Applied Thermodynamic Notes

Dhanvantari College of Engineering, Nashik
Applied Thermodynamics
SE – Mechanical
SEM – I
Basic Thermodynamic Concepts

• Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics can be defined as a science that deals with the transformation of one
form of energy to the other form.
For example,
a. Heat energy to Mechanical energy – e.g. An I.C. engine.
b. Mechanical energy to Electrical energy – e.g. A turbine generator
c. Electrical energy to Mechanical energy – e.g. An Electric motor.
d. Potential energy to electrical energy – e.g. A hydro-electric power plant.
Thermodynamics was mainly developed by Joule, Kelvin, Planck, Clausius, etc. It is

based on 3 laws:
a) Zeroth law
b) I – Law of thermodynamics
c) II – Law of thermodynamics.
These laws are based on experimental results. There is no mathematical proof for
these laws of thermodynamics.
• Thermodynamics Systems
“A thermodynamic system is defined as quantity of matter or region of space upon
which attention is concentrated in the analysis of the problem.”
Boundary
Surrounding
Fig. 3.1 Thermodynamic System
Everything external to the system is called the surrounding. The system is separated
from the surroundings by the system boundary as shown in Fig. 3.1. The boundary may
be a real physical surface, such as the surface of the cylinder or it may be an imaginary
surface enclosing some matter. The system and the surrounding together is called the
Universe.
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There are 3 Types of system

system:
a. Closed System (or Non-flow
Non system)
b. Open System (or Flow System)
c. Isolated System.
a. Closed or Non-flow
Non system: Closed or Non flow system is of fixed mass, i.e.
there is no mass transfer across the system boundary. But there may be energy
transfer into and out of the system as shown in Fig. 3.2.
For example, consider a system consisting of a gas, in a cylinder fitted with a piston
as shown in Fig. 3.3. If heat is supplied to the gas, the gas expands i.e. the volume of
the gas increases so work will be done by the gas on the piston. Thus heat and work
will cross the system boundary, but since no mass crosses the boundary of the
system, this system is called a closed system.
b. Open system (Flow system): Open system (Flow system) is one in which both
mass and energy can enter and leave the system as shown in Fig. 3.4. Most of the
engineering devices are open systems.
[Please see fig. on next page]
For example, consider a portion of steam power plant as shown in Fig. 3.5. Mass
of steam enters at section 1 and after expanding into the turbine leaves at Section
2. In this case, work is produced when the turbine is driven. So, as shown in
figure there are
re mass, work and heat are crossing the system boundary.
c. Isolated system: It is of fixed mass & energy and there is no mass or energy
transfer across the system boundary. An isolated system is indep
independent of all the
changes that are taking place in the surroundings as shown in Fig. 3.6
• Thermodynamic Properties, Processes and Cycles

Every system has certain characteristics such as Pressure, Volume, Temperature,
Te
Density, Internal energy, Enthalpy etc. by which its physical condition may be
described. Such characteristics are called as Properties of the system.
Properties may be of two types.
1. Intensive Properties: They are independent of total mass in the system.
Ex. Pressure, temperature, density.
2. Extensive Properties: These are dependent on the total mass in the system. When
the mass of the system changes, the values of the properties will change
proportionately.
y. E.g. Volume, weight, energy, enthalpy, entropy.
The properties of unit mass are known as specific properties. For e.g. specific
volume, specific internal energy etc. Th
Thus all the specific properties indicate the
values for unit mass and they are independent of total mass, hence all the specific
properties are intensive properties.
When all the properties of a system have definite values (such as P1, V1, T1), then the
system is said to exist at a definite state, and the properties of the state are side to be State
functions. Any operation in which one or more properties of the system changes, is called
change of state, and the series of states (i.e. sub stat
states
es like a, b, c etc., as shown in Fig. 3.7)
passed during a change of state from state (1) to state (2) is called the Path of change of
stage. The properties of all such changes of states (sub states also) are called Path
functions.
When the path is completely

completely specified, the change of state is called a Process.
First Law off Thermodynamics
• Introduction
In the last chapter, we have studied, work, heat, temperature, pressure etc. and in this
chapter we will be studying the interrelation between work and heat i.e. the first law of
Thermodynamics.
• I-law
law For a Closed System Undergoing a Cycle or Joules Experiment
Joule carried out experiment in 1843, which led to the formulation of the I-law
I of
Thermodynamics. He took a known quantity of water in a rigid vessel, which was
insulated adiabatically from the surroundings. The vessel was fitted with a paddle wheel
and a thermometer as shown in Fig. 4.1.
Now let certain amount of work W1-2 be done upon the closed system by the paddle
wheel. The quantity of work can be measured by the fall of weighweight W, which drives the
paddle wheel. Let t1 be the initial temperature of water before the work transfer and after
work transfer let the temperature rise to t2. So, the system is changing its state from state
(1) to state (2) and the process 1-2
1 2 undergone by the system is shown in Fig. 4.2.
Now, let the insulation be removed. Then the system and the surroundings will
interact by heat transfer (i.e. heat will be dissipated from the system to the surroundings) till
the system comes to the original temperature t1. The amount of heat transfer Q2-1 from the
system during the process 22-1 can be estimated (Q2-1 = m Cp T).
The system thus undergoes a cycle, which consists of a definite amount of work
input W1-2 to the system, followed by a heat transfer Q2-1 from the system.
Joule repeated this experiment for different weights & for different heights and in
each case he found that, net work transfer during a cycle is proportional to the net heat
transfer, i.e.
∑δ W ∑δ Q
or in other words, “when a closed system undergoes any cyclic process, the cyclic
integral of work is proportional to the cyclic integral of heat.” This is known as the I law of
thermodynamics for a closed system undergoing a cycle.

t

In S. I. units J = 1

Thus the I law states the general principle of conservation of energy i.e. energy can
neither be created nor be destroyed, but energy can be converted from one form to the other.
• I-low For a Closed System Undergoing a Process

If a closed system undergoes a change of state or a process, and during which both
work transfer and heat transfer are involved, then the net energy transfer will be stored
within the system. If ‘Q’ is the amount of heat transferred to the system and ‘W’ is the
amount of work transferred from the system during the process as shown in Fig. 4.3,
then the net energy transfer (Q-W) will be stored in the system.
W Energy in storage is neither heat nor work but is

System Called as Internal energy or simple energy of the system.
Q Fig. 4.3 Q–W=∆E
or Q = ∆ E + W
Where ∆ E is the change in energy.
Here Q, W and ∆ E all are expressed in Joule.
• Energy a Property of The System

Consider a system which changes its state from state (1) to state (2) by
following the path ‘A’ and returns from state (2) to state (1) by following path ‘B’ as
shown in Fig. 4.4. So the system undergoes a cycle.
Now writing the I law for the Path A,
QA – WA = ∆ EA …. (1)
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and for the path ‘B’
QB – WB = EB …. (2)
The processes 1-A-22 and 22-B-1
1 together constitute a cycle for which
i.e. Total work transfer during the cycle = Total heat transfer during cycle.
i.e. W A + W B = QA + QB
or W B + W B = QA + QA
or (QB - WB) = QA - WA
from (1) (2) and (3)
- EB = EA
i.e. EA = - EB …. (4)
Similarly, if the system returns from state (2) to (1) by following the path ‘C’ instead of
path ‘B’, then
i.e. EA - EC …. (5)
from (4) and (5),
EB = EC …. (6)
Thus the change in energy for the path B and C are same. Hence change in energy
does not depend upon path, so it depends on end states. Hence it is a point function and
since properties are point functions, energy is a property of the system..
• Different Forms
rms of Stored Energies
The total energy ‘E’ is made up of kinetic energy, Potential energy and Internal
energy.
E = K.E. + P.E. + I.E.
Kinetic energy is due to the motion of the fluid in the system.
Potential energy is the energy due to the gravitational force.
A part of the total energy, which is stored in the molecular and atomic structure is knows
as Internal energy and is denoted by U.
K. E. = 0 and P.E. = 0,
E = U and the I – law for the process
Q=∆E+W (1) becomes
Q=∆U+W (2)
In the differential form, equation (1) and (2) becomes,
Q = dE + W i.e. Q = dE + PdV …. (3)
Q = dU + W i.e. Q = dU + PdV …. (4)
When K.E. and P.E. are considered, then the I – law for a processes will be
Q = W + dU + d (K.E.) + d (P.E.) …. (5)
In the integrated form equation (5) becomes
మమ భమ
Q1-2 – W1-2 = U2 – U1 +
mg (Z2 – Z1) …. (6)
Where ‘C’ is the velocity and ‘Z’ is the height for unit mass.
మమ భమ
q – w = u2 – u1 +
(Z2 – Z1) …. (7)
• Internal Energy (U)

“It is the energy stored in the molecular structure due to heat and work interactions”.
OR
In case of gases we known that, the gas is made up of a number of molecules, which
are moving continuously. I.E. is the energy which arises from the motion of these
molecules.
If the temperature of the gas is increased, the molecular activity increases therefore
the I.E. also increases. (Thus I.E. is a function of temperature & its value can be
increased or decreased) by adding or removing heat to or from the system.
Due to practical difficulties is the very very difficult to determine the absolute value
of Internal energy. Fortunately, in most of the thermodynamic applications, change in
I.E. is used since changes in states of a system is considered. Change in I.E. is denoted
by ∆ U and ∆ U = U2 – U1. For unit mass,
∆ u = u 2 – u1
• Enthalpy (H)
It is an extensive property, since its value depends on mass. Enthalpy of substance is
given by the sum of Internal energy and Pressure – Volume product. i.e.
H = U + PV
& specific enthalpy,
h = u + Pv
• Specific Heat
“Specific heat of a gas is defined as the amount of heat required to rise the
temperature of unit mass of a gas through one degree.”
Let C = General specific heat
Q = Heat transfer (J)
∆ T = Change in temperature in ‘K’
m = mass in kg
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Then from the definition

C = . ∆
…. (1)

units will be
.
Or
Q = m . C. ∆ T ....(2)
In the differential form,
q = C . dT ….. (3)
& for unit mass
q = C . dT ….. (4)
Or

C = ….. (5)
There are two specific heats
1) Specific heat at constant volume Cv

2) Specific heat at constant Pressure Cp
• Specific Heat At Constant Volume Cv

“It is the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of unit mass of a gas
through one degree, when the volume is kept constant.”
If a unit mass of a gas is taken in a closed vessel and is heated, the volume of the gas
remains constant, but the temperature increases. As the volume remains constant, there
is no external work done by the gas, and as temperature of the gas increases, there is
increase in internal energy of the gas. Therefore, heat supplied to the gas is completely
utilised in increasing the I.E. of the gas.

Cv = Unit mass of a

gas at const.
volume
Fig. 4.5
‘Cv’ is also defined as the rate of change of specific internal energy with respect to
temperature when the volume is kept constant.
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• Specific Heat At Constant Pressure, Cp

“It is the amount of heat required to rise the temperature of unit mass of a gas
through
ugh one degree, when the pressure is kept constant.”
onsider a unit mass of a gas in a cylinder fitted with a

Consider
frictionless piston as shown in Fig. 4.6. When the gas is
heated, the piston moves up, maintaining the same pressure.
But the volume and temperature of the gas increases during
heating. As there is increases in volume, there is external work
done by the gas and as there is increase in temperature, there
is increase in I.E.
Thus heat supplied, when the pressure is constant, is

utilised for two purposes.
1) To do some external work

2) To increase the I.E. of the gas,
Where as in case of constant heating, the heat supplied is completely utilised for
increasing I.E.
Specific heat at constant pressure is greater than specific heat at constant volume.
i.e. Cp > Cv
& Cp =
‘Cp’ is also defined as the rate of change of specific enthalpy with respect to
temperature when the pressure is kept constant.
• Adiabatic Index ( )
It is the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant
volume and is given by,
or k =
Note: For air Cp = 1.005
and = 1.4
• Perpetual Motion of First Kind (PMM -1)

I – law states the general principle of conversion of energy, i.e. energy can neither be
created nor be destroyed but it can be transformed from one form to the other.
But PMM – 1 is defined as a machine which will produce continuous work output,
without receiving any energy from any other system or the surroundings (Ref. Fig. 4.7.)
It will created energy and thus violates I law of thermodynamics. All the attempts
made so for to make such a machine have failed, thus they show the validity of I law. Thus
PMM-11 us just a conceptual machine.
Converse of PMM
PMM-1 is also true, i.e. there can
an be no machine which would
continuously consume work, without producing some other form of energy (Fig. 4.8.)
• Second Law Of I Law Of Thermodynamics

• Limitation of I Law
1. The expression, Q, merely states that, work transfer during a cycle is
equal to heat transfer. It does not specify whether the process is possible in forward
direction or backward direction.
2. It is also partically found that, all forms of energies are not equally convertible
convert into
work and the first law is silent about the extent of conversion of energy. So, it
becomes necessary to study the second Law.
• Heat Engine and Heat Engine Cycle

Heat engine is an engine, which converts heat energy into mechanical energy. Heat
engine works on Heat engine cycle. A heat engine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle, in
which there is a net heat transfer to the system and a net work transfer from the system.
As we have studies, Heat engines are broadly classified into 2 types,
1. External combustion engines.
2. Internal combustion engines.
Figure 5.1 shows a simple steam power

plant. In this plant an amount of heat “Q1” is
supplied from the furnace (Also called as High
temperature reservoir) to the water in the boiler
drum. An amount of heat ‘Q2’ is rejected to the
low temperature reservoir, like a coolant in the
condenser, and in doing so, an amount of work
‘W’ will be produced.
The thermal efficiency, of the heat
engine is defined as,

భ మ
భ
భ
1 మ
భ
In case of I.C. Engines combustion of air and fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder. The products of combustion will be directly acting on the pistons of the I.C.
Engines for producing the power.
Now consider an I.C. Engine as shown in Fig. 5.2
Q1 Let Qi : is the heat transferred to the system.
W1 Q2 : is the heat transferred from the system.
W1 : is the work done by the system

