Class : IX WEEK 2

I.I.T. FOUNDATION 1

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KINEMATICS
The branch of mechanics in which the motion of body is studied without the study of the cause of motion is called kinematics. This chapter deals with the fundamental concepts of the motion of a particle in one and two dimensions. Various kinds of motion can be symmetrically grouped under few broad categories. The point of distinction is made on grounds of the velocity vector. On these grounds motion can be one dimensional, two-dimensional or three-dimensional. In this chapter we will study the part of the mechanics which deals only the motion of body and not the cause of motion. Introduction to Motion in One Dimension A body A certain amount of matter limited in all directions and consequently having a finite size, shape and occupying some definite space is called a body. Particle A particle is defined as a portion of matter infinitesimally small in size so that for the purpose of investigation, the distance between its different parts may be neglected. Thus, a particle has only a definite position, but no dimension. In the problems we are going to discuss, we will consider a body to be a particle for the sake of simplicity. MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION Motion The position of object can change on a straight line (like on x-axis with respect to origin) or on a plane with respect to some fixed point on frame. So we can define motion as follows:An object or a body is said to be in motion if its position continuously changes with time with reference to a fixed point (or fixed frame of reference). Caution : The moving object is either a particle, a point object (such as an electron) or an object that moves like a particle. A body is said to be moving like if every portion of it moves in the same direction and at the same rate. Motion in One Dimension When the position of object changes on a straight line i.e. motion of object along straight line is called motion in one dimension. To understand the essential concepts of one dimensional motion we have to go through some basic definitions. Frame of reference One can see the platform from a running train, and it seems that all the objects placed on platform are continuously changing their position. But one, who is on platform, concludes that the objects on the platform are at rest. It means if we will take the trains are reference frame the objects are not stationary and taking reference frame as platform the objects are stationary. So the study of motion is a combined property of the object under study and the observer. Hence there is a need to define a frame of reference under which we have to study the motion of an object. Definition

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A frame of reference is a set of coordinate axes which is fixed with respect to a space point (a body or an object can also be treated as a point mass therefore it can become a site for fixing a reference frame), which we have arbitrarily chosen as per our observer's requirement. The essential requirement for a frame of reference is that, it should be rigid. Position of an object The position of an object is defined with respect to some frame of reference. As a convention, we define position of a point (essentially we treat body as a point mass) with the help of three co-ordinates X, Y and Z. Hence X, Y, Z is a set of coordinate axes representing a 3dimensional space and each point in this space can be uniquely defined with the help of a set of X, Y and Z coordinate, all three axes being mutually perpendicular to each other. The line drawn from origin to the point represents the position vector of that point. Position vector It describes the instantaneous position of a particle with respect to the chosen frame of reference. It is a vector joining the origin to the particle. If at any time, (x, y, z) be the Cartesian coordinates of the particle then its position vector is given by vector = xi + yj + zk. In one-dimensional motion: vector In two-dimensional motion: vector = xi, y=z=0 (along x-axis) (in x-y plane z = 0)

= xi + yj

In the figure above, the position of a point P is specified and vector OP is called the position vector. Caution: Motion of a body cannot be correctly identified unless one knows the position of body as specified by a fixed frame of reference.

Displacement
Consider a case in which the position of an object changes with time. Suppose at certain instant 't' the position of an object is x1 along the x axis and some other instant 'T' the position is x1 then the displacement x is defined as x = x2 - x1

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I.I.T. FOUNDATION 3

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It can be seen in the figure above where x1 and x2 are instantaneous position of the object at that time.

Now consider the motion of a point A with respect to a reference point O. The motion of point A makes its radius vector vary in the general case both in magnitude and in direction as shown in figure above. Suppose the point A travels from point 1 to point 2 in the time interval t. It is seen from the figure that the displacement vector of the point A represents the increment of vector in time t: =
2

Difference between distance and displacement To understand the difference between distance and displacement, we study the motion of vertical throw of a ball with respect to point O, as shown in the figure below, to height h.

