Tutorial 4 Messages and Meaning

Rationale An understanding of the communication process is necessary if a marketing strategy is to work effectively. How are messages (such as advertisements) structured, what are the salient characteristics of the different media which carry these messages (e.g. TV, Radio and the Press etc) and how might these messages be received are all questions which must be considered before planning and executing any integrated marketing communications campaign. There are broadly two types of definition of communication. The first definition sees it as a process by which A sends a message to B upon whom it has an effect. The aim of this approach is to identify the stages through which communication passes so that each one may be properly studied and its role in and effect upon the whole process clearly identified. Lasswell (1948) claimed that an act of communication was adequately explained only when every aspect of his famous question had been answered: "who, says what, in which channel, to whom, with what effect?' The second definition sees it as a negotiation and exchange of meaning, in which messages interact with people/culture/society to produce some form of understanding. This approach, and the one used on this course, focuses on the relationship between the different elements necessary for meaning to occur. For example, communication includes perception, cognitive and reflective thought, emotional responses, attitudes, values and beliefs etc. Therefore, to understand what an advertisement might be saying or attempting to say, it is necessary to look at both the text itself, and that includes all the significant message and executional detail, and consider the presumed intention of the advertisement, the audience it is aimed at and the culture within which it is being used. Definitions There are a couple of terms which you might not be familiar with but which you will need in order to make sense of this assignment denotation in an advertisement this is the obvious, literal description of what you can see e.g. you could describe the symbol used by Nike as a tick or Apples symbol as an apple shape with a piece missing from one side and horizontal bands of different colours across it. you would make no attempt at this stage to interpret the image (text) further, you merely describe what you see in its simplest form. this stage is an attempt to be objective! this is the stage at which you try to interpret the detail of the text. To interpret you will need to make connections and associations between the detail of the text and the culture within which it is being analysed e.g. the Nike tick may be seen, in

connotation

Western societies, as a symbol of getting something correct. It is used extensively in schools, for example, to show that an answer is right. It is also used to show approval. It can be used to 'sign something off' as being complete or ready. All of these possible interpretations share a similar sense of positiveness perhaps one of the perceptions Nike were trying to achieve! this stage is much more subjective! context this refers to the wider social, political and cultural circumstances and conditions which help to define the communication process. e.g. you would need to know the roles that magazines play in general in society, and the magazine where your advertisement came from in particular, to understand how and why the advertisement might be successful. is it a trade magazine, a generalist monthly, is it targeted at higher income earners, at an 'arty', sporty, or more literary, target audience? Activities In pairs Describe two or three company logos/trademarks. Why have these particular symbols/images been chosen? What appeals are being made by these symbols? Discuss the major lifestyle appeals associated with major brands such as Harley Davidson, Tag Heuer, YouTube, Huffer, Adidas, LOreal?

Critiquing Advertisements
Rationale Most advertisements in all forms of the media may be defined according to one of the following broad categories. It should be noted, however, that the categories are not mutually exclusive and will often overlap in some ways:

Informational
These advertisements focus on the practical, utilitarian, practical side of a product and how it fulfils the consumers needs. Product benefits are emphasised and appeals to reason are dominant. An obvious example would be classified ads in newspapers. These contain few superfluous words and are usually brief and short. Some classifieds contain both facts and

commentary. They are usually for functional items or services and often employ direct marketing strategies e.g. 0800 numbers. Visual images are usually simple graphics if they are used at all. 1. Simple These ads also contain 'hard' information like the advantages of a product, its convenience, cost, etc. and are often found in hobby or special interest magazines, where the consumer has knowledge of the subject. TV commercials on local and regional channels are often examples of this simple format and appeal. Cinema ads are also similar in their localised appeal. A simple picture might accompany relevant, literal information about a product, coupled with modest (and usually repeated) encouragement from the announcer/voice over. Infomercials are probably the most common television form of these advertisements. 2. Compound These ads contain subtle association and persuasion. Usually pictures do the persuading, while the facts are left to the copy. The image, therefore, is very important; the advertiser intends that the consumer will associate the product with the total impression. TV car ads with the product set against a tropical beach, an exclusive hotel or pulling up to an airport would be typical examples of this kind of lifestyle advertising.