W2 W2 : is the work done on the system.
Q2 Then,
Fig. 5.2 Net heat transfer in a cycle
= Qnet = Q1 – Q2 and
Net work transfer in a cycle = Wnet = W1 – W2.
According to the I – law of thermodynamics,
Q,
or Wnet = Qnet
We can write,
W1 – W2 = Q1 – Q2
• II – Law of Thermodynamics
Because of the limitations, of I – law, it becomes necessary to study the second law.
There are two important statements of Second law, they are
1. Kelvin Planck statement
2. Clausius statement
1. Kelvin Planck statement: “It is impossible for a heat engine to produce net work
in
a cycle, if it exchanges heat with a single reservoir.”
OR
“Heat engine cannot produce work output, if it exchanges heat with a single
reservoir”.
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We have seen that,
But practical experience it is noted that total heat supplied cannot be converted into
useful work ‘W’ i.e. Q1 W i.e. a heat engine can never be 100% efficient. But W < Q1,
there has to be heat rejection i.e. Q2 > 0
Therefore, for a heat engine to produce net work in a cycle, it has to exchange heat
with two reservoirs.
But if, O2 = 0, then Q1 W or , the heat engine will produce net work
in a complete cycle by exchanging heat with only one reservoir, thus it violates Kelvin
Planck’s statement. Such a heat engine is called a Perpetual Motion Machine of the
second kind (PMM-2). 2). A PMM-2 2 is impossible and it is just a conceptual engine. All the
attempts made so far to make such a machine hav havee failed, thus they show the validity of
Kelvin Planck’s statement.
2. Clausius Statement: We know that, heat always flows from a hot body to a cold
body. The reverse process never occurs by itself.
Clausius statement is given as “It is impossible to construct a device, which

operating in a cycle, will produce no effect other than transfer of heat from a low
temperature body to a high temperature body”.
OR
“Heat cannot flow by itself, from a cold body to a hot body, in order to achieve
this some work must be expended.”
Example – Refrigerator: In this case heat is removed from the cold body ‘A’ and
transferred to the atmosphere but by consuming work input ‘W’.
• Equivalence of Kelvin Planck and Clausius Statements
1. Kelvin Planck’s statement: “For a heat engine to produce Wnet, it has to exchange
heat with two reservoirs.
reservoirs.”
2. Clausius statement: “Heat cannot flow by itself from a cold body to a hot body. In
order to achieve this some work must be expended.”
At first sight these two statements will appear to be, two different statements and are
unconnected. But it can be easily shown that, these are the two parallel statements of II
law and are equivalent in all respects.
The equivalence of the two statements wi will
ll be proved, if we prove that the violation
of one statement results into the violation of the other.
(a) Violation of Clausius statement leads into the violation of Kelvin Planck’s
statement:
Consider a cyclic heat pump ‘P’, which transfers heat from a LTR at ‘t2’ to HTR
at ‘t1’ without consuming work into (i.e. W = 0) thus violating Clausius statement.
Now let us assume a cyclic heat engine ‘E’ which also operates between
the same two reservoirs at ‘t1’and ‘t2’

respectively. The rate of working the heat engine
is such that, it draws an amount of heat ‘Q1’ from
HTR equal to that discharged by the heat pump.
Then the HTR may be eliminated and heat Q1
discharged by the heat pump may be directly fed
to the heat engine. So, the heat pump ‘P’ and heat
engine ‘E’ acting together will form a heat
engine, operating in cycles and producing net
work by exchanging heat with one reservoir. This
violates the Kelvin Planck statement.
Violation of Kelvin Planck statement leads

leads into the violation of
Clusius statement:
statement
Let us consider a PMM-2 2 (E), which produces Wnet in

a cycle by exchanging heat with only one reservoir at
‘t1’ and thus violates Kelvin Planck’s statement (ref.
fig.)
Now let us assume cyclic heat pump ‘P’ extracting

heat Q2 from LTR at ‘t2’ and supplying heat to HTR at
‘t1’ by consuming work ‘W’ equal to that PMM – 2
supplies in a complete cycle. So, ‘E’ and ‘P’ together
will form a heat pump and producing the complete
effect of transferring heat from LTR tto HTR, without
any external aid.
•
• Quasi-Static
Static Process/Reversibility and Irreversibility
Quasi – means nearly or almost. So, Quasi-static
Quasi static process means nearly static
process or a process which proceeds with extreme slowness. A quasiquasi-static process
proceeds from one equilibrium state to another equilibrium state till the end of the
process. All the states passed through by the system, during the process are all
equilibrium state.
static process is represented on the PV

A quasi-static PV-diagram
diagram by a continuous curvecur
and if we carry out the process in the reverse direction, then it is possible to retrace the same
path. Hence it is known as Reversible process.
Where as in case of Irreversible process, only end states are equilibrium states
and all the intermediate states are non
non-equilibrium
equilibrium states and is represented by a means of a
dotted curved as shown.
Conditions of Reversibility (or Factors making the process Irrversible.)
1. A process should be quasi

quasi-static.
2. There should be no friction.
3. Both the system and the surroundings should restore their initial state after the
process in reversed.
• Entropy
We have studied the II-law of thermodynamics. Analysis of I-law
law leads to the
definition of a derived property known as Internal energy. Analysis of IInd law will lead to
definition of another derived property – the Entropy.
Clausius discovered that, when a small amount of heat ‘ Q’ is supplied to a system,
which is at a absolute temperature T, then it will undergo a process, & the ratio is same
for all reversible processes. He assigned the value = dS and called ‘S’ as entropy.
Q
The term entropy is taken from the Greek words ‘tropee’
meaning transformation. Thus, when a small amount of heat ‘ Q’ is
System
transformed to a system, the entropy changes by an amount ‘dS’. This
at ‘T’
change in entropy is regarded as the transformation content of the
system.
Fig. 5.12 Note that ent
entropy
ropy is a thermodynamic property, it increases with the
addition of heat and it decreases with the removal of heat.
• Clausius Theorem
It states that, the cyclic integral of for a reversible cycle is equal to zero. i.e.
• Entropy – a Property
To prove this, we have to prove that the change of entropy does not depend upon path
but it depends upon end sates. Then, we will able to say that, entropy is a property of the
system.
Consider a system, which changes its state from state point (1) to state point (2) by
following the reversible path ‘a’ and returns from state point (2) to state point (1) by
following the reversible path ‘b’.
Then the two paths 1 – a – 2 and 2 – b – 1 together will form a cycle.
Now from Clausius theorem,
(1 – a – 2 – b – 1).
The above integral may be replaced as the sum of two
integrals one for the path ‘a’ other for the path ‘b’.
(Note: may be read as integral for the reversible path 1 – a – 2)
Since path ‘b’ is reversible.
The magnitude of (i.e. ‘dS’) is same for the paths ‘a’ and ‘b’ and it does not
depend upon the path. So, it depends upon the end states, hence it is point function and we
know that properties are point-functions,
point functions, hence it is a property of the system.
• Clausius Inequality
We know that, from Clausius theorem,
for a reversible cycle.
But for a irreversible cycle,
Combining results for reversible and irreversible cycles we can write,
This expression is known as Clausius Inequality. It implies whether any cyclic process in
reversible, irreversible or impossible.
• Ideal Gases & Ideal Gas Processes
• Definition
An ideal gas is one, which obeys all the gas laws and the characteristic gas equation
PV = mRT, at all temperatures and Pressures.
But actually there is no perfect or Ideal gas in reality. But all the real gases like Air,
O2, H2, N2, He behave as ideal gas, at very low pressures and high temperatures.
• Gas laws
The behaviour of ideal gas governed by certain laws which are known as gas laws
viz.
1. Boyle’s law
2. Charle’s law
3. Avogadro’s law
4. Characteristic gas equation or equation of state.
1. Boyle’s law: Boyle experimentally established that, The volume of a given mass of a
gas is inversely proportional to the absolute pressure, when the temperature is constant.
i.e. V , when T = C

V=

or PV = C where C is a constant. Also P1 V1 = P2 V2 = C

Consider a gas in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston. Let the initial
properties be P1 and V1. Now when the gas is heated at constant temperature, then the
gas expands and the pressure falls to P2 and volume increases to V2. This is represented
on PV-diagram as shown in fig.
2. Charle’s Laws: i) It states that, “when the pressure of a given mass of a gas is kept
constant, then volume is directly proportional to the absolute temperature”
i.e. when P = C, then V T

or
V = CT
or
C

or
C

ii) It also states that, “when the volume of a given mass of a gas is kept constant, the
pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature”
i.e. P T when V = C
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or
P = CT
C

or
C

• Equation of State or Characteristic Gas Equation

In engineering practice, pressure, volume temperature all very simultaneously. So,
Boyle’s law or Charle’s law alone is not applicable, since one of the three properties is
kept constant. In order to establish a relationship between these three properties, Boyle’s
law and Charle’s laws are combined together, which gives a general equation called
characteristic gas equation.
According to Boyle’s law,
V when T = C

…. (1)
And according to Charle’s law,
V T when P = C …. (2)
It is obvious that,
V is to T and

V

i.e. …. (3)
or PV T
or PV = CT where ‘C’ is a constant
C

or
…. (4)
or in general
..... = C

or since v = specific volume in
Then equation will be,
C

…. (5)
When 1 kg of gas is condensed, then the constant for the equation (4) is written as
‘R’ and is called Characteristic gas constant.
R

…. (6)
Now consider ‘m’ kg of gas. Multiply both sides of equation (6) by ‘m
. .

m .R
m. v = V = Total volume
PV = mRT This is known as characteristic-equation of an ideal gas.
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Note that the value of ‘R’ for air = 0.287
• Universal Gas Constant

Frequently it is required to express the equation of state, PV = mRT on mole basis.
The mass of a substance ‘m’ is equal to the product of number of moles ‘n’ and the
molecular weight ‘M’
i.e.
m=n . M
Hence substituting the value of ‘m’ in equation (1) we get,
PV = n . M . RT …. (2)
Now the molal specific volume is defined as the volume / unit mole and is denoted
by v,
v

Hence equation (2) becomes.

P v = MRT …. (3)
Now if we consider two gases, ‘a’ and ‘b’ occupying equal molal volumes at the
same temperature and pressure, equation (3) becomes,
Pa . va = Mb . Rb . Tb
&
Pb . vb = Mb . Rb . Tb
According to Avogadro’s law, perfect gases at the same temperature and pressure,
occupy the same molal volume.
i.e.
va = vb when Pa = Pb and Ta = Tb,
We have,

. .

Ma . Ra = Mb . Rb = M . R

The product ‘M . R’ is called the Universal Gas constant and it is denoted by R
Equation (3) can be written as,

P v = MRT
T
P v = R
and equation (2) can be written as

PV = n MRT
PV = n RT
and The value of R for air = 8.3143

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• Relationship Between Cp and Cv for an Ideal Gas
Specific heat at constant pressure and specific heat at constant volume, we have
studied in the I – law of thermodynamic.
Since Cp and Cv are the properties of a system, there is a relationship between these.
We know that, specific enthalpy ‘h’ is given by,
h = u + Pv
dh = du + d (P . v) ….. (1)
from the definitions of
Cp =

dh = Cp . dT …. (2)
and
Cv =

du = Cv . dT …. (3)
Since Pv = RT
d (Pv) = d (RT)
d (Pv) = R . dT, since R is a constant …. (4)
Substituting equations (2), (3) and (4) in (1) we get,
Cp . dT = Cv dT + R . dT
Cp = Cv + R (Since dT is common in both sides)
or
Cp – Cv = R
…. (5)

We also know that the ratio γ

Cp = γ . Cv Substituting in
Cp – Cv = R we get,
γ . C
C
R
Cv ( 1) = R
C

…. (6)
and since
Cp = γ . C
,
C
.

…. (7)
Page | 20
• Constant Volume Process
During this process, volume remains
constant (V = C) and is represented on a PV
PV-diagram
by means of a vertical line as shown.
When a unit mass of a gas a heated in a closed vessel
(i.e. V = C), then, since volume remains constant, no
external work is done. But since temperature of the gas
increases I.E. increases.
(a) Work done

We know that, work done in a non
non-flow system =
Here V = C dV = 0
W1-22 = 0
(b) Heat supplied
We know that, from the I-law
law for a closed system undergoing a
process,
Q= U+W In this case since W = 0
Q= U
or q= u
q = du = Cv. dT from the definition of Cv. for total mass, Q

= dU = m . Cv . dT
(c) Change of Entropy

Here v1 = v2 hence In = In 1 = 0
Hence from equation (6) (i.e. from II
II-law and Entropy chapter)
Unit
mass of
gas
Fig. 6.2 (c)
s2 – s1 = Cv In
s2 – s1 = Cv In
and from equation (9) i.e.
s2 – s1 = Cp In
s2 – s1 = Cv In
• Constant Pressure Process

During this process pressure remains constant (P = C) and this process is
represented by means of a horizontal line on the P V – diagram as shown.
When a unit mass of a gas it taken in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston and is
heated. Then the piston moves up maintaining same pressure (i.e. P = C). As the volume of
the gas increases, the work is done by the gas on the piston. As the temperature
tempera of the gas
increases, Internal Energy increases. So, heat supplied in a constant pressure heating process
is utilised for 2 purposes.
i) For doing some external work.

ii) For increasing the I.E. of the gas.
a) Work done
We know that, Work done in a non-flow system
W1 – 2 = P
Here the law for the process is P = C
W1 – 2 = P
W1-2 = P (V2 – V1)

3
If the pressure P is in మ and volume is in m then the resultant unit of

Work will be N-m or J.
b) Change in Internal Energy

(∆U) = U2 – U1
c) Heat transferred.
From then I – law,
Q–W=∆U
Q = ∆U + W
or δQ dU δW
δQ dU P dV
δQ dU dPV since P = C
δQ dU PV
δQ dH
or δ q dh
i.e. heat supplied = change in enthalpy.
d) Change in Entropy
Here P1 = P2 In మ = In 1 = 0; Hence from equations which are in terms of

భ
pressure ratio (From I law and Entropy chapter)
i.e. from equation (9),

s2 – s1 = Cp In
మ
భ
and from equation (10),

s2 – s1 = Cp In మ
భ
• Isothermal Process
During this process, temperature remains constant (T = C). The law for the process
is PV = C and is represented by means of a curve as shown on the PV-diagram. It is
represented by means of a horizontal line on T-S diagram.
a) Work done
We know that. Work done in a non-flow system

W1 – 2 = P . dv
The law for the process is
PV = C i.e.
PV = P1 V1 = C
P
భ భ

W1 – 2 =
భ భ

. dV
Page | 23

= P1 V1
W1 – 2 = P1 V1 In
మ
భ

W1 – 2 = P1 V1 In భ
మ
b) Change in IE
dU = m Cv dT = 0 as T = C, dT = 0
c) Heat transferred
From the first law for a closed system undergoing a process,
Q=∆U+W
Q=dU+W
Q = 0 + w
Q = W = P1 V1 In

మ

భ
= P1 V1 In భ
మ
d) Change of entropy
Here T1 = T2 In మ = In 1 = 0

భ
Hence from equations which are in terms of temperature ratio, i.e. from equation (6)
(from II haw and entropy chapter}
s2 – s1 = R In
మ
భ
and from equation (10)

s2 – s1 = - R In మ
భ

s2 – s1 = R In మ
భ
• Polytropic Process (PVn = C)

a) Work done
We know that, the work done in non-flow system,
W1-2 = PdV ….. (1)
But for a polytropic process,
P Vn = P1 Vn1 = P2 Vn = C
P = Substituting in equation (1), we get,

౤

W1 – 2 = ౤
dV

W1 – 2 = CV dV

ష౤శభ
= C

ష౤శభ భష౤శభ
=C

Page | 24
ష౤శభ
మ ష౤శభ
భ
=

ష౤శభ భష౤శభ
= మ

Substituting for C
మ మష౤శభ .మష౤శభ భ ౤ ష౤శభ
= –
భ .భ
–
మ ౤ష౤శభ
మ భ౤ష౤శభ
భ
=

మ మ భభ భ భ మ మ
W1-2 =
or
….. (2)
Since P1 V1 = m R T1 and P2 V2 = m R T2
మ భ
W1-2 = ….. (3)

b) Heat supplied
From the I-law for a closed system under going a process,
Q=∆U+W
For unit mass,
q=∆u+w
In the differential from.
q = du + w
q = du + P w
మ భ
q1-2 = Cv (T2 – T1) + from equation (3).

