantage that a battery has is that its output is pure DC. The only other advantage (to the battery company) is that you have to keep on buying them. Tube microphones require several different voltages for operation. This invariably means a multi-conductor cable and non-standard (not XLR) connectors. A tube microphone will almost always have an associated external power supply. In the late 1960s, Neumann (you know, the folks that brought you the U47 and U87 microphones) converted its microphones to solid-state, adopting a system of remote powering that they called, and trademarked, Phantom Powering. Because of the trademark, some manufacturers use terms like Simplex Powering, etc. Over the years, the trademark has become genericized and now refers to any device that is powered according to DIN standard 45 596. Neumann says that they gave the use of the trademark to public domain. So, where is the Phantom of Phantom Powering? Because (like the Phantom in the old comic strip) its there when you need it, and invisible when you dont. This technology is not new, it actually predates rocket science. Like so many other things in audio, it was brought to you by the telephone company, who used it to get an extra circuit from a pair of wires (phantom circuit). In effect, so does your phantom powered microphone. What is important is: phantom powering is a compatible system. Your dynamic/ribbon microphones as well as your condenser microphones work side-by-side, from the same microphone inputs, without further thought on your part. Technically speaking, phantom powering refers to a system where the audio signal is applied to the balanced line in differential-mode < ACROSS pins 2 and 3>, and the DC power is applied common-mode <From pin 2 AND pin 3 to pin 1>. The audio travels via pins 2 and 3 differentially (across the pins), and the power travels across pins 2 and 3 simultaneously and pin 1.

Phantom Powering What Really Happens

Microphones that do not require power simply ignore the DC present between pin 2, pin 3, and pin 1. If you measure with a voltmeter between pin 2 and pin 3, you will read 0 Volts DC. This is what your dynamic microphone sees. Measuring between pin 2 and pin 1, or between pin 3 and pin 1, you will read the phantom power voltage, usually 48V, without a microphone connected. The dynamic microphone, as well as your balanced mixer input, ignores this voltage. Lately, the term phantom power has been perverted to refer to any remote powering system. In any sense of the DIN standard, this is not true. Furthermore, microphones or transducers that claim to use this system are not compatible with the DIN standard and will almost certainly be damanged if connected into such a system. Fortunately, these systems nearly always use tip-ring-sleeve phone plugs or miniature XLR connectors and they are usually associated with instrument pickup applications or microphones for camcorders. Some of the terms used to describe these "foreign" powering systems are: PIP, Electret Bias, Inline power, and (grrrr)Phantom Power. This is not only misleading, it's just plain wrong.

Regardless of what any marketing propaganda says, these units are NOT phantom powered and NOT compatible with the system defined in the DIN standard. Applying phantom power will damage these units. Phantom powering is defined in DIN standard 45 596 or IEC standard 268-15A.

What works?
To be compatible in a phantom powered system, a device (microphone, preamp with a microphone-style output, or direct box) must have a balanced and floating, lowimpedance output. This includes all microphones commonly used for sound reinforcement and recording such as the Shure SM-57, SM58, Electro-Voice RE-15, RE-16, RE-20, ND series, Beyer M88, M160, M500, AKG D224, D12, D112, Sennheiser 421, 441, and MANY, MANY others. If you are fortunate enough to own any tube condenser microphones, such as the AKG C12, Neumann U47 or U67, these microphones may be connected in a phantom powered system and will operate without regard to the presence or absence of phantom power. They will always require their external power supply (which must be plugged in and turned on). Audio Technica and Microtech Gefell have developed tube condenser microphones that are phantom powered and do not require an external power supply. For further information, consult the Microtech Gefell website Older condenser microphones (Sony C22, C55, EV 1777, PL76, etc.) that were either made before the adoption of phantom power, had the phantom power feature omitted as a cost savings measure, or omitted it for product differentiation reasons (stupid, really stupid). These microphones will operate, but they will always require their own batteries. Consider them a battery-powered dynamic microphone. The older EV microphones (EV 1777, PL76) can be converted to phantom powering. It's a simple conversion, but it does require some electronic work

Capacitors
A capacitor is a little like a battery. Although they work in completely different ways,capacitors and batteries both store electrical energy . A battery has two terminals. Inside the battery,chemical reactions produceelectronson one terminal and absorb electrons on the other terminal. Acapacitor is much simpler than a battery, as it can't produce new electrons . it only stores them. Inside the capacitor, the terminals connect to two metal plates separated by a non-conducting substance, or dielectric

