PHYSICS

CHAPTER 9

CHAPTER 9: Quantization of light (4 Hours)

PHYSICS CHAPTER 9 Learning Outcome:

www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physic s
9.1 Plancks quantum theory (1 hour)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: Explain briefly Plancks quantum theory and classical theory of energy. Write and use Einsteins formulae for photon energy,

E = hf =

hc

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 9

9.1 Plancks quantum theory

9.1.1 Classical theory of black body radiation

Black body is defined as an ideal system that absorbs all the radiation incident on it. The electromagnetic (EM) radiation it emitted by the black body is called black body radiation. radiation From the black body experiment, the distribution of energy in black body, E depends only on the temperature, T.

E = k BT
where k B : Boltzmann's constant

(9.1)

T : temperature in kelvin

If the temperature increases thus the energy of the black body increases and vice versa.

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 9

The spectrum of EM radiation emitted by the black body (experimental result) is shown in Figure 9.1.

Experimental result Rayleigh -Jeans theory Wiens theory Classical physics

Figure 9.1 From the curve, Wiens theory was accurate at short wavelengths but deviated at longer wavelengths whereas the reverse was true for the Rayleigh-Jeans theory. 4

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CHAPTER 9

The Rayleigh-Jeans and Wiens theories failed to fit the experimental curve because this two theories based on classical ideas which are Energy of the EM radiation is not depend on its frequency or wavelength. wavelength Energy of the EM radiation is continuously. continuously

9.1.2 Plancks quantum theory

In 1900, Max Planck proposed his theory that is fit with the experimental curve in Figure 9.1 at all wavelengths known as Plancks quantum theory. The assumptions made by Planck in his theory are : The EM radiation emitted by the black body is in discrete (separate) packets of energy. Each packet is called a energy quantum of energy. This means the energy of EM radiation energy is quantised. quantised The energy size of the radiation depends on its frequency. frequency
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CHAPTER 9

According to this assumptions, the quantum of the energy E for radiation of frequency f is given by

E = hf

(9.2)
34

where h : Planck's constant = 6.63 10 Since the speed of EM radiation in a vacuum is

Js

c = f
then eq. (9.2) can be written as

E=

hc

(9.3)

From eq. (9.3), the quantum of the energy E for radiation is inversely proportional to its wavelength. wavelength
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CHAPTER 9

It is convenient to express many quantum energies in electronvolts. The electron-volt (eV) is a unit of energy that can be defined as the kinetic energy gained by an electron in being accelerated by a potential difference (voltage) of 1 volt. volt Unit conversion:

1 eV = 1.60 10 19 J

In 1905, Albert Einstein extended Plancks idea by proposing that electromagnetic radiation is also quantised. It consists of particle like packets (bundles) of energy called photons of electromagnetic radiation. Note:

For EM radiation of n packets, the energy En is given by

En = nhf
where

(9.4)

n : real number = 1,2,3,...

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9.1.3 Photon

CHAPTER 9

Photon is defined as a particle with zero mass consisting of a quantum of electromagnetic radiation where its energy is concentrated. concentrated A photon may also be regarded as a unit of energy equal to hf. Photons travel at the speed of light in a vacuum. They are required to explain the photoelectric effect and other phenomena that require light to have particle property. property Table 9.1 shows the differences between the photon and electromagnetic wave.

PHYSICS
EM Wave

CHAPTER 9
Photon

Energy of the EM wave depends on the intensity of the wave. Intensity of the wave I is proportional to the squared of its amplitude A2 where

Energy of a photon is proportional to the frequency of the EM wave where

E f

I A2

Its energy is continuously and spread out through the medium as shown in Figure 9.2a.

Its energy is discrete as shown in Figure 9.2b.

Photon Figure 9.2a Table 9.1 Figure 9.2b

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Example 1 :

CHAPTER 9

A photon of the green light has a wavelength of 740 nm. Calculate a. the photons frequency, b. the photons energy in joule and electron-volt. (Given the speed of light in the vacuum, c =3.00 108 m s1 and Plancks constant, h =6.63 1034 J s) 9 Solution : = 740 10 m a. The frequency of the photon is given by

c = f

b. By applying the Plancks quantum theory, thus the photons energy in joule is E = hf E = 6.63 10 34 4.05 1014 and its energy in electron-volt is