= C
T2 T1

౬ ౬ ౦ ౬
=

T T
since Cp – Cv = R
೛ ೡ
=

T T
taking Cv common, we can write,
q1-2 = Cv T T , as
೛
ೡ
q1-2 = Cn . T T
where Cn = Cv . is known as Polytropic specific heat.

….. (5)

(d) Change in Entropy

For equation (4)
q = Cv . T T

In the differential form,
q = Cv . dT

ds

Since
Page | 25
ds = Cv .
or
Cv .
s2 – s1 = Cv .In . …. (6)
This is the change in entropy, for unit mass in a Polytropic process in terms of
temperature ratio.
Note:
1. Change in entropy in terms of volume ratio is given by,
s2 – s1 = . R . In ….. (7)
Note:
2. Change in entropy in terms of pressure ratio is given by,
s2 – s1 = . . In
v) Adiabatic process ( = C)
During this process neither heat enters the system nor heat
leaves the system.
a) Work done
(Note: Derivation is just similar to work done in polytropic
process, put in place of n).
Work done, W1-2 =

=
=
b) Heat supplied
Here Heat supplied = 0 (Since neither heat enters nor leaves the system during the
process).
c) Change in entropy for a reversible adiabatic process

As we have studied during a reversible adiabatic process, entropy remains constant
(S = C) and the process is called as Isentropic process. Since S = C, dS = 0 change in
entropy is zero.
• Steam
• Introduction
Water is the most readily available substance on the Earth. So, the steam
which is nothing but water in the gaseous state is being used since old days for various
thermodynamic functions. In this chapter we will study various terms related with steam,
its properties and different processes.
• Terms Related With Steam

1. Pure substance: It is single substance, which retains the same molecular structure
and chemical composition during the process of energy transfer.
A pure substance exists in all the three phases viz solid, liquid, or gaseous. Water is
an example of pure substance, since it exists in all the three phases and in all the
three phases its molecular structure is same.
2. Evaporation Process: When the heat is supplied to the liquid, it changes its phase
to gaseous state and is known as evaporation.
So, when the heat is added to the water, it gets converted into steam.
3. Saturation temperature: At any certain pressure the phase change occurs at

particular temperature and is known as saturation temperature. For e.g. Saturation
temperature of water at 1 atmosphere (i.e. 1 bar) pressure is 100o C.
Saturation temperature corresponding to phase change from liquid to gas is known as

Boiling point.
So, boiling point of water at 1 atm is 100o C; while boiling point of water at 10 atm
pressure is 180o C.
Note that the boiling point temperature increases with pressure.
4. Sub cooled liquid: The liquid having temperature below saturation temperature is
known as sub cooled liquid. For e.g. water at 1 atm pressure and 80o C.
5. Saturated liquid: The liquid at saturation temperature (boiling point is known as
saturated liquid. For e.g. Water at 1 atm and at 100o C.)
6. Sensible heat of liquid: Heat supplied to liquid, which is having temperature below
saturation temperature.
The sensible heat causes change in temperature of liquid. Finally the liquid
attains saturation temperature. The relationship between heat added and temperature
change is given by,
Q = m . Cp . ∆ T = m Cp (T1 – T2)
When the heat is added at constant pressure, we can write,
H = Q = m . Cp . ∆ T
Where Cp is specific heat and for water,
Cpw = 4.187 KJ/Kg –K.
7. Saturated vapour: Vapour at saturation temperature is known as Saturated vapour.
For e.g. steam at 1 atm and 100oC
Page | 27
8. Latent heat of evaporation: Amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of liquid
from saturated liquid state to saturated vapour state is known as Latent heat.
Latent heat also depends on pressure, i.e. it decreases with pressure for e.g. latent
୏୎ ୏୎
heat of water at 1 atm pressure is 2258 ୩୥ and at 10 atm pressure is 2013 ୩୥
9. Critical point: As the pressure increases, latent heat of evaporation decreases. The
୏୎
pressure corresponding to 0 ୩୥ latent heat is known as Critical point.
For water Critical point pressure is 221.2 bar and Critical point temperature is
374.15o C
10. Wet steam: The steam at any state between saturated liquid and saturated vapour
state is known as Wet steam. In this state, there are suspended water particles in
suspension. Thus the steam is a mixture of liquid and vapour.
As the heat is added, these suspended particles also gets evaporated and
finally giving saturated or dry steam.
11. Dryness fraction: This is the number which represents the quality of steam. It
gives percentage of vapour present in the steam.
If mv = mass of vapour in the given mass of steam, and

m1 = mass of vapour in the given mass of steam.
Then the dryness fraction ‘x’ can be obtained by
୫౬
x=୫
౬ ା୫భ
For e.g.
a. In saturated liquid, there is no vapour present hence mv = 0. So, x = 0.
b. In saturated
c. For the states between saturated liquid and saturated vapour, the steam is a mixture
of liquid and vapour. So 0 < x < 1.
At
State 1. There is 75% liquid and 25% vapour, so x = 0.25
State 2. 50% liquid and 50%, vapour, So x = 0.5
State 3. 25% liquid and 75%, vapour, x = 0.75
12. Superheated steam: The steam having temperature above saturated temperature is
known as superheated steam.
13. Degree of superheat: For superheated steam difference between its temperature and
corresponding saturation temperature is known as Degree of superheat. So degree of
superheat = tsup - tset.
14. Sensible heat of vapour: The heat added to the vapour, which causes change in
temperature is known as sensible heat of vapour.
The relation between sensible heat of vapour and change in temperature in given by,
Q = m . Cp . ∆ T
= m . Cpvap (tsup - tsat)
For water,
Page | 28
୏୎
Cpvap = 2.1 at 1 atm pressure.
୏୥ି୏
• Properties of Steam
The reference point for calculation of properties of steam is taken at 0o C. The
properties of steam at any state are calculated using two different tables viz
1. Saturated water and steam tables.
2. Properties of superheated steam tables.
Saturated water and steam table: This table gives the properties of saturated water
and saturated steam for different saturation temperature of pressure. The table is in the
following form,
Saturation Saturation Sp. Volume Specific Enthalpy Specific

Temperature Abs. Entropy
Pressure
o
C (T) bar (P) Vf Vg hf hfg hg Sf Sg
20 0.0233 0.001 57.83 83.86 2454.3 2538.2 0.2963 8.66
50 0.1233 0.001 12.046 209.26 2382.9 2592.2 0.7035 8.077
100 1.0133 0.001 1.673 419.06 2256.9 2676.0 1.3069 7.355
Thus from this table we can directly obtain the values of properties viz. specific volume,
specific enthalpy and specific entropy at any saturation temperature or pressure. The
properties of saturated water are denoted by the letter suffixed with ‘f’ as vf, hf & sf. While
the properties of saturated steam are denoted by letter suffixed with ‘g’ as vg, hg and sg.
Some times the value ‘enthalpy of evaporation’ or latent heat of evaporation is also directly
given which is denoted by ‘hfg’. If not given the value o ‘hfg’ can be calculated as (‘hg - hf’)
In order to obtain the properties of steam at any other than saturated water or saturated
steam sloes, the following procedure is used.
1.Consider the point representing the state of steam on a constant pressure line.
2.Obtain the properties of saturated water and saturated steam at that pressure from the
steam table.
3.Then using following co. relations calculated the properties of the desired state.
• Steam Calorimeters
The exact condition of steam cannot be determined only from the knowledge of
pressure and temperature if the steam is wet. To find out the quality of steam i.e. its
dryness fraction, steam calorimeters are used. They are of the following types:
(i) Throttling Calorimeter
(ii) Separating Calorimeter
(iii) Combined separating and throttling calorimeter
• Throttling Calorimeter
Throttling occurs when a gas or steam passes through a fine orifice. As no external
work is done by the steam in passing through a fine orifice the specific enthalpy of
steam is same after throttling as before. But as pressure falls down after throttling, the
liquid enthalpy reduces after throttling. This fact is made use in this calorimeter.
Page | 29
From the above discussion it is clear that if high pressure, sufficiently dry steam is
throttled then it tends to become superheated.
Fig. 7.11 gives the arrangement of the throttling calorimeter. Steam is drawn through
the main by a sampling tube. The sampling tube helps in taking a correct representative
sample of the steam. It consists of no. of holes which take steam from various levels
lev in the
steam main i.e. upper level having more dry steam and lower level having heavy wet steam.
This steam is then lead to the throttling chamber through a stop value and pressure
gauge. In the chamber throttling occurs in a throttle orifice. The steam
steam is then exhausted to a
condenser. The temperature of throttled steam (superheated) is noted by a thermometer
placed in an oil pocket. The pressure is measured by a water manometer, because small
variations can be easily noted. The dryness fraction is calculated
calculated as follows:
Let,
P1 = Pressure of steam before throttling measured by the pressure gauge.
P2 = Pressure of steam after throttling measured by the manometer.
tsup = temperature of steam (superheated) after throttling.
ts2 = temperature of saturate

saturated steam corresponding to P2
x1 = Dryness fraction of steam.
Then
Enthalpy before throttling = Enthalpy after throttling
hf1 + x1 hfg1 = hf2 + Cp = h2 [Tsup – Ts2]
x1 =
An important point to note is that this calorimeter can be used only for steam which
gets superheated after throttling. Another precaution to be taken during the test is that the
stop value must be fully opened to avoid any partial throttle in it.
Thus its limitations can be listed as
1. Complete separation
eparation of water is not possible and hence cannot be used for steam
with high dryness fraction.
2. The result obtained is not very accurate.
Limitations of throttling calorimeter
In order to assure that steam after throttling is superheated, minimum 5o C of

superheat is required. This process is shown on hh-ss diagram by points 1 and 2. If P2 is 1 atm
then t2 = 105o C. The throttling process shown by a dotted line 1 – 2 intersects the pressure
line P1 at 1.
The quality of steam x1 at point 1 is the minimum dryness fraction that can be
measured simply by throttling. For example take steam at point 1’ with dryness fraction x1.
After throttling to P2 = 1 atm the superheat is less than 5oC. If initial condition of steam is
taken at point 1” with dryness
dry fraction equal to x1” the final condition gives no superheat at
all.
Thus if only throttling calorimeter is to be used the entering steam should have
minimum dryness fraction, so that the final condition of steam is superheated. If the steam
has dryness
ss fraction below this minimum value, the quality of this steam can not be
measured by the throttling calorimeter alone. This is the limitations of the throttling
calorimeter.
Therefore if steam is very wet initially and pressure P2 is not low enough to take
ta the
steam into the superheated region then combined separating and throttling calorimeter is
used for the measurement of quality.
• Separating Calorimeter
For analyzing steam which remains wet even after throttling, the throttling
calorimeter cannot be used.
The separating calorimeter is used for finding dryness fraction of low quality or
fairly wet steam.
The principle on which it operates consists of changing direction of wet steam

separately so that the heavier water particles get separated and the accumulated mass can be
accurately measured in a collecting chamber. Thus it is known as a separating known as a
separating calorimeters and is a mechanical device.
Such a calorimeter is illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 7.13. An entry pipe feeds

steam into a perforated up which is suspended in the collector tank. A calibrated gauge glass
is fitted to the side of the tank. An exit is provided for the dry steam near the top of the tank.
A drain valve is provided at the bottom.
Now, in operation
eration steam is taken into the calorimeter from a steam main through a
sampling tube. This steam is forced to rapidly change its direction by means of perforated
cup. The heavier water particles get separated out and fall through he perforations in the
collector
llector tank. The level of this collected water is given by the gauge glass. The dry steam
which passes through the exit is condensed by a small condenser. The dryness fraction is
found as follows:
Let, M = mass of dry steam condensed
m = mass of w
water collected in tank
then dryness fraction, x =

Care must be taken that the set up is adequately warmed up, so that condensation of
steam does not occur. Otherwise this will give wrong readings. Also the dry steam must not
be allowed to come
ome in contact with the water which has been already separated out, or else
condensation occurs.
Here the separating calorimeter approximately dries out the steam by separating out
heavier water particles. This nearly dry steam then passes to the throttling calorimeter. Here
the steam gets superheated. A small condenser is provided after the throttlin
throttling calorimeter.
The arrangement is as shown in Fig. 7.14. The dryness fraction is calculated as given below.
Let, M = mass of steam which is condensed.
m = mass of water separated in the separating calorimeter.
x1 = dryness fraction of sseparating calorimeter
x2 = dryness fraction of throttling calorimeter.
x = total dryness fraction of steam.
Now, moss of saturated steam through throttling calorimeter = x2 M
This is actually the total dry saturated steam in the steam under test
Total steam bled = M + m
Now, Dryness fraction
x=
x = x1 x2
• Vapour Power Cycles
• Introduction:
The steam power plant is one of the most successful systems for conversation of heat
energy into mechanical work. The main elements of a vapour power cycle are boiler,
turbine, and condenser and feed pump. Heat energy released by combustion of fuel or by
atomic fission is used to vaporize water into steam in the bboiler.
oiler. The vapour is then
expended in the turbine adiabatically to produce work output. Vapour leaving the
turbine then enters the condenser where heat is removed until the vapour is condensed
into liquid state. Saturated liquid is delivered to a pump wher
wheree its pressure raised to the
saturation pressure corresponding the boiler pressure and liquid is delivered to the boiler
where the cycle repeat itself. The working fluid (water) goes through a cyclic process
called vapour cycle also called Ranking cycle, ssuggested
uggested by Rankine and is the ideal
cycle for steam power plant. The vapor power cycle is perhaps the most widely used
thermal cycle for the production of electrical energy in the world.
• Rankine cycle:
The schematic arrangement and the cycle on T T-ss diagram is shown in fig. 3.1. The
ideal cycle does not involve any internal irreversibility’s and consists of the following
four processes occurring in the respective elements of the cycle.
Process:4.5: Isenstropic compression of water in pump.