. We can easily make a capacitor from two pieces of aluminum foil and a piece of paper.The dielectric can be any non-conductive substance. However, for practical applications, specificmaterials are used that best suit the capacitor's function. Mica, ceramic, cellulose, porcelain, Mylar, Teflonand evenair are some of the nonconductive materials used. The dielectric dictates what kindof capacitor it is and for what it is best suited. Depending on the size and type of dielectric, somecapacitors are better for high frequency uses, while some are better for high voltage applications.Capacitors can be manufactured to serve any purpose, from the smallest plastic capacitor in your calculator, to an ultra capacitor that can power a commuter bus. NASAuses glass capacitors to helpwake up the space shuttle's circuitry and help deploy space probes. Here are some of the various typesof capacitors and how they are used. Air - Often used in radio tuning circuits Mylar - Most commonly used for timer circuits like clocks, alarms and counters Glass- Good for high voltage applications Ceramic - Used for high frequency purposes like antennas,X-rayandMRImachines Super capacitor - Powerselectricand hybrid cars6

Clear description about capacitors

Electrolytic capacitors Why the electrolytic capacitor? Aluminium electrolytic capacitors Tantalum electrolytic capacitors Using electrolytic capacitors Why the electrolytic capacitor? Capacitors with values greater than 1F are frequently required. The original round paper capacitors needed to be big to achieve this value; ceramic chip capacitors were typically of much lower values. The problem for all capacitors lies in the formula for the capacitance of the parallel-plate capacitor:

where A is the area of the two plates e0 is the permittivity of vacuum er is the dielectric constant of the material between the plates d is the distance between the plates When we want to increase the value of a capacitor, we can reduce the thickness of the dielectric, increase the dielectric constant, increase the effective area, or a combination of all three. Although both paper capacitors (still used for some AC

applications) and ceramic capacitors have been improved, often by using radically new materials, there is still an unfilled requirement for large values of capacitance. Large values at relatively low voltage rating are used for decoupling purposes; large values at a wide range of voltages are used within power supplies for smoothing. In the latter application, the component carries substantial current, so that a low ESR (Effective Series Resistance) and ability to withstand internal heating are both important. A number of metals, such as tantalum, aluminium, niobium, zirconium and zinc, can be coated with an oxide film by electrochemical means. By placing the metal in an appropriate solution and passing a current though the circuit, a thin layer of oxide forms on the anode. This oxide film is highly adherent, and its structure is compatible with that of the base metal, so that temperature change neither stresses it nor causes it to flake off contrast the iron oxide on exposed iron. Just as important, the process is self-limiting, so that the current gradually reduces to zero for a particular forming voltage. What we have done is to produce an oxide that will withstand the applied forming voltage, and will not grow and grow as rust does. This oxide film can be extremely thin1 (typically less than 1m) as well as having a acceptably high dielectric constant. This combination is a solution to our problem of making large capacitors, and it is the use of the electrolytic process to form the thin oxide dielectric that gives this type of capacitor its name of electrolytic. 1 BHS Aerovox quote the oxide thickness for a 25 volt working capacitor as being in the order of 45nm. Electrolytic capacitors offer good examples of the very high internal stresses to which components are often subjected, without the user being aware of them. The field strength inside an electrolytic capacitor can be as high as tens of MV.m1! All we have to do is to implement some way of getting maximum area into minimum volume. The methods are different, depending on which metal is being used as the basis for the capacitor. The usual materials for electrolytic capacitors are tantalum or aluminium. Their oxides have dielectric constants which are relatively high (k = 10 for aluminium; k = 25 for tantalum) compared with paper and plastic film, but much lower than barium titanate. However, this is more than compensated for by their high dielectric strength and relative freedom from defects, which allows the layer to be very thin, even though the formation (forming) voltage used is typically 3-4 times higher than the rated voltage. The aluminium electrolytic capacitor is substantially cheaper and the more widely used. However, the tantalum capacitor has higher volumetric efficiency (= crams more microfarads into a given volume) and has superior electrical characteristics you will see many such capacitors in mobile phones. However, you are unlikely to see anything other than aluminium electrolytic capacitors used for power supplies.

The only downside for electrolytic capacitors is that their metal-to-metal oxide interface is a rectifying contact. That is, it is a good insulator only in one direction, and in the other it conducts electricity. That is why electrolytic capacitors are nonpolar, and the only way that non-polar electrolytic capacitors can be created is to use two oxide films back to back. Quote Effective area The effective areas of electrolytic capacitors are surprisingly high. Consider for example a 4.7 F tantalum electrolytic capacitor. The tantalum pentoxide dielectric has a dielectric constant of about 27, and a typical thickness of the oxide film is in the order of 0.2 m. Therefore,

Thus a 3.5 mm 2.5 mm 5.5 mm, 4.7F tantalum capacitor is equivalent to a parallel-plate capacitor with a surface area of 40 cm2. Anton Kruger at ChipCenter: http://www.chipcenter.com As you can see from the quotation from Anton Kruger, we need to cram an enormous amount of surface area into a small volume. Two different styles of construction are used for electrolytic capacitors, using aluminium and tantalum (occasionally niobium). They use different approaches, which will be described in the sections that follow. Aluminium electrolytic capacitors start with sheet material, but modify the surface to increase the surface area; tantalum electrolytic capacitors create a sponge of tantalum with a very high internal area. The next sections give more details as to how this is done. [ back to top ] Aluminium electrolytic capacitors Basic construction The aluminium electrolytic capacitor consists of two foils interleaved with an absorbent paper, and wound tightly into a cylinder. The positive foil, or anode, is made from pure aluminium foil on the surface of which aluminium oxide dielectric has been formed electrolytically. The foil has been etched to increase the effective surface area, and the area of the anode is typically 30100 times larger than the plan area of the foil. Figure 1: Schematic of dielectric structure in an aluminium electrolytic capacitor