After some time it will come again to the same point O. The displacement of ball is zero but there is some distance traversed by the ball. It's because distance is a scalar quantity but displacement is a vector quantity. Uniform and Non Uniform Motion Speed is the rate of change of distance without regard to directions. Velocity is the rate at which the position vector of a particle changes with time. Velocity is a vector quantity whereas speed is scalar quantity but both are measured in the same unit m/sec. The motion of an object may be uniform or non-uniform depending upon its speed. In case of uniform motion the speed is constant, whereas in the non-uniform motion, the speed is variable. In uniform motion in one dimension the velocity (v) is mathematically defined as v = (x2 - x1)/(T-t) ...... (1)

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where x1 and x2 are instantaneous displacement as shown in figure above at time 't' and 'T' respectively. Graphical representation of the uniform motion Form the equation (1) we have the following equation

x2 = x1 + v(T - t) where v is constant. Take t = 0, the equation becomes x2 = x1 + vT, from this equation it follows that the graph of position of object 'x2' against 'T' is a straight line, cutting off x1 on the position axis where x1 is the distance of the particle from the origin at time t = 0. v = slope of the graph which is constant Note: If the graph is not a straight line, it will represent non-uniform motion.

Velocity Vector in Non Uniform Motion

In any non-uniform motion, we can define an average velocity over a time interval. Average velocity is the ratio of the displacement x (that occurs during a particle time interval t) to that interval of time i.e.

Now refer to the example, related to figure 2.3, the ratio of /t is called the average velocity < > during the time interval t. The direction of the vector < > coincides with that of . Average velocity is also a vector quantity.

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Note: The ratio of total distance traveled and time taken during the motion is called average speed. Average speed is a scalar quantity. If at any time t1 position vector of the particle is 1 and at time for this interval 2 position vector is 2 then

Instantaneous velocity Instantaneous velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement.

Illustration: This question contains statement-1 (Assertion) and Statement-2 (Reason). Question has 4 choices (A), (B), (C) and (D) out of which only one is correct. Statement-1 A bus moving due north take a turn and starts moving towards east with same speed. There will be no change in the velocity of the bus. Statement-2 Velocity is a vector quantity. (A) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true, Statement-2 is a correct explanation for statement-1. (B) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is true, Statement-2 is not a correct explanation for statement-1. (C) Statement-1 is true, Statement-2 is false. (D) Statement-1 is false, Statement-2 is true. Solution (D) This is so because bus is changing its direction of motion. Illustration: A man started running form origin and went up to (2, 0) and returned back to (-1, 0) as shown in figure 2.7. In this process total time taken by man is 2 seconds. Find the average velocity and average speed.

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I.I.T. FOUNDATION 6

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Solution: The man is displaced form origin to (-1, 0) Hence displacement, s = So average velocity = Displacement/total time = where as, since the total distance traveled by man = (0, 0) to (2, 0)+(2, 0) to (0, 0)+(0, 0) to (-1, 0) =2+2+1=5m Hence average speed = (Total distance)/(Total time)=5/2 m/sec. /2 = (-1/2) m/sec.

Velocity
The velocity at any instant is obtained from the average velocity shrinking the time interval closer to zero. As t tends to zero, the average velocity approaches a limiting value, which is the velocity at that instant, called instantaneous velocity, which is a vector quantity, mathematically we can define it as

The magnitude v of the instantaneous velocity is called the speed and is simple the absolute value of In the example related with figure given below, the instantaneous velocity is

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Hence instantaneous velocity is the rate at which a particle's position is changing with respect to time at a given instant. The velocity of a particle at any instant is the slope (tangent) of its position curve at the point representing that instant of time, as shown in figure above.

Speed
Speed is defined as rate of change of distance with time. In any interval of time, average speed is defined as <speed> = (total distance)/(total time taken) = s/t. As s > | |, hence <speed> > <velocity> Think : (i) Can a body have a constant speed and still have a varying velocity? (ii) Can a body have a constant velocity and still have a varying speed?

Illustration: A cyclist moves 12 km due to north and then 5 km due east in 3 hr. Find (a) his average speed, (b) average velocity, in m/s. Solution: In the figure, A shows the initial position and C the final position of the cyclist. The total distance covered by the cyclist AB+BC= (12+5)km = 17 km. .. Its average speed = 17/3 km/hr = 1.57 m/s

Its displacement is AC and the magnitude is given by AC = (AB2 + BC2) = (122 + 52) km = 13 km .. Its average velocity = 13/3 km/hr

= 1.2 m/s along AC, i.e at tan-1(5/12) or 22.6o East of North.