Process: 5.1.2 : Heat addition at constant pressure in the boiler.
Process: 2.3: Insentropic expansion in the turbine
Process: 3.4: Heat rejection at constant pressure in the condenser.
Water enters the pump at the state 4 as saturated liquid and is compressed
isentropically to the saturation pressure of the boiler. The vertical distance between state 4
and 5 on the T-ss diagram is ggenerally exaggerated for clarity.
Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 5 and leaves as a superheated
vapour at state 2. The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger where the heat originating
from combustion of fuel, nuclear reactors
reactors,, or other source is transferred to water essentially
at constant pressure. The boiler together with the section where the steam st is superheated
(the superheater) is often called the steam generator. The process of formation of steam from
5 to 2 occurs at constant pressure (5-1-2 is constant pressure line)
The superheated vapour at state 2 enters the turbine where it expands isentropically
and produces work by rotating the shaft connected to an electric generator. The pressure
and temperature of steam drop to state 3 where steam enters the condenser. At this state,
steam is usually a saturated vapour liquid maxture with a high quality (dryness fraction).
Steam is condensed at constant pressure in the condenser, which is basically a large heat
exchanger, by rejecting heat to a cooling medium such as a lake, a river, or the atmosphere
through cooling water in cooling tower. Steam leaves the condenser as saturated liquid at
state 4 and enters the pump, completing the cycle.
Remembering that the area under the process curver on a T-s diagram represents the
heat transfer for internally reversible processes, the area undera the process 5-1-2 represents
the heat, transferred to the water in the boiler and the area under the curve 3-4 represents the
heat rejected in the condenser. The difference between thewe two for area enclosed by the
cycle is the net work produced during the cycle.
It is evieent without calculation that the efficiency of this cycle will be less than that
of the carnot cycle for the same limits of temperature, because all the heat supplied is not at
upper constant temperature. Water at lower temperature is mixed with higher temperature
water in the bhoiler, making the processes irreversible. It is also evident that net work output
per unit mass of steam is greater in the Rankine cycle. In follows that steam consumption is
less and work ratio is greater in Rankine Cycle. (More details about Carnot and Rankine
cycles are explained in Applied Thermodynamics – I by the same author).
• Energy Analysis of Rankine Cycle:

If an energy balance is preformed on each of these components, the steady flow
energy equation, neglecting the changes in potential and kinetic energy is q = ∆ h + w
Where q is specific heat transfer in the component, ∆h is the change in enthalpy across
the component, and w is the specific work done by the component, all in kJ per kg.
Since the processes in the boiler and condenser are isobaric, the ideal work in these
components is zero ws = - vdp and dp = 0. Then energy equation reduces to q = ∆h
Since the compression and expansion processes in the pump and turbine are
୩୎
adiabatic processes (q = 0), the energy equation reduces to w = - ∆h ୩୥
Now the pump work is
ହ ୩୎
wp = - ସ wdp = - v4 (P5 – P4) ୩୥
The turbine work is

୩୎
wT = - ∆h = - (h3 – h2) = (h2 – h3) ୩୥
୩୎
Net work of the cycle = wT – wp ୩୥
୩୎
= = (h2 – h3) – v4 (p5 – p4) ୩୥
୩୎
Heat supplied, q = (h2 – h5) ୩୥
But h5 = h4 + w p
Page | 35
୩୎
q = h2 – h4 – wp ୩୥
୵౤౛౪ ሺ୦మ ି୦య ሻି୵౦

The thermal efficiency of the simple cycle is η୲୦
ሺ୦
୯ మ ି୦ర ሻି୵౦
As compared to the enthalpies involved the magnitude of pump work is small,

therefore pump work can be neglected, then
୦మ ି୦య
η୲୦
୦మ ି୦ర
• Comments on Rankine cycle:

The important operating limitation for any vapour cycle using water as the working
fluid is the moisture content of the steam at the turbine exhaust. The turbine outlet steam
is usually at a very, very low pressure, which means that the density is also extremely
low. This low steam density produces a very high velocity in the low-pressure part of the
turbine. If there are any moisture droplets in this steam, they can actually erode the
leading edge of the low pressure turbine blades like raindrops erode the surface of the
earth. This condition is likely to be server it the moisture content of the steam at the
turbine exhaust exceeds 10 percent.
• Methods to improve thermal efficiency of Rankine cycle:

The thermal efficiency of the simple steam or Rankine cycle can be improved by
increasing the maximum steam temperature (the vapour superheat), by increasing the
maximum system pressure Pmaxi and or by increasing the condenser vacuum. (decreasing
the minimum system pressure). Increasing the superheat of the steam increases the
specific work of the cycle and decreases the moisture content of the steam at the turbine
exhaust. Increasing the maximum pressure may increase the specific work if the same
temperature is maintained but always increases the moisture content at the turbine
exhaust. Lowering the maximum steam pressure increases the specific work of the cycle,
but it also increases the moisture content at the turbine exhaust.
Steam power plants are responsible for the production of most of the electric power
in the world and even small increase in thermal efficiency can mean large saving of fuel
requirements. Therefore every effort is made to improve the efficiency of the cycle on
which steam power plant operates.
The basic idea behind all the modification is the information obtained from Carnot
cycle i.e. to increase the thermal efficiency of power cycle, increase the average
temperature at which heat transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or decrease the
average temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.
That is average temperature of fluid should be as high as possible in the boiler and as
low as possible in the condenser. Also for steam saturation temperature are related to
saturation pressure.
Page | 36
• Lowering the Condenser Pressure:
Lowering the operating pressure of the condenser automatically lowers the
temperature of the steam and thus the temperature at which heat is rejected. The effect of
lowering the condenser pressure on the Rankine cycle is shown on T-s T diagram in Fig.
3.2
For
or comparison purpose the turbine inlet state is kept the same. The hatched area on
this diagram represents the increase in the net work output as a result of lowering the
condenser
ser pressure from P3 to P3’. The heat input also increase by the area under 55’.
Which is very small. Thus overall effect of lowering condenser pressure is an increase in
the thermal efficiency of the cycle. However there is a lower limit on the condenser
pressure that can be used. It cannot be lower than the saturation pressure corresponding
to the temperature
ature of the cooling medium.
Lowering the condenser pressure is not without any side effect as it increases the
moisture content of the steam at the last stage of the turbine. The presence of large quantity
of moisture contents is highly undesirable in turbine beacasue it decreases the turbine
efficiency and erodes the turbine blades. Air leakage in the condenser increases which
increases the work of air extraction pump in condensing plant.
• Superheating:
The average temperature at which heat is added to the steam can be increased without
increasing the boiler pressure buy superheating the steam to high temperature. The effect of
superheating on the performance is shown in fig. 3.3 (a) on T
T-ss diagram and in
i (b) the cycle
efficiency and steam consumption against steam temperature at turbine entry
The hatch area on the diagram represents the increase in the net work. The total area
under the curve 22 represents the increase in the heat input. Thus both the network and heat
input increases as a result of superheating the steam. The overall effect is an increase in
thermal efficiency, since the average temperature at which heat is added incr increases.
Superheating the steam has another desirable effect, that the moisture content of the steam at
exit
it of steam decreases as can be seen from the T
T-ss diagram (the quality at 3’ is higher than
at 3). The presence of water during the expansion is undesir
undesirable
able since these water particles
erode the turbine blade.
The temperature to which steam can be superheated is limited by metallurgical

considerations. Presently steam temperature allowed at turbine inlet is 620oC. Ceramics are
very promising materials in this regard. For given boiler and condenser pressure as the
superheat temperature increases the cycle efficiency increases and the specific steam
consumption decreases as shown in fig. 3.3(b).
• Increasing the Boilerer Pressure:

The average temperature during the heat addition process can be increased by
increasing the operating pressure of the boiler which automatically raises the temperature of
boiling. This in turn raises the average temperature at which heat is aadded
dded to the steam and
increases the thermal efficiency.
The effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the performance of Rankine cycle is
shown on T-ss diagram in Fig. 3.4(a) and steam cycle efficiency and specific steam
consumption against boiler press
pressure
ure in fig. 3.4(b). As the boiler pressure increases the
specific enthalpy of evaporation decreases thus less heat is added at the maximum cycle
temperature Efficiency first increases with boiler pressure initially due to maximum cycle
temperature being raised
ised but then decreases by lowering of the mean temperature at which
heat is added. Therefore the graph of efficiency rises, reaches maximum and then falls.
The turbine inlet temperature is kept same in both cases and notice that for a fixed
turbine inlett temperature, the cycle shifts to the left and the moisture content of steam at
boiler exit increases. This undersirable effects can be corrected using reheating method as
discussed in the next section.
Operating pressures are gradually increasing and to pressures about 300 bar are in
use today. Today many modern steam power plants at supercritical pressure (p > 22.09
MPa) and have thermal efficiency of 40% for fossil
fossil-fuel
fuel plants and 34% for nuclear plants.
The moisture (M), thermal efficiency, and specific work, w, of the basic Rankine
cycle are plotted in Fig. 3.5 as a function of maximum temperature, and maximum and
minimum pressure for the ideal cycle.
The maximum steam temperature is limited by the material employed in the

superheater section of the steam generator and in the high pressure turbine. Most modern
steam power plants are limited to maximum operating temperature of 540 to 600oC. The
maximum steam pressure is limited by the operating co conditions
nditions in the steam generator and
particularly by the moisture contents at the turbine exhausts. The minimum vapour pressure
in the condenser is limited by the temperature of the cooling water.
The thermal efficiency of the ideal Rankine cycle is strongly

strongly affected by efficiencies
of the pump and turbine. These systems irreversible convert some the mechanical energy
into thermal energy, thereby increasing the enthalpy of fluid leaving the components. In the
steam turbine this
erred to as ‘stage reheat’ The lower turbine efficiency adverly effects the
effect is referred
overall performance.
• The Reheat Rankine Cycle

Cycle:
The advantage of increased efficiency at higher boiler pressure can be taken using
reheating method of steam at intermediate stage in the turbine. This overcomes the
disadvantage of use of high pressure steam which increases the moisture content in the
turbine. Reheating is a practical solution to the excessive moisture problem in turbines and
is used frequently in modern steam power plants.
The schematic way and the reheat Rankine cycle on T-sT s diagram is shown in fig. 3.6
The reheat Rankine cycle differs from the simple Rankine cycle in that the
expansion process takes place in two stages. In the first stage (the high pressure turbine),
turb
steam is expanded isentropic ally to an intermediate pressure and sent back to the boiler
where it is reheated at constant pressure and usually to the same inlet temperature of the first
turbine. Steam then expands isentropic ally in the second stage (the low pressure turbine) to
the condenser pressure. The reheat can be carried out by returning the steam to the boiler,
and passing it through a special bank of tube
tubes,
s, the reheat bank of tubes being situated in the
proximity of the super heater tubes. The use of reheat cycle has encouraged the development
of high pressure boilers, since the specific fuel consumption is improved and dryness
fraction of the exhaust stea
steam is increased.
Thus the total heat input and the total turbine work for reheat cycle becomes.
Qin = Qprimary + Qreheat
= (h2 – h7) + (h4 + h3) kJ / kg
WTurbine = WH.P.turbine + WL.P.turbine
= (h2 – h3) + (h4 + h5) kJ / kg
Cycle efficiency =
The cycle efficiency is not greatly affected by reheating. The efficiency of the
Rankine cycle may increase or decrease somewhat as a result of reheating depending on the
average temperature at which heat is added during reheating. The temperature should be
maintained as high as possible without allowing excessive moisture to be formed and not
decreasing the cycle efficiency. Also care must be taken to prev
prevent
ent the existing state of the
L.P. turbine from falling into the superheated vapour region, since this will increase the
rejection of more heat and thus the cycle efficiency to decreases.
The average temperature during reheat cycle can be increased by increasing

incr the
number of expansion and reheat stages, which will make the heat addition at constant
temperature. The optimum number is determined by economical consideration. Remember
that the sole purpose the reheat cycle is to reduce the moisture content of steam at the final
stage of the expansion.
• Regenerative Rankine Cycle:
The efficiency of Rankine cycle is less than Carnot cycle because in Rankine cycle
all the heat is not added at the higher temperature as in Carnot cycle. Heat added in the
Rankine cycle is as shown in Fig. 3.7.
Fig. 3.7 reveals that heat is added to the steam during the process 55-1 at a relatively
low temperature. This lowers the average temperature at which heat is added and thus the
cycle efficiency.
To overcome this short coming, one methods is by raising the feed water to the
saturation temperature corresponding to boiler pressure, before it enters the boiler. This is
achieved by what is known as regeneration. In regeneration the feed water is heated by
transferring heat from expending steam in the turbine, in a counter flow heat exchanger built
into the turbine itself as shown in fig. 3.8 The cycle in which this method is used to raise the
efficiency is called a regeneration cycle. Fig. 3.9 shows the cycle on T
T-ss diagram.
dia
The feed water at 6 is passed into passage in the turbine casing at the point where the
expanding steam has temperature only infinitemally greater than 6. The water flows in a
direction opposite to that of expanding steam and is thereby heated to a temperature only
infinitestimally smaller than 2 before it passes into the boiler. At all points the heat transfer
is effected by infinitesimal temperature difference and the process is therefore reversible.
Most of the expansion in the turbine is no longer an adiabatic process and it follows
the path 2-3-44 Since the heat rejected in process 22-3
3 equals that supplied in process 6.1 and
shaded areas on T-ss diagram in fig. 7.9 must be equal. The heat supplied fromfro the external
source is equal to the area under process 11-2,
2, and heat rejected to external sink equals the
area under the process 4--5.
5. Inspection of the area involved shows that the efficiencies of the
regenerative cycle and the Carnot cycle 1278 are equa
equal.
l. Since the heat supplied and rejected
externally is done at constant temperature. On the other hand the work ratio of the
regenerative cycle, requiring the negligible pump work = (h6 = h5) is very much higher than
that of the Carnot cycle and is comparab
comparable to that of the Rankine cycle.
Such a regenerative cycle is impractical for two reasons. Firstly it would be

impossible to design a turbine which would operate efficiently as both turbine and heat
exchanger. Secondly the steam expanding through the turb
turbine
ine would have very low dryness
fraction.
Thus this method is not a practical but is of academic interest. However the Ranking
efficiency can be improved upon in practice by bleeding off some steam for feed water
heating.
• Fuels And Combustion
• Introduction
Until the invention of atomic energy, the simplest way to obtain the energy was burning
the combustible substances, such as wood, coal bagasse etc. All these substances which are
used as the sources of energy are known as fuels.
Fuel Definition: Fuel is a substance mainly composed of Carbon and Hydrogen, which
can undergo a chemical reaction with Oxygen under suitable conditions. This chemical
reaction is known as combustion.
It is basically an Oxidation process, its nature is exothermic, so it is associated with
the release of heat energy. Thus at the end of combustion process, we get oxides as CO,
CO2, H2 O, SO2, etc. along with Nitrogen supplied with the air, which are known as
products of combustion.
• Classification
Fuels are broadly classified as,
1. Solid fuels
2. Liquid fuels
3. Gaseous fuels
1. Solid fuels: Solid fuels may be
a) Natural solid fuels
b) Artificial or prepared solid fuels
a) Natural solid fuels: The fuels belonging to this group are,