The other plate is a combination of high-absorption paper impregnated with an electrolyte, in contact with a cathode foil. The electrolyte is there to make good contact with the anode, by permeating its etched structure, and also to repair any flaws in the oxide layer when the capacitor is polarised. The function of the aluminium cathode foil is to reduce the series resistance of the capacitor by making contact with the paper over a wide area. The cathode foil itself has a thin oxide film, and is typically etched to increase the surface area slightly. You may have worked out this gives some capacitance between foil and electrolyte, so that the overall capacitance is that of the anode plus that of the cathode in series. You will be right to think that, but in practice the cathode film is very thin and its capacitance consequently very high. The anode and cathode foils are interleaved with paper and wound into a cylinder as shown in Figure 2. During the winding process, aluminium tabs are attached to each foil to provide electrical contact. In large capacitors, the next process would be to add the terminal deck, complete with terminals, which are attached to the tabs before the deck is folded down to rest on top of the winding. Large aluminium electrolytic capacitors with tag terminations

The complete winding is then impregnated with an electrolyte, before being housed in a suitable container, usually an aluminium can, and sealed. Before being sleeved and packed, capacitors are first aged. The purpose of this stage is to repair any damage in the oxide layer, and thus reduce the leakage current to very low levels. Damage to the oxide layer can occur due to slitting of the anode foil after forming, attaching the tabs to the anode foil, or minor mechanical damage caused during winding. Normally carried out at the rated top temperature to the capacitor, ageing applies voltage to the device through a current-limited supply, a process that may take several hours to complete. We have mentioned the electrolyte, and this is important, because the choice of electrolyte determines some of the capacitor characteristics. For example, a mixture based on ethylene glycol and water will freeze at very low temperatures. Such wet capacitors must be operated upright and tend to have lower operating voltages. A number of similar electrolytes are to be found, many of which have a gel consistency. So-called dry electrolytic capacitors use electrolytes such as manganese oxide, but tend to have lower volumetric efficiency. Figure 2: Construction of a wound aluminium electrolytic capacitor

The original aluminium electrolytic construction produces a capacitor with radial leads for through-hole insertion. This style is made in volume and very cost-effective: you will find many circuits that use small radial electrolytic capacitors, either selfsupported or with additional mechanical strengthening provided by a dispensed silicone rubber surround/underfill. For power supplies and similar applications demanding high values of capacitance, the components are large and heavy, and will be fixed by a clamp or tie wrap around the body. Small radial format aluminium electrolytic capacitor

Aluminium electrolytic capacitors in a surface mount package

Increasingly, parts are modified with tabs underneath for surface mounting, although large value parts still have the disadvantage of a relatively high profile above the board. This is significant not only because of the space taken up, but also because lateral forces on the body (due for example to vibration) result in high stress on the solder joints. Components have thus been developed with four tabs (instead of two). Other types have the chip-type format shown in Figure 3, where the body is encapsulated in plastic, but these are generally more expensive. Attempts have also been made to produce a solid aluminium electrolytic capacitor similar to the tantalum part, but these have not been successfully implemented. Figure 3: Construction of an SM aluminium electrolytic capacitor

[ back to top ] Tantalum electrolytic capacitors The very first tantalum capacitors used the same etched foil principle as the aluminium electrolytic. However, they differed in their choice of electrolyte. Believe it or not, wet tantalum capacitors contain sulphuric acid! In order to contain this corrosive material, wet tantalum capacitors use a solid silver case to contain the wound foil, and the connections are made through glass-to-metal seals. The resulting capacitor is extremely effective, with low ESR, and has a reputation for reliability. It is not cheap! The solid tantalum capacitor takes a totally different approach, creating a sponge of high purity tantalum powder around a tantalum wire by pressing tantalum powder into a small slug around the lead and then sintering it at high temperature (around 1800C). The powder from which tantalum capacitors are made is of pure tantalum metal, with a typical particle size of 10m. Differently shaped particles are available for different applications, depending on the voltage and capacitance required if you want to know the detail of the process, read John Gills paper Basic Tantalum Capacitor Technology on the AVX website (http://www.avxcorp.com) At this stage, we have a tantalum wire attached to a slug of tantalum sponge and the next stage is producing the dielectric layer of tantalum and oxide. The slugs are dipped into a weak acid, such as phosphoric acid, at elevated temperature, and the voltage gradually increased (whilst controlling the current) in order to create an oxide layer of the correct thickness.