Illustration:

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I.I.T. FOUNDATION 8

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A train is moving with a constant speed of 5 m/s and there are two persons A and B standing at a separation of 10 m inside the train. Another person C is standing on the ground. Then, find (a) displacement covered by A, if he moves towards B and back to its position in 10 seconds in frame of reference of train and in frame of reference of C. (b) distance covered by A in frame of reference of train and in frame of reference of C.

Solution: (a) In the frame of train, displacement covered by A is zero and in frame of reference of C, displacement covered by A=0 + 5x10 = 50 m. (b) Distance covered by A in frame of reference of train is 20m and distance covered by A in frame of reference of C is (20 + 50) = 70 m.

Acceleration
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. The concept of acceleration is understood in non-uniform motion. It is a vector quantity. Average acceleration is the change in velocity per unit time over an interval of time.

Instantaneous acceleration is defined as

Acceleration vector in non uniform motion

Suppose that at the instant t1 a particle as in figure above, has velocity velocity is
2

and at t2,

. The average acceleration <

> during the motion is defined as

Class : IX WEEK 2

I.I.T. FOUNDATION 9
Variable Acceleration

STUDY MATERIAL

The acceleration at any instant is obtained from the average acceleration by shrinking the time interval closer zero. As t tends to zero average acceleration approaching a limiting value, which is the acceleration at that instant called instantaneous acceleration which is vector quantity.

i.e. the instantaneous acceleration is the derivative of velocity. Hence instantaneous acceleration of a particle at any instant is the rate at which its velocity is changing at that instant. Instantaneous acceleration at any point is the slope of the curve v (t) at that point as shown in figure above.

Equations of motion
The relationship among different parameter like displacement velocity, acceleration can be derived using the concept of average acceleration and concept of average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration. When acceleration is constant, a distinction between average acceleration and instantaneous acceleration loses its meaning, so we can write

where Now

is the velocity at t = 0 and

is the velocity at some time t

Hence,

.................. (2)

This is the first useful equation of motion.

Class : IX WEEK 2
Similarly for displacement

I.I.T. FOUNDATION 10

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.................. (3) in which 0 is the position of the particle at t0 and < later time t. If at t0 and t the velocity of particle is > is the average velocity between t0 and

This is the second important equation of motion. Now from equation (2), square both side of this equation we get

This is another important equation of motion. Caution: The equation of motion derived above are possible only in uniformly accelerated motion i.e. the motion in which the acceleration is constant. Illustration: The nucleus of helium atom (alpha-particle) travels inside a straight hollow tube of length 2.0 meters long which forms part of a particle accelerator. (a) If one assumes uniform acceleration, how long is the particle in the tube if it enters at a speed of 1000 meter/sec and leaves at 9000 meter/sec? (b) What is its acceleration during this interval? Solution: (a) We choose x-axis parallel to the tube, its positive direction being that in which the particle is moving and its origin at the tube entrance. We are given x and vx and we seek t. The acceleration ax is not involved. Hence we use equation 3, x = x0 + <v> t. We get x = v0 + (vx0) + vx) t, with x0 = 0 or t = 2x/(vx0+vx),

Class : IX WEEK 2

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Ans.

t = ((2)(2.0 meters))/((1000+9000)meters/sec) = 4.0/10-4 sec (b) The acceleration follows from equation 2, vx = vx0 + axt => ax = (v0-vx0)/t = ((9000-1000)meters/sec)/(4.010(-4) sec) = 2.0 107 meter/sec2 Ans.