i) Wood: It is not considered as commercial fuel. It largely consists of carbon
and hydrogen chemically formed by the action of sunlight and was as one time
extensively used as a fuel. It’s calorific value varies with the kind of wood and its water
content.
ii) Peat: It represents the first stage at which fuel is derived. It contains 20 to
30% of water. The calorific value of air dried peat is about 14,500 kJ/Kg.
iii) Lignite: It is very soft and an inferior type of coal containing not less than
60% Carbon. It is largely used as low grade fuel. The average heating value of coal
after drying in air is 21,000 KJ/Kg and burns with a large smoky
iv) Bituminous coal: It is the next intermediate stage in the development; it is
soft and shiny, black in appearance and contains about 70% Carbon. It’s average C.V.
is about 31,500 KJ/Kg. It burns with a long yellow and smoky flame Bituminous coal
be classified as non caking and caking.
v) Anthracite: It is the final stage in the development. It is hard, brittle and
consists of about 90% Carbon and 8 to 10% volatile matter.
b) Artificial or prepared solid fuels: The fuels belonging to this group are:
i) Wood charcoal
ii) Coke
iii) Briquetted coal
iv) Pulverised coal
Page | 44
2. Liquid fuels: In all the liquid fuels, the basis combustible elements are
Carbon and Hydrogen. Most of the liquid fuels are obtained from Petroleum. Petroleum
is a mixture of many different hydrocarbons. These hydrocarbons are grouped into four
general categories, Paraffins,
P Oleffine, Naphthenes, Aromatics.
Liquid fuels are commnly used in I.C. Engine and other power plants.
The merits and demerits of these fuels are as follows.
Merits:
i) It has a high calorific value
ii) It is easy to store and it occupies less space.
iii) Easy to control and handle
iv) System is neat and clan in appearance.
v) Elimination of were and tear of grate bars in steam power plants.
vi) Ease of ignition and shutting off the operation
vii) Changes in load in power plant can be easily met.
viii) Combustion losses are low.
Demerits:
As compared to the solid or gaseous fuels, liquid fuels are more costly.
3. Gaseous fuels: These fuels may be divided into two classes:

a) Natural gas.
b) Artificial gas.
a) Natural Gas: It mainly consists of Methane, Ethylene, O2, CO3 and CO2. Its
calorific value varies from 35,00 KJ/Kg to 37,200 KJ/Kg
b) Artificial gas:
Liquefied Petroleum Gas: During the refining process of petroleum,

considerable amount of Propane and Butane gas is produced. Propane gas liquids at 8.8 bar
and Butane gas at 2.1 bar and temp. of 21.1oC. These liquefied gases can be stored in steel
cylinder and these are used for domestic and industrial application.
ii) producer Gas: It consists of products derived from the passage of air and steam
through a bed of incandescent fuel in gas producers. This gas is a mixture of CO, CO2,
Hydrogen and Nitrogen. The Essential component of producer gas is Carbon Monoxide. Its’
calorific value from 4200 to 6600 kJ/m3.
iii) Blast furnace gas: It is obtained as a bi product in the smelting of pig iron. It
has a low heating value of 3800 kJ/m3. This gas is a mixture of CO, CO2 Hydrogen,
Nitrogen and some traces of Methane. This gas contains considerable amount of dust and
must be cleaned before it is used.
iv) Marsh gas: It is a simple hydrocarbon gas produced in nature by decay of
vegetable matter under water. It’s calorific value is about 23,000 kJ/m3.
• Laws of Combustion
1. Low of conservation of mass: It states that the matter can neither be create nor be
destroyed. Through in combustion process the atoms of reactants rearrange themselves after
the combustion with the liberation of chemical energy, but the total mass of the material
during the combustion process remains constant
C + O2 = CO2
This equation indicates that one weight atom of Carbon of molecular weight. 12 and
two atoms of Oxygen of molecular weight 32 combine in a combustion process which must
produce a mole of CO2 of molecular weight 44 according to the law.
2. Law of conservation of energy: It states that energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed, which is the basis of first law of thermodynamics.
3. Law of combining weights: It states that the substances combining during the
chemical reaction in accordance with some definite weight relationship. These weight
rations are the exact rations of molecular weight of the constituents entering the combustion
reaction.
4. Ideal gas laws: All combustion equations follow the ideal gas equations defined by
Boyle’s law, Charles law general gas law.
PV = mRT.
5. Avogadro’s law: It states that all the perfect gases occupy the same volume under
the similar conditions of pressure and temperature.
6. Dalton’s law of pressures: It states that the total pressure of the mixture of perfect
gases is the sum of partial pressure which would be exerted by each of the constituent if
each gas were to occupy alone the same volume as of the mixture at the same temp.
(P)VT = (P1)VT + (P2)VT + (P3)VT
7. Amagat’s law: It states that the total volume occupied by the mixture of gases is
equal to the sum of volumes which could be occupied by each of the constituent when they
are at the same pressure and temperature as that of the mixture.
(V)P1 T = (V1)P1 T + (V2)P1 T + (V3)P1 T.
Page | 46
• Coal Analysis
Coal as found in nature is neither a pure substance nor of uniform composition.
A definite chemical formula cannot therefore be written for a coal found in coal
mines. Consequently two different methods of analysis are employed to know the
composition of coal. They are known as Ultimate analysis and Proximate analysis.
In Ultimate Analysis a complete chemical breakdown of coal into its chemical
constituents is carried out by chemical process. This analysis is required when
important large scale trials are being performed. The analysis serves the basis for
calculation of the amount of air required for complete combustion of the kg of fuel.
The analysis gives the % content on mass basis of carbon, H2, N2, O2, S, and ash,
and their sum is taken as equal to 100%. Moisture is expressed as a separate item.
The analysis also enable us to determine C.V. or heating value of coal.
Proximate analysis is the separation of coal into its physical components and can
be made without the knowledge of analytical chemistry. The analysis is made by
means of a chemical balance and a temperature controlled furnace. The sample of
fuel is heated in the furnace or oven. The component in the analysis are fixed carbon,
volatile matter, moisture and ash. These components are expressed in % on mass
basis and their sum is taken as 100%. Sulphur is determined separately. This
analysis also enables us to determine the heating value of coal.
• Calorific Value of Fuels

It is the amount of heat energy liberated, when one kg of fuel is burnt.
For solid or Liquid fuels, the Calorific Value (C.V.) is expressed in kJ/kg and for
Gaseous fuels in kJ/m3 of gas.
All the hydrocarbon fuels will produce water vapour during combustion. So some
part of heat liberated is utilized for the evaporation and thus the remaining part of heat
will be available. The total amount of heat liberated in the combustion is known as
Higher or Gross Calorific Value (H.C.V.)
The Lower Calorific Value (L.C.V.) of the fuel, is the heat liberated per kg or per
cubic meter of fuel, after the enthalpy necessary to vaporise the steam formed by the
combustion of hydrogen in the fuel is deducted.
L.C.V. = H.C.V. – Heat carried by water vapour formed per kg of fuel burnt.
= H.C.V – Enthalpy of evaporation of steam formed.
It is common practice to assume that the evaporation takes place at saturation
temperature of 100oC. The enthalpy of evaporation of steam at 1.01325 bar (i.e. 1
atmosphere pressure) is 2257 kJ/kg. Also 1 kg of Hydrogen combines with Oxygen to
form 9 kg of steam. So, amount of water vapour formed during combustion of 1 kg of
fuel will be 9 H2.
L.C.V. = H.C.V. – 9 H2 2257 kJ/kg
= H.C.V. – mw 2257 kJ/kg
where mw = mass of water vapour formed per kg of fuel burnt.
The Calorific value of fuel may be found theoretically by using Dulong’s
formula and experimentally by a fuel Calorimeter.
Page | 47
• Theoretical Calorific Value
The theoretical calorific value of a fue
fuell may be calculated by using Dulong’s formula. If
the ultimate
ltimate analysis of fuel is available and if the calorific value of the elementary
combustibles (carbon, hydrogen and sulphur) are known, then the calorific value of the fuel
is approximately the sum oof the heat liberated by these combustibles.
Formula:
Theoretical C.V. of fuel
= 33800 C + 144500
Here the symbols C, H2, O2 and S represent the mass of Carbone,
Hydrogen Oxygen and Sulphur in Kg/Kg of fuel and the numericals indicate their
indicate their respective calorific values in kJ/Kg. The expression represents the
available H2 for heat release, i.e. the amount left after subtracting the amount of Hydrogen
that will unite with Hydrogen present in the left to form water Mass of H2 in water is of
the mass of O2.
• The Experimental Determination of Calorific Value of Fuels

The determination of C.V. of fuel is carried out in specially designed calorimeters.
The type of calorimeter used will depend upon the type of fuel used. In case of solid fuels
and some liquid fuels the Calorific value is usually determined by Bomb Calorimeter.
In case of gaseous and some liquid fuels the Calorific Value is determined in a Gas
Calorimeter.
a) Bomb Calorimeter: In this Calorimeter a known quantity of fuel is burnt and
heat liberated due to the combustion is transferred to a definite mass mass of water and the
temperature rise is measured.
The Calorimeter consist of a thick walled, stainless steel high pressure
cylinder, called Bomb, hence the name Bomb Calorimeter. On the top of Bomb a non return
O2 supply value, and a pressure release valve are fitted. The Calorimeter is fitted with
stirring device and a Beck mann thermometer as shown in fig. 13.2.
Before the start of the experiment, the crucible is weighted. A pillet is
formed in Briquette moulding apparatus (as shown in fig. 13.3) of the given sample of fuel.
The weight of the pillet is also noted. The pillet is placed in the crucible made of silica of
quartz. A known quantity of water is taken in the calorimeter. The O2 is supplied to the
Bomb, so that the pressure inside the Bomb is approximately 25 bar. The initial temperature
of water is noted and then the fuel is ignited with the help of fuse wire and the water in the
Calorimeter is stirred continuously.
The temperature
ature rise of the water is noted at regular intervals of time. The
temperature of water increases as the heat released by the combustion of fuel in transferred
to the water and the Calorimeter.
When the temperature rise of the water is noted at regular intervals

intervals of time. The
temperature of water increases as the heat released by the combustion of fuel in transferred
to the water and the Calorimeter.
When the temperature of water reaches to its maximum value, it is observed that the
temperature starts falling
ing due to heat transfer losses to the oundings.
By noting this decrease in temperature at a fixed interval of time, the rate of cooling
can be obtained. This rate of cooling helps in applying a cooling correction factor. Theis is
necessary in order to determine
termine the actual rise in temperature of water of Calorimeter.
Calculations:
Let,
mf = Mass of fuel burnt in kg.
C.V.= Calorific Value of fuel.
me = Mass of calorimeter.
mw = Mass of water in the Calorimeter.
Cc = Specific heat of Calorimeter.
Cpw = Specific heat of water 4.19 kJ/kg.k.
∆ T = Rise in temperature.
The product (mc . Cc) is called the Water equivalent of the Calorimeter.
Then,
Heat energy released due to Combustion of fuel = Heat energy absorbed by (water
and Calorimeter)
mf C.V. = mw . Cpw . ∆ T + mc. Cpc ∆ T
From this equation, the calorific value C.V. can be found.
b) Boy’s gas calorimeter: Boy’s gas calorimeter is used for the determination of
calorific value of gaseous fuels. The main parts of the calorimeter are burner,, chimney and
the cooling coils, as shown in fig. 13.4.
The gas is supplied whose calorific value is to be determined. A gas meter is
attached to measure the rate of volume of gas supplied. The fuel gas is burned and the
products of combustion rise in the chimney as shown by the arrows. The heat liberated due
to combustion of fuel is transferred to cooling water.
The water first enters the outer cooling coils and then it returns upwards through
coils as shown in figure. The water vapour formed gets condensed in the outer portion of the
chimney and the condensed is collected and weighted. Three thermometers are provided to
measure the temperature of cooling water at inlet and outlet and also to measure the
temperature of products of combustion at exit. It is ensured that these flue gases are coiled
upto atmospheric temperature.
Calculations:
Vg = Volume of gas supplied.
Pg = Pressure of gas supplied.
Tg = Temperature of gas supplied.
mw = Mass of water circulated.
t1 = Temperature of cooling water at inlet.
t2 = Temperature of cooling water at outlet.
C.V. = Calorific value of gaseous fuel in kJ/m3
CPW = Specific heat of water = 4.19 kJ/kg K.
V = Volume of gas supplied at S.T.P.
Page | 50
ౝ ౝ
ౝ
P = 1.013 bar
T = Standard temperature = 25oC or 298 K

V = Pg Vg . …. (1)
By energy balance, heat given by fuel = Heat absorbed by cooling water.
V C. V. = mw Cpw (t2 – t1) …. (2)
౭ .ౌ౭
మ
భ
C.V. =

From (1) and (2)
౭ .ౌ౭
మ
భ
C.V. = ౐ …. (3)
ౝ .ౝ .
౐ౝ
From the above equation C.V. of gas can be calculated.
• Flue Gas Analysis

Orsat’s apparatus is used for the analysis of dry flue gas by volume.
It consists of there reagent pipettes to absorb CO2 and O2, CO by their respective
absorbants kept in the flask are NaOH or KOH, alkaline solution of Pyrogalic acid
and the acidic solution of Cuprous chloride. The aspirating bottle is used at develop
a hydrostatic head to force the flue gas from the measuring bottle to the reagent
pipettes and back.
The following of the apparatus is follows:
A sample of flue gas is drawn in the measuring bottle by lowering the level of
aspirating bottle. The flue gas in excess of 100 cc is expelled to the atmosphere via the three
way cock. The CO2 component is absorbed by the solution of KOH and the aspirating bottle
is lowered to its original position. The difference is level (before and after absorbing CO2)
gives the percentage of CO2 by volume in the flue gases. However to ensure that CO2 is
fully absorbed the process is repeated several time.
Now the cock ‘a’ is closed. The procedure is repeated with the flasks ‘B’ and ‘C’ to
find the percentage analysis of O2 and CO respectively in the flue gases.
When the percentages of CO2, O2 and CO is determined, the remainder of the gas
sample is assumed to be Nitrogen N2.
Page | 51
It should be noted that Orsat apparatus gives the analysis of dry flue gases since the
water vapour is condensed at atmospheric conditions. In order to get proper results for the
analysis of flue gases, the absorption of gases must occurs in the same sequence as indicated
above.
• Air Compressor
• Introduction
In many industrial purposes high pressure gases or air are required. A machine
providing gas at high pressure is called a compressor and work must be done upon the
gas by an external agency. An air compressor takes in air at atmospheric pressure,
compressess it at the cost of the work supplied, and delivers the high pressure air to a
storage vessel called receiver from which it may be conveyed by the pipe line to a place
where the supply of compressed air is required.
The uses of compressed air are vast in industries some of them are for
(1) Cleaning work
work-shops and automobiles.
(2) Starting I.C. engines.
(3) Spraying fuel in high speed diesel engines.
(4) Spraying paints in paint industries.
(5) Construction of bridges, roads, dam, structural work, sewage and tunnels.
(6) Cooling large buildings.
(7) Operation of pneumatic drills, wrenches, air motors, hummers, also for rivetting
and tightening nuts etc.
(8) Supercharging I.C. engines and in working of gas turbi
turbine
ne plans.
• Classification Of Air Compressors