The next stage is to produce the cathode plate, making contact to every part of the top surface of the oxide. This is carried out by dipping the slug into manganese nitrate, and then baking it to convert the nitrate into manganese dioxide. Repeated several times, to ensure that the slug is fully penetrated and a thick coating built on the outside surface, this manganised anode is then coated with graphite and finally a metal layer such as silver. The cathode (that is the second capacitor electrode, or counter-electrode) is the combination of silver, graphite and manganese dioxide. All slugs are made in this way, whatever the eventual encapsulation. The simplest encapsulation is to attach a lead to the cathode and dip body and leads into either liquid resin or resin powder, in order to create the typical dipped tantalum capacitor. For surface mount use, the finished part may be dipped, or moulded in plastic as shown in Figure 4, giving the component adequate mechanical properties and environmental resistance. There are substantial differences in cost and volumetric efficiency between different styles, but the moulded format is generally preferred. Dipped tantalum capacitors used to decouple ICs

Figure 4: Tantalum capacitor construction

An (expensive) lacquered body gives the nearest thing to a bare tantalum chip!

Another minimalist approach, with two end-caps

The cost-effective package moulded chip tantalum electrolytic capacitors

For a given grade of tantalum powder, the capacitance will be a function of operating voltage, and each package size will have a maximum CV product: for example, in case F (5.6 3.4 1.8 mm) one manufacturer packages capacitors with ratings of 33 F/4 V, 22 F/6 V, 4.7 F/25 V, and 2.2 F/ 50V, each corresponding to a CV product of about 120 F.V. Most ranges of solid tantalum capacitors in miniature chip form cover values from 0.1F to 100F, with working voltages up to 35V, and selection tolerances down to 5%. Tantalum capacitors make highly efficient use of board area and component volume for high values of capacitance. These components are available in a number of standard case sizes from about 5 mm3 to 200 mm3, and in several package shapes.

Niobium as a replacement? Tantalum is a relatively scarce and expensive material, and at various times the supply of tantalum capacitors has been a severe restriction on the growth of certain markets, specifically telecoms. One alternative is to make the capacitor of niobium, which is far more abundant, although the volume of production is lower and the price similar to tantalum. However, attempts to make a niobium capacitor have recently been claimed successful, NEC claiming to have overcome the performance problems in July 2001. Watch this space! The polymer tantalum capacitor Whilst a niobium capacitor may or may not win market share, you will certainly see mention of polymer tantalum capacitors. Although the detail is shrouded in mystery and patents, it appears that this type of capacitor replaces the manganese dioxide counter electrode by a solid conductive polymer. The reason for this is that conventional tantalum capacitors tend to fail short-circuit. Tantalums with manganese dioxide cathodes have been known to ignite explosively when shorting and passing high current, whereas the polymer tantalum type does not. The claim is also made that healing may occur by one or two potential mechanisms. The polymer next to the dielectric fault side may overheat and vaporise, disconnecting the fault site from the circuit The polymer may oxidise into a more resistant material that plugs the defect site in the dielectric and reduces the flow of current. Another benefit of the polymer tantalum capacitor is that the drop-off of capacitance with frequency is not as fast as for manganese dioxide types. So what are the downsides? Firstly, that the maximum rate of voltage for these parts is currently 10 Vdc. Secondly, that the polymer tantalum type has higher leakage currents than traditional capacitors. Otherwise, relative to characteristics such as ESR and impedance, the devices are broadly similar. [ back to top ] Using electrolytic capacitors Electrolytic capacitors are intrinsically polar; that is, they need to be operated in a circuit where the voltage applied is of the correct polarity. Care must be taken during both assembly and test to ensure correct orientation. Most electrolytic capacitors can withstand small and brief amounts of reverse voltage, but this is not recommended. The main concern is internal heat and gas generation, and fault conditions may cause sufficient internal pressure to rupture the can. This is why large capacitor cases have an integral pressure relief: with small capacitors, this may take the form of a rubber plug at the lead exit or, more commonly, a deliberately weakened area (often seen as a pressed cross on the end of the package) which determines where the rupture takes place. Be aware that large electrolytics as

used for power supplies, present a definite safety hazard, and should never be subjected to reverse voltage. The cross creates a weak point at which the can will rupture

Two more Health and Safety pointers relating to electrolytic capacitors: Always assume that a capacitor is charged, and seek to discharge it safely before touching it. However, do not short it with a screwdriver arcing is bad for the tip of the screwdriver, and damages the capacitor. When aluminium electrolytic capacitors have lain unused for some time, they may have become sufficiently leaky to break down when voltage is applied, potentially dying explosively. It is possible to reform some capacitor types, by applying an increasing voltage through a constant-current power supply, but this kind of technique is for the serviceman rather than the designer of new equipment. True non-polar (bipolar) units are available, effectively containing two elements back to back, but these are not common. Also, some aluminium electrolytic capacitors are designed to handle reverse voltages up to a large percentage of the working voltage, for example up to 0.3 Vdcwkg or 0.8 Vacwkg. Electrolytic capacitors are also sensitive to over-voltage, and appropriate precautions have to be taken during design and when testing components. Partly because of the nature of the internal electrolyte, and partly because of the type of encapsulation used, electrolytic capacitors have a restricted ability to withstand over-temperature. The reflow conditions used should always be kept within the timetemperature ratings for the part. So what else is wrong with the electrolytic capacitor compared to non-electrolytic capacitors?! Leakage currents are higher ESRs may be higher Failure rates are higher Electrolytic capacitors have low self-resonance frequencies and are unsuitable for high frequency work Electrolytic capacitor tolerances are normally high.