Thus, we have derived the same equation of motion using calculus. To understand the use of calculus in solving the kinematics problems we can look into the following illustrations. Illustration: The displacement x of a particle moving in one dimension, under the action of a constant force is related to the time t by the equation t = x + 3 where x is in meter and t is in seconds. Find the displacement of the particle when its velocity is zero. Solution: Here t = x + 3 => x = t - 3 Squaring both sides, we get x = t2 - 6t + 9, As we know velocity, v = dx/dt Hence we get v = dx/dt = 2t - 6

Class : IX WEEK 2
Put v = 0, we get, 2t - 6 = 0

I.I.T. FOUNDATION 12
.. t = 3s

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When t = 3s, x = t2 - 6t + 9 = 9 - 6(3) + 9 = 0 Hence the displacement of the particle is zero when its velocity is zero. Graphical Representation and Equations of Motion (i) Position - Time Graph (ii) Velocity - Time Graph

Note : These graphs will have validity only if motion under study is along a straight line. Then, displacement, velocity and acceleration vectors are collinear and can be treated as algebraic quantities. Let x-axis be the path of motion. Then, x-coordinate represents the magnitude of position vector. Position - Time Graph If we plot time t along the x-axis and the corresponding position (say x) from the origin O on the y-axis, we get a graph which is called the position-time graph. This graph is very convenient to analyse different aspects of motion of a particle. Let us consider the following cases. (i) In this case, position (x) remains constant but time changes. This indicates that the particle is stationary in the given reference frame. Hence, the straight line nature of positiontime graph parallel to the time axis represents the state of rest. Note that its slope (tan ) is zero.

(ii) When the x-t graph is a straight line inclined at some angle () with the time axis, the particle traverses equal displacement x in equal intervals of time t. The motion of the particle is said to be uniform rectilinear motion. The slope of the line measured by x/t = t represents the uniform velocity of the particle.

(iii) When the x-t graph is a curve, motion is not uniform. It either speeds up or slows down depending upon whether the slope (tan successively increases or decreases with time. As shown in the figure the motion speeds up from t = 0 to t=t1 (since the slope tan increases). From t=t1 to t=t2, AB represents a straight line indicating uniform motion. From t=t2 to t=t3, the

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motion slows down and for t>t3 the particle remains at rest in the reference frame.

Illustration: The adjacent figure shows the displacement-time graph of a particle moving on the x-axis. Choose the correct option given below.

(A) (B) (C) (D)

The particle is continuously going in positive x direction. The particle is at rest. The particle moves at a constant velocity upto a time t0, and then stops. The particle moves at a constant acceleration upto a time t0,and then stops.

Solution (C) Up to time t0, particle is said to have uniform rectilinear motion and after that comes to rest as the slope is zero. The Velocity - Time Graph The velocity-time graph gives three types of information (i) (ii) The instantaneous velocity. The slope of the tangent to the curve at any point gives instantaneous acceleration. a = dv/dt = tan

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(iii)

The area under the curve gives total displacement of the particle.

Illustration: From the velocity-time plot shown in figure, find

(a)distance travelled by the particle during the first 40 seconds. (b)displacement travelled by the particle during the first 40 seconds. (c) Also find the average velocity during the period. Solution: (a) Distance = area under the curve = 1/2 x 20 x 5 + 1/2 x 5 x 20

For distance measurement, the curve is plotted as in Fig. (a) (b) (c) Displacement = area under the curve in Fig. (b) = 0 Vav = Displacement/time As displacement is zero,

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.. Illustration:

Vav = 0

The velocity-time graph of a moving object is given in the figure. Find the maximum acceleration of the body and distance travelled by the body in the interval of time in which this acceleration exists.

Solution: Acceleration is maximum when slope is maximum amax = (80-20)/(40-30) = 5m/s2 S = 20 m/s x 10 s + 1/2 x 6 m/s2 x 100s2 = 500m Illustration: The displacement versus time curve is given:

Column I (a) (b) (c) (d) OA AB BC CD (p) (q) (r) (s)

Column II Velocity increase with time linearly Velocity decreases with time Velocity is independent of time Velocity is zero

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Solution: A (p) (B) (r)

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(C) (q)

(D) (s)

This is so because slope of displacement-time curve gives instantaneous velocity. The acceleration-time graph Acceleration time curves give information about the variation of acceleration with time. Area under the acceleration time curve gives the change in velocity of the particle in the given time interval.

Analysis of Uniformly Accelerated Motion Case-I: For uniformly accelerated motion with initial velocity u and initial position x0.

Velocity time graph

In every case tan = a0 Position time graph

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Initial position x of the body in every case is x0 (> 0) Case II: For uniformly retarded motion with initial velocity u and initial position x0.

Velocity time graph

In every case tan = -a0 Position time graph

Initial position x of the body in every case is x0 (> 0)