The compressors are broadly classified in two classes:
(i) Reciprocating compressors
(ii) Rotary compressors
Reciprocating air compressors, compresses air in a cylinder by reciprocating motion

of piston and supplies high pressure air with intermittent discharge.
Rotary compressors has rotating elements to compress air which supplies
compressed
ressed air at low pressure but with continuous and high discharge.
Reciprocating air compressors may be single acting or double acting. And may be
single stage or multistage. In single stage air is compressed in a stage and delivered whereas
in multi stage compressor the air is compressed in number of stages.
• Single Stage Air Compressor

The principal parts of reciprocating air compressor are same as that for engine. Fig. 1
shows a simplified section of a single stage single
acting air compressor. Crank is coupled to the prime mover or electric motor. Inlet and
delivery valves are automatic in their operation. They are open and closed by pressure
difference on both the sides of valves and a spring is provided to closed valve in case
pressure is equal on both the sides. In working there are two stroke, suction stroke and
delivery stroke. During suction stroke piston moves downward due to which pressure in
cylinder falls down below atmospheric and intake valve opens with atmospheric air is taken
in during whole the stroke.
In delivery stroke piston moves inward with compression of air in cylinder. Both the inlet
and delivery valve are closed and compression proceeds; as the end of compression stroke
the pressure increases above the receiver pressure. The high pressure air ov
overcomes the
spring force on delivery valve; valve opens and air is discharged to the receiver. The
receiver is a vessel act as a storage tank.
Working of air compressor m may
ay be represented on indicator diagram (P-V
(P diagram)
shown in Fig. 2. The indicator diagram is drawn for compressor neglecting clearance. The
process 4 - 1 is suction stroke during which air is drawn into cylinder at constant pressure
P1. At the
end of suction stroke both suction and delivery valve are closed and air is then compressed
by inward movement of piston. Process is represented by curve 1 – 2, follows increase in
pressure and reductio in volume. At point 2, pressure is slightly greater than the pressure in
thee receiver. At this point discharge valve opens and delivery of compressed air take place at
constant pressure along line 2 – 3. Again suction stroke starts and cycle of operations will be
repeated. The net work required for compression and delivery of air per cycle is represented
by the area 1 – 2 – 3 – 4.
The amount of work done on the air depends upon the nature of compression curve;
means whether it is isentropic or isothermal compression. However in actual practice.
Compression will be between isentro
isentropic and isothermal.
Refer the P – V diagram (Fig. 3) compression 1 – 2’ is isentropic 1 – 2 is polytropic

and 1 – 2’’ is isothermal.
The curve representing isentropic compression is steeper then isothermal

compression. The isentropic work required to be done on the air is represented by area 4 – 1
– 2’ 3. If the compression is isothermal work done is represented by area 4 – 1 – 2” – 3.
Area 4 – 1 – 2’ – 3 is greater than area 4 – 1 – 2” – 3. Therefore work done required to carry
out isothermal compression (n = 1) is less hence isothermal compression is economical and
efficient. While compression
sion if found to be isentropic (n = 1.4); require
equire more amount of
work to be supplied. Thus it will be seen that the work required for compression per cycle
decreases as the value of n decreases.
Case – I: Now refer P – V diagram 4 – 1 – 2 – 3 (PVn = C) for single stage

compressor neglecting clearance
cleara (Fig. 3).
Let P1 = Intake pressure in N/m2 or Pa
P2 = Delivery pressure in N/m2 or Pa
Work done on air per cycle
W = Area under curve 4 – 1 – 2 – 3
= Area 0 – a – 2 – 3 + Area a – b – 1 – 2
- Area 0 – b – 1 – 4
-
• Multi Stage Compression
In practice it is not possible to achieve isothermal compression reason being speed of
the compressor should be extremely slow therefore attempts are made to obtain
approximately isothermal compression while compressor runs at high speed, method can
be spraying
aying cold water into the cylinder during compression or provide jackets around
cylinder and circulate cold water through it or adopting multi stage compression with
inter cooling. In multi stage compression air is compressed in two or more stages in
separate
ate cylinders. Pressure of air is increased in each stage and an intercooler is
provided in between two stages to cool the compressed air to atmospheric (intake)
temperature before entering to the next stage.
• Two Stage Air Compressor

A tow stage air compressor with intercooler is shown in Fig. 5(a).
Air is sucked at atmospheric pressure in L.P. cylinder at P1 during suction stroke.

Then it is compressed polytropic ally along 1 – 2. From
conditions 2’ it is delivered to an intercooler where heat from the air is rejected by cooling
water at constant pressure P2. If air is cooled to intake temperature of L.P. it is called as
perfect cooling volume of air reduces from 2’ – P2 of P2 – 2. This cooled air is admitted in to
H.P. cylinder along line P2 – 2. In H.P. stage it is compressed polytropic ally along curve 2 –
3 to pressure P3 and then delivered to receiver at constant pressure P3.
When both the indicator diagram 5(a) and (b) are overlapped we will get combined
diagram as in Fig. 6. Diagram 1 – 3’ – P3 – P1 is single stage compression with law PVn = C.
Diagram for L.P. stage 1 – 2’ – P2 – P1. For H.P. stage diagram is 2 – 3 – P3 – P2 therefore
the shaded area 2 – 2’ – 3’ – 3 is saving in work with two stage compressor with perfect
intercooling. When cooling is perfect, Point 2 will lie on isothermal curve (T1 = T2) as
shown.
• Advantages of Multistage Compression

The main advantages of multistage compression are as follow:
(1) Volumetric efficiency increases as result of lower delivery pressure in the L.P.
cylinder clearance space.
(2) As compression being approximated to isothermal. Power required to drive the
compressor reduces.
(3) Better mechanical balance and uniform torque. Also reduced size of fly wheel.
(4) Maximum temperature in the cycle is reduced thus less difficulty in lubrication.
(5) Reduced leakage loss owing to reduced pressure difference on either sides of the
piston and valves.
(6) Reduced weight of cylinders.
• Factors Which Affects

cts (Reduces) Volumetric Efficiency
(1) Mainly volumetric efficiency depends on clearance. As clearance volume increases
volumetric efficiency decreases.
(2) Restricted passage and leakage at inlet valves.
(3) Piston ring leakage.
(4) If the speed of rotation is high charge of air taken in is less which decreases
efficiency.
(5) Fresh air comes in contact with hot wall and gets expanded which decrease the
charge taken in therefore volumetric efficiency.
• Rotary Compressor
In reciprocating air compressor the pressure of air is increased in cylinder with the
help of moving piston whereas in a rotary compressor, the air is entrapped between two
sets to engaging surface and the pressure of air is increased by squeezing action of air.
Rotary compressors may be classified as:
(A) Positive Displacement Compressors.
(B) Non-positive Displacement Compressors.
Rotary Compressor
Positive Displacement Non-positive Displacement

Compressor compressor
Roots Vane Lysholm Screw Centrifugal Axial flow

Blower type compressor type
• Roots Blower
Refer Fig. 3.16. It consist of two rotors driven externally. One of the rotor is connected
to the drive and the second one is gear driven from the first. The rotors have got two or three
lobes having epicycloid, hypocycloid, involute profiles. The high pressure delivery side is
sealed from the low pressure suction side at all angular positions. A very small clearance is
maintained between the surfaces to prevent wear. Air leakage through the clearance
decreases the efficiency as pressure ratio increases.
Page | 58
Working: During rotation volume of air V at atmospheric pressure P1 is trapped

between the left hand rotor and the casing. This air is positively displaced with change in
volume until the space open to high pressure region. At this instant some high pressure air
rushes back from the receiver and mix irreversibly with blowblower
er air V until the pressure is
equalised. Assuming the receiver to be of infinite size the pressure equalised to the receiver
pressure P2. The air is then delivered to the receiver. This happens four times with two lobe
rotor and six times with three lobe rotor. Therefore the free air delivered for two lobe rotor
is 4 V per revolution. It should be noted that the delivery of air into the receiver is not
continuous. Even though the rotors revolve with uniform speed.
The work done per revolution of rotor
W.D = (P2 – P1) 4V
This work is greater than the work required to drive a reversible adiabatic
compression.
• Vane Type Blower

Refer to Fig. 7.17. It consists of a rotor located eccentrically in a cylindrical outer
casing.
The rotor carries a set of spring loaded vanes in the slots of the rotor. Refer P – V diagram
shown in Fig. 7.17. The volume
of air V1 atmospheric pressure P1 is trapped between two vanes. As the rotation

proceeds the trapped air is first compressed reversibly from condition 1 to d, the
compression takes place due to the decrease in volume provided for the trapped air. Then
the air is compressed irreversibly fromfr the pressure Pd to deliver pressure P2. The
irreversible compression is similar to the compression explained in roots blower. The vane
type compressor require less work compared to roots blower for the same capacity and
pressure rise. Normally vane type compressors are used to deliver up to 150 m3 of air per
minute at pressure ratios up to 8.5. The speed of the vane type blower is limited to about
30,000 r.p.m.
The vane type and roots blowers are replaced by centrifugal compressors for their
use in supercharging aero engines. This is because the centrifugal blowers are comparatively
much more efficient, can be easily fitted into the design of aero
aero-engines
engines can be driven at
much higher speeds and are much more efficient.
• Centrifugal Compressor
The basic elements of the centrifugal compressor are shown in Fig. 3.18. It consists of a
rotating member known as an ‘impeller’ is fitted on compressor shaft. An impeller has
rotary vanes provides closed radial passages for flow of air. Atmospheric air is sucked in at
the centre of the impeller called the ‘eye’. A diffuser ring, around the impeller,
imp is provided
with diffuser vanes. In diffuser vanes the kinetic energy of air changes into pressure energy.
The volute casing also provides diffuser passage for further built up of air pressure.
As the impeller rotates at high speed air undergoes centrifugal action and is
accelerated to a high velocity. This air is decelerated in the diffuser and volute casing to
built its pressure. Finally the compressed air leaves through the outlet nozzle. These type of
compressor supplied airr usually in the pressure ratio range 1.1 to 2.4 and may be upto 4
when it is single stage compressor. In case of increase in stage on same shaft, called
multistage compressors the pressure ratio obtained ranges up to 11 to 15. Such type of
compressors are used in turbojet engines, even furnaces and for pipe line flow and for super
changing I.C. engines.
Refer to the Fig. 7.18(a) which represent the pressure and velocity variation in
impeller and diffuser is shown.
• Axial Flow Compressor
An axial flow compressor is a multistage unit as each stage builds up pressure by
small amount. The unit consist of a ring of fixed blades and a ring of moving blades.
Moving blades are mounted on the rotor while fixed blades are fixed on stator or casing. casing
The blades are aerofoil shape for efficient working. Air flows through the annulus ring
between the rotor and the stator over the blades, parallel to the axis of the compressor.
As the rotor rotates air in the blades passage accelerate due to which velocity and
pressure increases. The air then passes through fixed blade passages of diffuser shape in
which velocity of air decreases and pressure increases, pressure rise in each stage is of the
order 12 to 15%. And the number of stages used varies from 5 to 14. It is mainly used in gas
turbine planet.
• Comparison Between Centrifugal Air Compressor And Axial Flow Air

Compressor
(1) In centrifugal air compressor the pressure increased in each stage is high so the
delivery pressure is high but this compressor is not suitable for multi-staging
multi since
the losses in each stage are more.
(2) The efficiency of these over wide range of rotational speed is very high, of the order
70 to 80% whereas that of axial flow compressor is 50 to 60%.
(3) For starting low torque is required whereas as high starting torque is requirement of
axial flow compressors.
(4) Centrifugal compressor are simple in manufacture and the cost is less as well it
needs less floor space and is flexible.
(5) Ram efficiency of the axial flow compressor is high also it gives high efficiency at
peak load.
(6) The centrifugal compressor is specially used for super changing I.C. engines, in
turbojet engines, in refrigeration cycles etc. The axial flow compressors are widely
used in gas turbine plants.
• Comparison Between Reciprocating Air Compressors And Rotary Air
Compressors
• Reciprocating compressors compresses air to high discharge pressure at low speed of
rotation but discharge is low.
• Rotary compressor is continuous discharge type and needs no receiver but receiver is
essential for reciprocating compressor.
• Balancing is perfect in case of rotary compressor whereas more vibrations and
imperfect balancing is problem of reciprocating compressor hence robust foundation
is requirement.
• Rotary compressors are compact in design hence need less floor space and easy to
handled. Reciprocating compressors are bulky.
• Reciprocating compressors has more number of moving parts in contact hence
power is lost in friction and need lubrication whereas in rotary compressor less
lubrication is required so more clean supply of air.
• Rotary compressors run at much higher speed and can be directly coupled to steam
turbines, electric motor and high speed I.C. engines without gearing.
Page | 63
• Steam Generators
• Introduction
Amongst a number of power plants fulfilling the power requirements of the world, major
share is contributed by thermal power plants. As this type of power plant use steam at
the working fluid, the generator of steam can be said to be heart of it.
The steam generator is also known as ‘Bolier’. The steam produced in the boiler is
used in industries for different purposes,
1. For generation of electrical energy as in power plants.
2. For generating mechanical energy in steam turbines.
3. For process heating purpose as heating of ground nuts in Oil.
Mills.
4. For sizing and bleaching in textile industries.
Normally a boiler produces steam at high pressure. This steam is first used to drive
turbines for generating power. Then the steam exhausted from turbines, which is at
lower pressure is used for process heating purpose.
A typical boiler has two different parts known as pressure part and combustion
chamber. Pressure part is a closed vessel, strongly fabricated out of steel. This contains
water in it. The combustion chamber in constructed
onstructed around pressure part with help of
fire bricks. The fuel undergoes combustion in this combustion chamber producing high
temperature gases. These gases are also known as flue gases, hot furnace gases, or
products of combustion. When flue gases comcomee in contact with the water container, they
give their heat to water, causing generation of steam. After wards flue gases are
exhausted high into the atmosphere through the chimney.
• Classification
Boilers are mainly classified according to the following factors
f
1. By the relative position of flue gases and water (or tube contents).
a) Fire tube
In this case flue gases flow through the tubes, which are surrounded by the water
which is to be eveported. Ex. Lancashire, Cornish, Cochran, Locomotive, Simple vertical,
Scotch marine boiler etc.
b) Water tube
In this case water flows through the tubes and hot gases heat the tubes from out side.
Ex. Babock Wilcox, Stirling Boiler.
2. By the method of firing

a) Internally fired: In this case the furnace is located inside the boiler shell as in
case of Lancashire boiler.
b) Externally fired: The furnace is located outside the boiler shell as in case of
Babcock Wilcox boiler.
[please see fig. on next page]
3. According to pressure of steam

a) Low pressure boilers: Boilers which can develop pressures below 80 bar. Ex.
Lancashire, Cochran, Cornish etc.
b) High pressure boilers: Boilers which can develop pressures above 80 bar. Ex.
Babcock, Lamount, Velox, Benson etc.
4. Nature of Draught: Draught is the pressure difference,
fference, which is necessary to draw
sufficient quantity of air for combustion.
a) Natural draught: In this case the draught is produced by means of chimney only.
The amount of draught directly depends upon the height of chimney.
b) Artificial draught: Artificial draught is produced by means of fans.
i) Induced Draught: Induced Draught is produced by sucking the flue gases
from chamber. It is obtained by providing a fan between the boiler and
the chimney. This fan is known as I.D. Fan.
ii) Forced Draught: Forced
Forced draught is produced by forcing the air into the
combustion chamber w w2ith
ith the help of a fan, known as F.D. fan.
iii) Balanced Draught: Balanced draught is produced by means of I.D. fan
and F.D. fan.
5. Method of circulation of water
a) Natural circulation: In which the circulation
lation of water is due to gravity.
b) Forced circulation: In which the circulation of water is obtained by a centrifugal
pump.
6. By the use,
a) Land type: Boilers used with stationary plants.
b) Marine type
c) Locomotive boilers.
7. By the Design of flue gas passages: The flue gas may follow a single pass, return
pass of multi pass.
8. By the number of drums: There are 2 types, a) Single drum by Multi drum boilers.
9. According to energy source (fuel) used
The heat energy may be derived from,
a) Combustion of fossile fuels as coal, wood, oil or natural gas etc.
b) Electric or Nuclear energy
c) Hot waste gases of other chemical reactions.
10. According to the material of construction of the boiler shell
a) Steel Boilers: Power boilers are generally fabricated out of steel plates.
b) C.I. Boilers: Low pressure boilers are some times built from cast iron.
• Lancashire Boiler
It is a Fire tube, Stationary, Horizontal straight tube, Internally fired, Natural
circulation boiler. Normal working pressure in this boiler is about 15 bar and steam
generation capacity and is upto 8T/hr.
Legend:
1. Dead wf. Safety valve.