However, the factor that outweighs all these undesirable properties is the very high volumetric density that electrolytic capacitors exhibit. That is, high capacitance values are available in relatively small components.

resisters
A linear resistor I s passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the vo ltag e acro ss the resisto r's ter min als. Thu s, the ratio of the vo ltag e app lied acro ss a resisto r's terminals to the intensity of current through the circuit is called resistance. This relation is represented by Ohm's law:Resisto rs are co mmo n elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits a n d a r e ubiquitous in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and f ilms, as well as resistance wire(wire made of a highresistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome).Resistors are also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be integrated into hybrid and printed circuits. The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than nine orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required precision of the resistance may require attention to themanufacturing toleranceof the chosen resistor, according to its specific application. Thetemperature coefficientof the resistance may also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistorsare also sp ecif ied as h av ing a max i mu m power rating which must exceed the anticipated power d issipation of th at resisto r in a p articular circuit: th is is main ly of con cern in po wer electron ics applications. Resistors with higher power ratings are physically larger and may require heat sinks. Ina high-voltage circuit,

attention must sometimes be paid to the rated maximum working voltage

of the resistor. BC547 TRANSISTOR Th e BC547 tran sisto r is an NPN Ep itax ial Silicon Transisto r. Th e BC547 tran sisto r is a general-purpose transistor in a small plastic packages. It is used in generalpurpose switching andamplification BC847/BC547 series 45 V, 100 mA NPN general-purpose transistors.The BC547 transistor is an NPN bipolar transistor, in which the letters "N" and "P" refer to the majority charge carriers inside the different regions of the transistor. Most bipolar transistors usedtoday are NPN, because electron mobility is higher than hole mobility in semiconductors, allow integgreater currents and faster operation. NPN transistors consist of a layer of P-doped semiconductor (the "base") between two N-doped layers. A small current entering the base in commonemitter modeis amplified in the collector output. In other terms, an NPN transistor is "on" when its base is pulledhigh relative to the emitter. The arrow in the NPN transistor symbol is on the emitter leg and points inthe d irection of the conv en tio nal current f lo w wh en

the d ev ice is in fo rward activ e mo d e. One mnemonic device for identifying the symbol for the NPN transistor is "not pointing in." An NPN tran sisto r can be consid ered as two d iod es with a sh ared ano de regio n. In typ ical op eration , the emitter base junction is forward biased and the base collector junction is reverse biased. In an NPN transistor, for example, when a positive voltage is applied to the base emitter junction, the equilibrium between thermally generated carriers and the repelling electric field of the depletion region becomesunbalanced, allowing thermally excited electrons to inject into the base region. These electron s wander (or "diffuse") through the base from the region of high concentration near the emitter towardsth e reg ion of lo w con centration n ear the co llecto r. Th e electrons in the b ase are called min o rity carriers because the base is doped p-type which would make holes the majority carrier in the base

BC547 Transistor symbol BC547 Transistor Pinouts

audio sound amplifier is very small and simple to implement because it uses only twoBC547 transistors and some discrete components. You can construct

this circuit with minimum of $2 price. This circuit apt for cheap amplification purposes in electronics such as pre amplifier for FM Transmitter.

555 timer description 555 timer is an integrated circuit(chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse generation and oscillator applications. The part is still in widespread use, thanks to its ease of use, low price and good stability.
We have seen that Multivibrators and CMOS Oscillators can be easily constructed from discrete components to produce relaxation oscillators for generating basic square wave output waveforms. But there are also dedicated IC's especially designed to accurately produce the required output waveform with the addition of just a few extra timing components. One such device that has been around since the early days of IC's and has itself become something of an industry "standard" is the 555 Timer Oscillatorwhich is more commonly called the "555 Timer". The 555 Timer which gets its name from the three 5k resistors it uses to generate the two comparitors reference voltage, is a very cheap, popular and useful precision timing device that can act as either a simple timer to generate single pulses or long time delays, or as a relaxation oscillator producing stabilized waveforms of varying duty cycles from 50 to 100%. The 555 timer chip is extremely robust and stable 8-pin device that can be operated either as a very accurate Monostable, Bistable or Astable Multivibrator to produce a variety of applications such as one-shot or delay timers, pulse generation, LED and lamp flashers, alarms and tone generation, logic clocks, frequency division, power supplies and converters etc, in fact any circuit that requires some form of time control as the list is endless. The single 555 Timer chip in its basic form is a Bipolar 8-pin mini Dual-in-line Package (DIP) device consisting of some 25 transistors, 2 diodes and about 16 resistors arranged to form two comparators, a flip-flop and a high current output stage as shown below. As well as the 555 Timer there is also available the NE556 Timer Oscillator which combines TWO individual 555's within a single 14-pin DIP package and low power CMOS versions of the single 555 timer such as the 7555 and LMC555 which use MOSFET transistors instead.