Transformational
These advertisements, usually aligned with the concept of post-modernism, are characterised by their lack of literal associations with a product. They seek to create an affective association with the viewer/reader/listener which is focussed on imagination, fantasy and the experience connected with the idea of the product 3. Complex These ads concentrate on the presentation of luxury and status. The background often takes over, the product merges into it. Visual and verbal imagery evoke the status feelings associated with money and glamour. Soundtracks are often classical and sweeping. The product is buried in the total image. 4. Sophisticated Here hidden or subconscious feelings are explored. Subtle associations are made between product and situation, and fantasies are acted out. The visual imagery may be blurred to suggest a dream-like state, and colours and lighting are used to associate with dreams and fantasies. Sexuality may be exploited. Self-indulgence is not far below the surface. Often very 'arty' and sometimes very cinematic e.g. gentle tracking shots, big close-ups etc. Style, up-market fashion and 'culture' magazines use these techniques frequently.

Critiquing Advertisements: A Checklist

This is not meant to be an exhaustive list nor is it the only way to analyse adverts. It is intended, rather, to give you some way of looking at the 'ingredients' of an ad so that you might be better placed to attempt a more connotative interpretation of what the ad is trying to say and who it is saying it to. It should also provide you with a guide as to the sorts of thing to look for but you will need to remember that not all of the details on this sheet will be found in every ad and so you will need to select the appropriate ones as necessary and ignore or incorporate others as required. People Age how old are they? Gender what gender are they and how do you know? Race what racial group do they appear to come from? Class which social classes are represented and how do you know? Clothing what do the clothing codes tell you? Expression are the expressions significant? Eyes who or what is being looked at and why? Pose why are they posed like this? Touch are they touching each other in any way - is it significant? Relationship how would you describe the relationships between the people and significant objects? Objects Props what objects are being used and why? Furnishings/setting where are they supposed to be and how do you know? Product what can you tell about the product from the way it appears in the ad? Background what do the background colours, textures and patterns tell you about the situation? Colour what colour codes are at work?

Techniques (Technical codes) Quality of Reproduction black and white, colour, photo, drawing, computer generated etc? Composition how do the different elements e.g. background, foreground, perspective etc. relate to each other? Cropping sometimes what has been left out is almost as important as what as been left in! Lighting how has the shot been lit e.g. soft lighting, hard glare, backlighting, use of shadows etc and what effect does this have on the overall image and impression? Camera angle from what angle is the shot taken e.g. high, low, eye-level etc and what effect does it have e.g. are we looking 'down' on someone? Focus which parts of the shot are in focus and which, if any, are not? Why might this be? Text Slogan can you relate the slogan to the image/s? Copy what other information are you given to help make sense of the image? Brand what does the brand name/image suggest? Typeface why was the particular lettering style chosen? How many different styles are there, and why? Graphics what can you say about the graphic devices e.g. graphs, moving words, disintegrating logos etc. Are they merely decorative? Function Narrative what is the story (if there is one) and what clues are you given to make sense of it? Identification what is meant to be your relationship to the image/narrative? e.g. are you supposed to be an observer, a sympathiser, a critic? Promise what is being promised by this ad? Roles what roles e.g. father figure, hero etc and stereotypes are being used? Why? Values what are you supposed to value in the image e.g. independence, success, financial gain?

Power who is in 'control' in the image and where does this power come from? That's enough to be getting on with . Select an advertisement and try some of the following: Can you decide what type of ad you are analysing e.g. is it compound, sophisticated, informational, transformational? Explain how it fits the category definition or how it crosses over into other categories. Do a quick denotative analysis of your ad. What are the main elements? Now attempt a connotative analysis of the advertisement. What is it trying to say? How effective do you think it could be? What can you deduce about its intended audience? What does it tell you about its relationship to its competitors?