2. High steam low water alarm.
3. Manhole.
4. Steam stop valve and Atipriming Device.
5. Pressure gauge.
6. Water level Indicator.
7. Feed check valve and perforated feed pipe.
8. Flue tubes.
9. Boiler shell.
10. Fire bars.
11. Brick work Bri
Bridge.
12. Bottom flue.
13. Side flues.
14. Main flue.
15. Blow-off
off cock.
16. Blow-off
off pit.
17. Gusset stays.
18. Fusible tray.
19. Scum tray.
20. Scum valve.
21. End plate.
Constructional Details:
The main parts of the boiler are,
1. Boiler drum: This boiler consists of a very large boiler drum. The size of the
boiler drum is approximately 77-9 mts in length and 2-3 3 mts in diameter. This is a very old
type of boiler, in this boiler, the meeting edges of the plate are connected by means of
rivetted joints. Steel plates are rolled to form shell and the meeting edges of the shell are
connected by means of rivetted joints. The alternate shells are made smaller in diameter, so
that the larger shells of required length can be obtained by inserting one shell into the other
and rivetting over the circumference.
The end plates

tes of the boiler are flat. These flat end plates, when they are subjected to
steam pressure from inside they will have a tendency to bulge out. In order to prevent them
from bulging, they are strengthened by means of stays. There are 2 types of stays.
i) Longitudinal stay: It consists of round bar which extends from one end plate
to the order and are connected to the end plates by means of lock nuts.
ii) Diagonal Gusset stay: Consists of a triangular plate, which is rivetted to the
shell plate and end plate
pla as shown.
2. Fire tubes or flue tubes: Through the boiler drum passes 2 fire tubes. Part of
each of fire tubes is corrugated, so as to take up expansion and contraction when the
boiler gets hot and cold. These tubes are also made of number of shells. The ends of
each of the shell are flanged outwards and the flanges of the two
two-adjacent shells are
connected by means of rivets, so as to get shells of required length.
It is to be noted that, the centre line of fire tubes is slightly below that of the
centre line of boiler shell. Because fire tubes are provided approximately in the
centre of water, so that heat can be transferred uniformly in all directions.
3. Grate, Brickwork Bridge etc.: Combustion of fuel takes place over the Grate.
Top surface of the grate is made up of Fire-bars. Below the great Ash-pit in
provided.
When the combustion of fuel takes place, hot gases are generated and the
Brickwork bridge deflects the gases to move upwards.
4. Manhole: It gives access to the inside of the boiler drum. It will be sufficiently
large enough for a man to pass through it, for cleaning and inspection purpose.
5. Mountings: This boiler is fitted with various mountings. Mountings are
necessary for the safe and efficient operation of the boiler.
The term mountings refers to the items such as,
i) Safety valves: a) Dead weight
b) High steam low water alarm
When the pressure of steam in the boiler drum increases beyond safe value, then
these valves will open and allow the surplus steam to escape to the atmosphere, till the
pressure of steam in the boiler drum comes to normal working pressure.
ii) Pressure gauge: It indicates pressure inside the boiler drum.
iii) Feed check valve: Water enters the boiler drum through feed check valve.
On the inner side of the feed check valve, perforated feed pipe is fitted
for feeding the water uniformly in the boiler drum. Below the feed pipe,
scum tray is fitted which separates scum and is removed through the
scum valve.
iv) Water level indicator: It indicates the water level in the drum.
v) Blow-off value: It blow out impurities due to gravity.
vi) Steam stop valve: Through this steam will be taken out for use.
vii) Anti priming device
It is always desirable that the steam should leave the boiler as dry as possible, for that
purpose on anti priming device or steam collecting pipe is provided in the steam space. It
consists of a pipe and rectangular openings are provided in its bottom surface. It is fitted by
means of baffles from inside. When the wet steam (steam and water particles) enters the
pipes, the water particles being heavier than steam, after striking the baffles fall back to
water space and steam almost dry will be taken out through the steam stop valve.
6. Accessories: Accessories are used for improving the efficiency of boiler plant.
Generally Super heater and Economiser are used as accessories.
7. Path of flue gases: When the combustion of fuel takes place, hot gases are
generated and the brick work bridge deflects these gases to move upwards.
During their first pass, these gases flow from the front end of the boiler to the rear
end through central tubes. During their I-pass, flue gases heat the water from centre
outwards. After their I-pass, they pass through the superheater, then enter the common
bottom flue at the rear end. Now their II-pass starts, during this gases flow from rear end to
front end through the common bottom flue. At the end of II-pass, the gases are bifurcated
into two side flued, when the flue gases enter side flues, their III-pass starts and during their
Page | 68
III-pass, they flow from the front end to rear end through side flues and during this pass they
heat the water from sides.
After their third pass they meet in main common flue, from where they pass through
the economiser and then they are exhausted through the chimney.
• Boiler Mountings And Accessories

• Mountings
Mountings are the fittings mounted on the pressure part of the boiler, Mountings are
necessary for the safe and efficient operation of the boiler without mountings boiler cannot
work safely. Special provisions are made on the pressure part to mount the mountings.
The term mountings refers to the items such as,
1. Safety valves
a) Dead weight safety valve
b) Spring loaded safety valve
c) Lever safety valve
d) High steam and low water alarm.
2. Water level indicators

3. Fusible plug
4. Pressure gauges
5. Steam stop valve
6. Feed check valve
7. Blow-off valve etc.
The above mountings are usually installed in accordance with IBR.

• Accessories
Accessories are used to improve the efficiency of the boiler plant. Without accessories
boiler can work safely. These are not mounted on the boiler, but these are connected in the
boiler circuit.
Usually following accessories are provided with the boiler.
1. Super heater 2. Economiser 3. Air-preheater
5. Steam injector 5. Feed pump 6. Steam trap
Page | 69
• Dead Weight Safety Valve
As the name implies, this valve is used to assure safe working of the boiler. When
the pressure of steam inside the boiler drum increases beyond the safe value, it may cause
damage to the pressure part, or even a severe accident. It can be prevented by allowing the
surplus steam to escape to the atmosphere, by means of the safety valve.
This valve was first introduced by M/s J.J. Hopkinson and Co. Ltd. It consists of a
central vertical pipe ‘A’, bottom end of which is flanged and through this flanged end it is
mounted on the mounting blocks of the boiler. ‘B’ is the Gun metal valve, resting over the
valve seat ‘C’. Valve seat ‘C’ is fixed on the top of the pipe ‘A’ by means of a securing ring
and screw. ‘F’ is the feather which guides the valve B. Valv
Valvee ‘B’ is also guided by a ring in
steam discharge casing. The weight carrier is suspended from the top of the valve ‘B’.
‘B’ Dead
weightss are placed on the weight carrier and these are covered by the Cast Iron cover.
Weight of the valve ‘B’, spindle, carrier, dead weights & cover will be acting
downwards. During normal working conditions, this downward acting load will be balanced
by the steam pressure from below. When the steam pressure exceeds prespecified or safe
value,
lue, then the valve will be lifted up & the surplus steam will be exhausted to the
atmosphere.
Ex. Dead weight safety value used on pressure cookers.
• High Steam Low Water Alarm

[Please see fig. on next page
page]
This valve was also introduced by M/s Hopkinson
Hopkinson and Co Ltd. This is a two-in-one
two
valve, i.e. it consists of 2 valves.
(i) High steam valve: During high steam conditions this valve opens and allows
surplus steam to escape to the atmosphere.
(ii) Low water valve: When the water level in the boiler drum falls below the safe
level, then this valve opens and allows the steam to escape. When the steam is allowed to
escape, it makes whistling sound, i.e. it gives warning to the boiler attendant. The whistling
sound forr high steam conditions will be louder than low water condition, so that one can
distinguish between the two. Since it makes whistling sound it is known as alarm.
As shown in fig., ‘A’ is the high steam valve, resting over valve seat ‘B’. Valve seat
‘B’ in secured in position by means of a ring and feather ‘S’ is cast on it. This feather guides
the valve A. ‘C’ is the low water valve, which is resting over the inner edge of the valve ‘A’
as shown ‘R’ is the rib which guides the valve ‘C’.
Low water valve ‘C’ will be held in position by means of the Dead weight, ‘D’
which is connected to the rod ‘E’, which is continuation to the spindle of the valve ‘C’.
Valve ‘A’ is partly held in position by mans of the weight ‘D’ and partly by means of
weight and counterr weight outside the steam discharge casing.
In the steam space lever ‘FK’ is provided. A large fire brick float ‘L’ is suspended
from the end ‘K’.
During normal working conditions, the float will be sub merged in water and the
weight of this float in partly balanced by means of counter weight ‘M’ and partly by means
of buoyant force due to water, which is acting in the upward direction. But when the water
level goes below the safe level, the float gets uncovered by mean
meanss of water, then there won’t
be buoyant force and counter weight. ‘M’ alone will not be sufficient to balance the float.
So, the lever FK tills in the clockwise direction. Then the knife edge projection of the lever
‘FK’ comes in contact with the colla
collarr ‘N’ and in turn lifts the hemispherical valve ‘C’.
When the valve ‘C’ is lifted, steam escapes and makes whistling sound.
During high steam conditions, both the valves are lifted, since the low water valve is
resting over inner edge of the high steam val
valve,
ve, and surplus steam will be exhausted.
• Water Level Indicator

It indicates the water level inside the boiler drum. This water level can be made
visible from the boiler room floor by using mirrors. This unit was also introduced by
M/s Hopkinson and Co. Ltd.
Ltd
The unit consists of two hollow gun

gun-metal
metal stuffing boxes. One end of each of the
stuffing box will be flanged and through this flanged end it is connected to the front end
plate of the boiler. Upper stuffing box is connected to the steam space and lower stuffing
box is connected to the water space. In between the two sstuffing boxes a strong glass tube is
fitted. (In between the glass and metal, rubber packing is provided in order to have gas tight
joint)
Thus two valves A and B which contrcontrol

ol the passage of steam and water between the
boiler and the glass tube. When these valves are open, the handles are vertical and the water
level in the glass tube will be the water level in the boiler drum. A third valve ‘C’ called as
Blow-off valve is generally
nerally closed. When this valve is closed, its handle is vertical and to
blow out sediments and impurities handle is to be made horizontal.
An arrangement is also provided, in order to shut off automatically the supply of

steam and water to the glass tube, if the glass tube breaks due to any reason. This
arrangement consists of a hollow gun
gun-metal
metal column ‘D’ and two balls as shown.
During normal working conditions these balls will be in position shown by full
circles. If the glass tube breaks, the rush of wa
water
ter in the bottom passage carries the ball into
the position shown by dotted circle and shuts off the supply of water. At the same time the
steam rushing through the upper passage aided by the water rushing upwards through the
column ‘D’ drives the ball in
into
to the position shown by dotted circle and shuts off the steam
supply. The attendant then can safely close the valves A and B and can replace the tube.
Screw plugs provided at the end of stuffing boxed, give access for cleaning of
passages. The glass tube is generally covered from the front and from sides by Guard glass
in order to protect the boiler attendant from the flying fragments of glass tube, if it breaks.
• Fusible Plug
Function: It actuates itself as the last resort, when the water level in the boiler
boi drum
falls below the minimum permissible water level. As a result of which, fusible metal melts
by the heat of steam, the plug drops out and the steam rushers into the combustion chamber
and extinguishes the fire. Thus it safeguards the combustion chamber
mber crown from burning
and also warns the boiler attendant about the fall of water level in the drum below minimum
permissible level.
Fusible plug is fitted on the combustion chamber crown, but in the drum. As shown
in fig. 10.20 ‘A’ is the hollow gun metal plug screwed into the crown plate. ‘B’ is the
second hollow gun metal screwed into the plug ‘A’ and ‘C’ is the third solid copper conical
co
plug. The inner surface of ‘B’ and outer surface of ‘C’ are grooved as shown, so that when
the fusible metal (either Tin or lead) is poured in between the lugs these two plugs are
locked up together. Hexagonal flanges are provided to the plugs ‘B’ an andd ‘C’ for removal and
refitting purpose by using spanners.
Under normal working conditions, fusible plug will be covered by means of water in
the drum. This water keeps the tempera
temperature of the fusible metal below its melting point. But
when due to any reason, water level in the drum falls below the minimum permissible water
level, the plug gets uncovered from water and is exposed to steam. Due to heat of steam,
fusible metal melts and copper plug drops and the steam rushes through the access into the
combustion
mbustion chamber and extinguishes the fire. The ribs provided on the inner side of the
plug A, hold the plug otherwise the pl
plug
ug fall into the combustion chamber. Before refiring
the boiler, the attendant removes and refits the plug after interposing the fusible
fu metal
between the plugs ‘B’ and ‘C’.
• Bourdon Pressure Gauge