A simplified "block diagram" representing the internal circuitry of the 555 timer is given below with a brief explanation of each of its connecting pins to help provide a clearer understanding of how it works. 555 Timer Block Diagram

Pin1- Ground, The ground pin connects the 555 timer to the negative (0v) supply rail. Pin2- Trigger, The negative input to comparator No 1. A negative pulse on this pin "sets" the internal Flip-flop when the voltage drops below 1/3Vcc causing the output to switch from a "LOW" to a "HIGH" state. Pin3- Output, The output pin can drive any TTL circuit and is capable of sourcing or sinking up to 200mA of current at an output voltage equal to approximately Vcc - 1.5V so small speakers, LEDs or motors can be connected directly to the output.

 Pin4. Reset, This pin is used to "reset" the internal Flip-flop controlling the state of the output, pin 3. This is an active-low input and is generally connected to a logic "1" level when not used to prevent any unwanted resetting of the output. Pin5. Control Voltage, This pin controls the timing of the by overriding the 2/3Vcc level of the voltage divider network. By applying a voltage to this pin the width of the output signal can be varied independently of the RC timing network. When not used it is connected to ground via a 10nF capacitor to eliminate any noise. Pin6. Threshold, The positive input to comparator No 2. This pin is used to reset the Flip-flop when the voltage applied to it exceeds 2/3Vcc causing the output to switch from "HIGH" to "LOW" state. This pin connects directly to the RC timing circuit. Pin7. Discharge, The discharge pin is connected directly to the Collector of an internal NPN transistor which is used to "discharge" the timing capacitor to ground when the output at pin 3 switches "LOW". Pin8. Supply +Vcc, This is the power supply pin and for general purpose TTL 555 timers is between 4.5V and 15V.

The 555 Timers name comes from the fact that there are three 5k resistors connected together internally producing a voltage divider network between the supply voltage at pin 8 and ground at pin 1. The voltage across this series resistive network holds the positive input of comparator two at 2/3Vcc and the positive input to comparator one at 1/3Vcc. The two comparators produce an output voltage dependant upon the voltage difference at their inputs which is determined by the charging and discharging action of the externally connected RC network. The outputs from both comparators are connected to the two inputs of the flip-flop which inturn produces either a "HIGH" or "LOW" level output at Q based on the states of its inputs. The output from the flip-

flop is used to control a high current output switching stage to drive the connected load producing either a "HIGH" or "LOW" voltage level at the output pin. The most common use of the 555 timer oscillator is as a simple astable oscillator by connecting two resistors and a capacitor across its terminals to generate a fixed pulse train with a time period determined by the time constant of the RC network. But the 555 timer oscillator chip can also be connected in a variety of different ways to produce Monostable or Bistable multivibrators as well as the more common Astable Multivibrator. The Monostable 555 Timer The operation and output of the 555 Monostable is exactly the same as that for the transistorised one we look at previously in the Monostable Multivibrators tutorial. The difference this time is that the two transistors have been replaced by the 555 timer device. Consider the 555 Monostable circuit below. Monostable 555 Timer

When a negative ( 0V ) pulse is applied to the trigger input (pin 2) of the Monostable configured 555 Timer oscillator, the internal comparator, (comparator No1) detects this input and "sets" the state of the flip-flop, changing the output from a "LOW" state to a "HIGH" state. This action inturn turns "OFF" the discharge transistor connected to pin 7, thereby removing the short circuit across the external timing capacitor, C1. This action allows the timing capacitor to start to charge up through resistor, R1 until the voltage across the capacitor reaches the threshold (pin 6) voltage of 2/3Vcc set up by the internal voltage divider network. At this point the comparators output goes "HIGH" and "resets" the flip-flop back to its original state which inturn turns "ON" the transistor and discharges the capacitor to ground through pin 7. This causes the output to change its state back to the original stable "LOW" value awaiting another trigger pulse to start the timing process over again. Then as before, the Monostable Multivibrator has only "ONE" stable state. The Monostable 555 Timer circuit triggers on a negative-going pulse applied to pin 2 and this trigger pulse must be much shorter than the output pulse width allowing time for the timing capacitor to charge and then discharge fully. Once triggered, the 555 Monostable will remain in this "HIGH" unstable output state until the time period set up by the R1 x C1 network has elapsed. The amount of time that the output voltage remains "HIGH" or at a logic "1" level, is given by the following time constant equation.

Where, t is in seconds, R is in 's and C in Farads. Example No1 A Monostable 555 Timer is required to produce a time delay within a circuit. If a 10uF timing capacitor is used calculate the value of the resistor required to produce an output time delay of 500ms. 500ms is the same as saying 0.5s so by rearranging the formula above, we get the calculated value for the resistor, R as:

The calculated value for the timing resistor required to produce the required time constant of 500ms is45.5K's which does not exist as a standard value resistor, so we would need to select the nearest preferred value resistor of 47k's which is available in all the standard ranges of tolerance from the E12 (10%) to the E96 (1%), giving us a new recalculated time delay of 517ms. If this time difference of 17ms (500 - 517ms) is unacceptable a second lower preferred value timing resistor can be selected and connected in series with the first trimming resistor to adjust the pulse width to the exact desired value. We now know that the time delay or output pulse width of a monostable 555 timer is determined by the time constant of the connected RC network. If long time delays are required in the 10's of seconds, it is not always advisable to use high value timing capacitors as they can be physically large, expensive and have large value tolerances, e.g. 20%. One alternative solution is to use a small value timing capacitor and a much larger value resistor up to about 20M's to produce the require time delay. Also by using one smaller value timing capacitor and different resistor values connected to it through a multi-position rotary switch, we can produce a Monostable 555 timer oscillator circuit that can produce different pulse widths at each switch rotation such as the switchable Monostable 555 timer circuit shown below.

Switchable 555 Timer

We can manually calculate the values of R and C for the individual components required as we did in the example above. However, the choice of components needed to obtain the desired time delay requires us to calculate with either kilohms, megaohms, microfarads or picafarads and it is very easy to end up with a time delay of frequency that is out by a factor of ten or even a hundred. We can make our life a little easier by using nomographs to show the monostable multivibrators expected frequency output for different combinations or values of both the R and C. For example, Monostable Nomograph

By selecting suitable values of C and R in the ranges of 0.001uF to 100uF and 1k to 10M's respectively, we can read the expected output frequency directly from the nomograph graph thereby eliminating any error in the calculations. In practice the value of the timing resistor for a monostable 555 timer should not be less than 1k or greater than 20M

Bistable 555 Timer As well as the one shot 555 Monostable configuration above, we can also produce a Bistable (two stable states) device with the operation and output of the 555 Bistable being similar to the transistorised one we look at previously in the Bistable Multivibrators tutorial. The 555 Bistable is one of the simplest circuits we can build using the 555 timer oscillator chip. This bistable configuration does not use any RC timing network to produce an output waveform so no equations are required to calculate the time period of the circuit. Consider the Bistable 555 Timer circuit below. Bistable 555 Timer (flip-flop)

The switching of the output waveform is achieved by controlling the trigger and reset inputs of the 555 timer which are held "HIGH" by the two pull-up resistors, R1 and R2. By taking the trigger input (pin 2) "LOW", switch in set position, changes the output state into the "HIGH" state and by taking the reset input (pin 4) "LOW", switch in reset position, changes the output into the "LOW" state. This 555 timer circuit will remain in either state indefinitely and is therefore bistable.

Then the Bistable 555 timer is stable in both states, "HIGH" and "LOW". The threshold input (pin 6) is connected to ground to ensure that it cannot reset the bistable circuit as it would in a normal timing application. 555 Timer Output We could not finish this 555 Timer tutorial without discussing something about the switching and drive capabilities of the 555 timer or indeed the dual 556 Timer IC. The output (pin 3) of the standard 555 timer or the 556 timer, has the ability to either "Sink" or "Source" a load current of up to a maximum of 200mA, which is sufficient to directly drive output transducers such as relays, filament lamps, LED's motors, or speakers etc with the aid of series resistors or diode protection. This ability of the 555 timer to both "Sink" (absorb) and "Source" (supply) current means that the output device can be connected between the output terminal of the 555 timer and the supply to sink the load current or between the output terminal and ground to source the load current. For example. Sinking and Sourcing the 555 Timer

In the first circuit above, the LED is connected between the positive supply rail ( +Vcc ) and the output pin 3. This means that the current will "Sink" (absorb) or flow into the 555 timer output terminal and the LED will be "ON" when the output is "LOW". The second circuit above shows that the LED is connected between the output pin 3 and ground ( 0v ). This means that the current will "Source" (supply) or flow out of the 555 timers output terminal and the LED will be "ON" when the output is "HIGH". The ability of the 555 timer to both sink and source its output load current means that both LED's can be connected to the output terminal at the same time but only one will be switched "ON" depending whether the output state is "HIGH" or "LOW". The circuit to the left shows an example of this. the two LED's will be alternatively switched "ON" and "OFF" depending upon the output. Resistor, R is used to limit the LED current to below 20mA. We said earlier that the maximum output current to either sink or source the load current via pin 3 is about 200mA and this value is more than enough to drive or switch other logic IC's, LED's or small lamps etc. But what if we wanted to switch or control higher power devices such as motors, electromagnets, relays or loudspeakers. Then we would need to use a Transistor to amplify the 555 timers output in order to provide a sufficiently high enough current to drive the load.