This is most common type of pressure gauge. This is used to measure pressure ins
inside
the containers and pipe lines etc.
The basic element of this gauge is the tube ‘A’. It is elliptical in cross section and is
bent into an arc of circle as shown.
End ‘B’ of this tube is sealed, while open end ‘C’ is connected to the conn
connecting
union ‘D’. Through the connecting union the ga gauge
uge will be mounted over the containers or
pipes, of whose pressures are to be measured.
When it is mounted on the systems and if the pressure of the system is more than
atmosphere (i.e. + ve pressure)[then the tube will tend to curl out. Conversely if the pressure
of the system is less than the atmosphere, (i.e. – ve pressure)] The change of pressure will
therefore appear as a movement of the end ‘B’. This end ‘B’ is connected by means of a link
‘E’ to a quadrant gear ‘F’. The quadrant gear engages with a small gear ‘G’ on to which a
pointer ‘H’ is attached.
Thus then change of pressure will appear as the movement of the end ‘B’ which will
be transmitted to the quadrant gar, which inturn rotate the pinion and hence the pointer. The
pointer rotates over the calibrated scale, which directly gives the pressure re
readings.
• Steam Stop Valve
Through the steam stop valve, steam will be taken out for power generation purpose.
The function of the steam stop valve is to shut of steam from the flow of steam from
the boiler to the steam pipe or from the steam pipe to engine. When used for the former
purposes, it is called Junction valve. Usually the junction valve means a regulating valve
means a regulating valve of larger size & a stop valve refers to a regulating
regulating valve of smaller
size.
The junction valve is mounted on the top most part of the steam space of the boiler
and is connected to the steam pipe which carries the steam to the engine.
Figure shows the different part of a common type of steam stop valve. This valve
body is usually made of C.I. has two flanges. One flange is bolted to the boiler at the highest
point of the steam space and the other flange is connected to the steam outlet pipe. There is
a spindle which passes through glands and stuffing box. The glands and packing are
necessary to make the valve leak proof. The upper portion of the spindle is threaded and it
passage through a nut in a cross bar supported by the pillars scre
screwed
wed in the body of the
valve. The valve disc rests on a valve seat. By rotating the hand wheel, the valve can be
opened or closed.
• Feed Check Valve

Through the feed check valve, water enters the boiler drum. It allows the water to flew
into the drum and it will not allow the heater to flow out of the drum, so it is called as a
check valve.
• Blow off Valve
Mud or any other settled impurities are blown out through this valve.
• Superheater
The steam generated from a simple low pressure boiler is generally wet. So for
superheating the steam, superheaters are used. In the superheater, wet steam is first dried
at the same temperature and pressure and then it is superheated at constant pressure.
Generally, same heat of the flue gases is used for superheating purpose and hence
superheaters are placed in the path of flue gases. However in bigger installations
superheaters are provided with independent furnaces.
• Advantagess of Superheating the Steam

1. Increase in amount of work output, for the same amount of steam and hence increase
in cycle efficiency.
2. Loss due to condensation of steam in the pipe line connecting the boiler to the steam
engine or steam turbine is reduced.
3. Loss due to condensation of steam in the steam engine / steam turbine is reduced.
4. When the superheated steam is used, moisture will be absent, hence it will reduce
corrosion and erosion of steam engine and steam turbine parts.
Fig. 10.23 shows Sudgen’s Hair pin type of superheater arranged with Lancashire /
Cornish boiler. The superheater is placed at the back end of the boiler and the flue gases
after their first pass, they pass through the superheater.
Here the temperature of flue gases is not less than 550o C. This superheater gives a
superheat of 40 to 95o C
This superheater consists of two Mild Steel boxes or Headers and a number of tubes
bent to U-shape.
shape. The end of the tubes, in the headers will be either expanded or welded in
order to have gas tight joint. Between front and rear header some space is provide
provided and this
space is covered by means of a cover. This gives access for cleaning / inspection and repair
purpose.
As long as temperature of the flue gases is less than 550o C then there is no danger of
burning of tubes. But when the temperature increases beyond this and also when the
delivery of steam from the boiler to the steam turbine through the superheater is susp
suspended
for a long time, then the following arrangements are made so as to protect the tubes from
burning out.
1. Flooding the superheater tubes. This water is to be, drained before the supply of steam
through the superheater again starts.
2. Diverting the flow of flue gases. This is done by Damper ‘D’ which is operated by
means of handle ‘H’
An arrangement is also provided so as to pass the steam through superheater or directly
to the main steam pipe as may be required. ‘M’ is the main steam pipe, PQ and R are stop
valves. When the super heater is in action valves P and Q are open ‘R’ is closed. When
steam is to be taken out directly from th
thee boiler to the steam pipe, then valves P and Q are
close and R is opened.
• Economiser
One of the major heat losses in the boiler plant is the heat carried away by the
exhaust gasses. And economiser is a device or appliance, which recovers some of the
heat of the exhaust gases. This recovered heat in utilised for preheating the water. This
preheated water when it is supplied to the boiler drum, it requires less heat for its
conversion into steam. This reduces the amount of fuel required and thus the efficiency
of boiler plant increases.
[Please
Please see fig. on next page
page]
Fig. 10.24 shows the Green’s economiser. It is used with stationary low pressure
boilers.
It consists of a number of vertical pipes ‘A’. These pipes are arranged in groups of 4,
8, 12, 16,, etc. Upper ends of the pipes are connected to the upper
boxes ‘B’. These boxes ‘B’ are inturn connected to the common header ‘D’. Lower ends of
the pipes are connected to lower boxes. These lower boxes are connected to the horizontal
pipe ‘C’ through the cross pipes. All the tubes are enclosed in the brick work of the
economiser except header ‘D’ and pipe ‘C’.
Water will be pumped by means of a feed pump, water enters the economiser
through the stop valve at the inlet ‘F’ and passes into the pipe ‘C’, from where it flows
through the cross pipes and then
then rises through the vertical tubes ‘A’. Since the economiser is
provided in the path of flue gases, the water rising through the tubes recovers heat and
becomes hot. Hot water will be then collected into the top common header. This not water
from the top header is taken out through the stop valve ‘H’, from where it goes to the boiler
drum. ‘K’ is the safety valve for the economiser.
Since the economiser is provided in the path of flue gases, soot (or ash) is likely to
be collected over the tubes. It retards the rate of heat transfer from the flue gases to the water
inside the tubes. In order to avoid this, soot in scrapped by means of scrapes
scrapes. Scrapers of the
two-adjacent
adjacent tubes are coupled to form one pair and two such pairs of scrapers are
connected by means of a chain, which passes over pulley ‘P’. Pulley ‘P’ is connected to
worm wheel ‘W’, which is in turn driven by means of worm shaft, in such a way that when
one pair of scrappers comes to top most posit
position,
ion, another pair will be at the bottom most
position, then it automatically reverses the direction of motion. The scrapers are kept in
motion as long as the economiser is in action.
By pass arrangement: (fig. 10.25) By pass arrangements are provided for the flue
gases and for feed water, so that the economiser may be put out of action when not required.
Fig shows such an arrangement for two Lancashire boilers fitted with an economiser
economiser. When
the economiser is in service, then dampers ‘L’ and ‘M’ are open and the damper ‘N’ is
closed. For isolating the economiser damper ‘N’ is opened and dampers ‘L’ and ‘M’ are
closed.
• Air Preheater: The air is heated, by using the heat of flue gases in a device called Air
preheater. Thus heat of the flue gases is also extracted in the Air perheater, which
otherwise would have been lost to the atmosphere. By using Air per heater the overall
efficiency will increase by about 10%
• Feed Pump: It is an applia
appliance
nce used to pump the feed water into the boiler drum. The
feed pump may be either rotary or reciprocating type.
• Steam Injector: When the feed pump fails due to any reasons, then steam injector,
injects or pumps or delivers feed water to the boiler drum, by the use of steam.
• Steam Trap: It automatical
automatically collects and returns to the boiler, the water resulting from
partial condensation of steam, without allowing any seam to escape is known as steam
trap.
• Boiler Draught
• Draught is the pressure difference, which is necessary to draw the required quantity of
air for combustion and to remove the flue gases out of the system.
Thus the object of producing draught in a boiler is,
i) To provide sufficient quantity of air for combustion
ii) To make the resulting hot gases, to flow through the system.
iii) To discharge these gases to the atmosphere, through the chimney.
Usually this drought (pressure difference) in boiler is of small magnitude and is
measured in mm of water column by means of draught gauge / manometer.
Note: The amount of draught depends upon,
i) Nature and depth of fuel on the grate.

ii) Design of combustion chamber/firebox.
iii) Rate of combustion required.
iv) Resistance offered in the system due to baffles, tubes,
Superheater, economiser, air pre-heater, etc.
• Classification
Draught is broadly classified into 22-types,
1. Natural or chimney draught
2. Artificial draught
(a) Fan Draught (Produced by Mechanical Fans)
i) Forced draught
ii) Induced draught
iii) Balanced draught
(b) Steam jet draught (Produced
(Produce by steam jet),
i) Induced draught
ii) Forced draught
1. Natural or chimney draught

draught: It is produced by means of chimney only.
In this case the amount of draught directly depends upon the height of chimney. It is
produced due to the difference in density between the column of hot gases in the
chimney and a similar column of cold air out side the chimney.
Let us first consider the case when fires are not lighted.
Let, the atmospheric pressure at grate level be P1 and p2 be the atmospheric pressure
at an altitude H. The pressure P2 is lower than the pressure P1, because with the altitude
pressure goes on decreasing.
Now let us consider the case when fires are lighted and the chimney is full of hot
gases. Under these circumstances, the pressure at the base of the chimney is the sum of
pressure P2 at the top and the pressure due to hot gas column ‘H’. But pressure P1 at grate is
the sum of pressure P2 and the pressure due to similar cold column of air H
Since, Pcold air > phot gases
P2 + Pressure due to cold column H > P2 + Pressure due to hot column H
Pressure at grate due to cold column > Pressure at the chimney base due to hot
column H.
This difference is called static draught and because of this pressure difference, (draught)
air will rush to the combustion chamber, where combustion of air and fuel takes place and
hot gases are generated.. Then these hot gases because of draught, flow through the system
and finally they are exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney.
Advantages of natural draught
1) Easy to construct.
2) No power is required for producing the draught.
3) Long life of chimney.
4) No maintenance is required.
Disadvantages
1) Tall chimney is required.

2) Poor efficiency.
3) Decreases with increase in out side temperature.
4) No flexibility to create more draught to take peak loads.
2. Artificial draught:
In bigger power plants, the draught of the order of 25-350 mm of H2 O column is
required. For producing this much draught, the chimney height has to be increased
considerably, which is neither convenient nor economical. Also, since the draught
depends upon the climatic conditions,
conditions, some mechanical equipments are adopted for
producing the required draught and the draughts so produced is called as the Artificial
draught.
(a) i) Forced draught
[Please see fig. on next page]
In a Forced draught system, a Fan or Blower is provided as shown in fig. which

forces the air in the combustion chamber. In the combustion chamber combustion of air and
fuel takes place and hot gases are generated. These gases are then forced to pass through
thro the
flues, economiser, air pre
pre-heater
heater and then they are exhausted after recovering heat of flue
gases. This draught system is known positive draught system, since the pressure of gases
throughout the system is above atmospheric pressure.
It is to be noted that, the function of chimney used is to discharge the gases high in
the atmosphere to reduce air pollution and it is not much significant for producing draught.
(a) ii) Induced Draught
In this system, the Blower or Induced Draught fan is located near the base of
chimney. The air is sucked in the system, by reducing the pressure through the system
below atmosphere. The flue gases, generated after combustion are drawn through the system
andd after recovering heat in the economiser, air-preheater,
air preheater, they are exhausted through the
chimney to the atmosphere.
Here it is to be noted that the draught produced is independent of the temperature of

hot gases, to the gases may be discharged as cold as ppossible
ossible after recovering as much heat
as possible.
• Advantage of Forced Draught (F.D.) over Induced Draught (I.D.)

1. The size and power required by I.D. fan is more because this fan handles more gases.
2. Since the I.D. fan handles hot gases, water cooled or air cooled bearings are to be
used.
3. F.D. fan consumers less power and normal bearing can be used.
(a) iii) Balanced Draught
It is always preferable to use combination of I.D. and F.D. instead of Forced or

Induced draught alone.

Applied Thermodynamic Notes

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Dhanvantari College of Engineering, Nashik

Basic Thermodynamic Concepts

Thermodynamics was mainly developed by Joule, Kelvin, Planck, Clausius, etc. It is

Fig. 3.1 Thermodynamic System

There are 3 Types of system

• Thermodynamic Properties, Processes and Cycles

When the path is completely

• I-low For a Closed System Undergoing a Process

W Energy in storage is neither heat nor work but is

Q Fig. 4.3 Q–W=∆E

Where ∆ E is the change in energy.

Here Q, W and ∆ E all are expressed in Joule.

• Energy a Property of The System

and for the path ‘B’

• Internal Energy (U)

& specific enthalpy,

In the differential form,

& for unit mass

There are two specific heats

1) Specific heat at constant volume Cv

• Specific Heat At Constant Volume Cv

• Specific Heat At Constant Pressure, Cp

onsider a unit mass of a gas in a cylinder fitted with a

Thus heat supplied, when the pressure is constant, is

1) To do some external work

Note: For air Cp = 1.005

• Perpetual Motion of First Kind (PMM -1)

• Second Law Of I Law Of Thermodynamics

• Heat Engine and Heat Engine Cycle

Figure 5.1 shows a simple steam power

Now consider an I.C. Engine as shown in Fig. 5.2

Q1 Let Qi : is the heat transferred to the system.

W1 Q2 : is the heat transferred from the system.

W1 : is the work done by the system

Fig. 5.2 Net heat transfer in a cycle

Net work transfer in a cycle = Wnet = W1 – W2.

According to the I – law of thermodynamics,

Clausius statement is given as “It is impossible to construct a device, which

the same two reservoirs at ‘t1’and ‘t2’

Violation of Kelvin Planck statement leads

Let us consider a PMM-2 2 (E), which produces Wnet in

Now let us assume cyclic heat pump ‘P’ extracting

static process is represented on the PV

Conditions of Reversibility (or Factors making the process Irrversible.)

1. A process should be quasi

(Note: may be read as integral for the reversible path 1 – a – 2)

Since path ‘b’ is reversible.

Combining results for reversible and irreversible cycles we can write,

or PV = C where C is a constant. Also P1 V1 = P2 V2 = C

i.e. when P = C, then V T

• Equation of State or Characteristic Gas Equation

PV = mRT This is known as characteristic-equation of an ideal gas.

• Universal Gas Constant

Hence equation (2) becomes.

Equation (3) can be written as,

and equation (2) can be written as

(a) Work done

q = du = Cv. dT from the definition of Cv. for total mass, Q

(c) Change of Entropy

Fig. 6.2 (c)

• Constant Pressure Process

i) For doing some external work.

Here P1 = P2 In మ = In 1 = 0; Hence from equations which are in terms of