555 Timer Transistor Driver

The transistor in the two examples above, can be replaced with a Power MOSFET device or Darlington transistor if the load current is high. When using an inductive load such as a motor, relay or electromagnet, it is advisable to connect a "freewheel diode" directly across the load terminals to absorb any back emf voltages generated by the inductive device when it changes state. Thus far we have look at using the 555 Timer to generate monostable and bistable output pulses. In the next tutorial about Waveform Generation we will look at connecting the 555 in an astable multivibrator configuration. When used in the astable mode both the frequency and duty cycle of the output waveform can be accurately controlled to produce a very versatile waveform generator.

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE: i s a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator la mp s in man y d evices and are increasing ly used fo r o th er lighting. In trodu ced as a p ractical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions areavailable across thevisible,ultravioletandinfraredwavelengths, with very highWhen a light-emittingdiodeis forward biased(switched on),electronsare able torecombine withelectron holeswithin the device, releasing energy

in the form of photons. This effect is calledelectroluminescencea n d t h e color o f t h e l i g h t ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e e n e r g y o f t h e p h o t o n ) i s determined by theenergy gapof the semiconductor. LEDs are often small in area (less than 1 mm 2 ),and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. [3] LEDs present manyadvantagesover incandescent light sources includinglower energy consumption, long er lifetime,improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise current andheat managementthan compactfluorescent lampsources of comparable output.Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation lighting,automotive lighting(particularly brake lamps, turn signals andindicators) as well as intraffic signals.The advantages of LEDs mentioned above have allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful i n advanced communications

technology.InfraredLEDs are also used in theremote controlunits of many commercial productsincluding televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.

Battery: A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. It consists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by aconductive electrolyte containing a nions and cations. One half-

cell includes electrolyte and theelectrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode; theother halfcell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (posit ively charged ions)migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery, cationsare reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) atthe anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte.Some cells use two halfcells with different electrolytes. A separator between half cells allows ions toflow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes

OPERATION OF SOUND OPERATED SWITCH Conversion of sound to electrical pulse Biasing of amplifier: Changing State:

Conversion of sound to electrical pulse

Micro phon es are typ es of transdu cers, th ey conv ert ac ou stic en erg y i.e. sound sig nal. Basically, a microphone is made up of a diaphragm, which is a thin piece of material that vibrateswhen it is struck by sound wave. This causes other components in the microphone to vibrate leadingto variations in some electrical quantities thereby causing electrical current to be generated. Thecurrent generated in the microphone is the electrical pulse.This microphone has a stage of amplification built in. The power for this built in amplifier is supplied by connecing a resistor to a posotive source of voltage and the changes in

current get reflected aschanges in voltage across this resistor according to the familiar relation V=T*R. A larger resistor willgive you a larger voltage, but then the current into the device gets reduce which brings down the gain.

Biasing of amplifier: A transistor stage, biased near cut-off (that is, almost no current with no signal) amplifier the signal from the microphone. The output of the microphone is coupled to the base of the transistor using an electrolytic capacitor (note : using a better capacitor here will not work). The top of theelectrets microphone is at a few volts, the base conducts at around half a volt, so the leakages currentof the capacitor (all electrolytic capacitor here will not work). The top of the electrets microphone isat a few volts, the base conducts at around half a volt. so the leakage current of the capacitor (allelectrolytic capacitors leak at least a little bit) will eventually cause he steady state

condition in whichthe leakage of the capacitor goes into the base terminal of the transistor. So the collector will have Hetimes this leakage, which can usually be ignored. The first time the microphone output goes positive,however, (because somebody clapped) this change gets coupled to the base entirely due to the actionof the capacitor. This causes the current through the transistor to increase and this increase in currentcauses the voltage at the collector, which was sitting near the supply voltage at the collector, whichwas sitting near the supply voltage, to fall to nearly zero. If you clapped loudly enough. This is not ahigh fidelity audio amplifier. Its function is to produce no output for (slightly) bigger sounds, so thecustomary biasing network can be omitted. Changing State: On a clap, the state of the bistable changes. The output of the amplifier is converted to a sharp pulse by passing it through a (relatively) low valued capacitor, of 0.1 microfarads (100 nanofarads).This is connected through streering diodes to the base of the transistor which is conducting. Thistransistor stop conducting, and the other transistor was not conducting anyway. So at a clap, bothtransistors become off. Then, those two capacitors across the base resistors come into action. Thecapacitor connecting to the base of the transistor which was ON has voltage across it. The capacitor connecting to the base of the transistor which was OFF has no voltage across it. As the sound of theclap dies away, both bases rise towards the supply voltage.But due to the difference in the charges of the two capacitors, the base of the transistor which was previously not conducting reaches the magic value of half a volt first, and it gets on, and stays on. Until the next clap. Two Red Light EmittingDiodes have been placed in the two collector circuits so that this circuit can be made to work by itself.If you cover up one LED, and display the other prominently, you have it there - a clap operated light.