3.00 108 = 740 10 9 f f = 4.05 1014 Hz

E = 2.69 10 19 J E = 1.66 eV

)(

2.69 10 19 E= 1.60 10 19

10

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Example 2 :

CHAPTER 9

For a gamma radiation of wavelength 4.62 1012 m propagates in the air, calculate the energy of a photon for gamma radiation in electron-volt. (Given the speed of light in the vacuum, c =3.00 108 m s1 and Plancks constant, h =6.63 1034 J s) 12 Solution : = 4.62 10 m By applying the Plancks quantum theory, thus the energy of a photon in electron-volt is

hc E=

(6.63 10 )(3.00 10 ) E=
34 8

4.62 10 12 E = 4.31 10 14 J 4.31 10 14 = 1.60 10 19 E = 2.69 105 eV

11

PHYSICS CHAPTER 9 Learning Outcome:

www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physic s
9.2 The photoelectric effect (3 hours)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: Explain the phenomenon of photoelectric effect. Define threshold frequency, work function and stopping potential. Describe and sketch diagram of the photoelectric effect experimental set-up. Explain by using graph and equations the observations of photoelectric effect experiment in terms of the dependence of : kinetic energy of photoelectron on the frequency of light;

1 2 mvmax = eVs = hf hf 0 2

12

PHYSICS CHAPTER 9 Learning Outcome:

www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physic s
9.2 The photoelectric effect (3 hours)
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to: photoelectric current on intensity of incident light; work function and threshold frequency on the types of metal surface.

W0 = hf 0

Explain the failure of wave theory to justify the photoelectric effect.

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CHAPTER 9

9.2 The photoelectric effect

is defined as the emission of electron from the surface of a metal when the EM radiation (light) of higher frequency strikes its surface. surface Figure 9.3 shows the emission of the electron from the surface of the metal after shining by the light.

EM radiation

photoelectron

- - - - Metal

- - - - Free electrons

Figure 9.3 Photoelectron is defined as an electron emitted from the surface of the metal when the EM radiation (light) strikes its 14 surface. surface

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 9

9.2.1 Photoelectric experiment

The photoelectric effect can be studied through the experiment made by Franck Hertz in 1887. Figure 9.4a shows a schematic diagram of an experimental arrangement for studying the photoelectric effect. EM radiation (light) cathode anode

photoelectron

vacuum

glass

power supply

rheostat

Figure 9.4a

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CHAPTER 9

The set-up apparatus as follows: Two conducting electrodes, the anode (positive electric potential) and the cathode (negative electric potential) are encased in an evacuated tube (vacuum). The monochromatic light of known frequency and intensity is incident on the cathode. Explanation of the experiment When a monochromatic light of suitable frequency (or wavelength) shines on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted. These photoelectrons are attracted to the anode and give rise to the photoelectric current or photocurrent I which is measured by the galvanometer. When the positive voltage (potential difference) across the cathode and anode is increased, more photoelectrons reach the anode , thus the photoelectric current increases.

16

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CHAPTER 9

As positive voltage becomes sufficiently large, the photoelectric current reaches a maximum constant value Im, called saturation current. current Saturation current is defined as the maximum constant value of photocurrent when all the photoelectrons have reached the anode. anode If the positive voltage is gradually decreased, the photoelectric current I also decreases slowly. Even at zero voltage there are still some photoelectrons with sufficient energy reach the anode and the photoelectric current flows is I0. Finally, when the voltage is made negative by reversing the power supply terminal as shown in Figure 9.4b, the photoelectric current decreases even further to very low values since most photoelectrons are repelled by anode which is now negative electric potential.

17

PHYSICS
cathode

CHAPTER 9
EM radiation (light) anode

photoelectron

vacuum

glass

power supply

rheostat

Figure 9.4b: reversing power supply terminal As the potential of the anode becomes more negative, less photoelectrons reach the anode thus the photoelectric current drops until its value equals zero which the electric potential at this moment is called stopping potential (voltage) Vs.

Stopping potential is defined as the minimum value of negative voltage when there are no photoelectrons 18 reaching the anode. anode

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 9

The potential energy U due to this retarding voltage Vs now equals the maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the photoelectron.

U = K max 1 2 eVs = mv max (9.5) 2 where m : mass of the electron The variation of photoelectric current I as a function of the voltage V can be shown through the graph in Figure 9.4c.
Photoelectric current, I

Im

I0

Stimulation 9.1 Figure 9.4c

Vs
After

Voltage,V
Before reversing the terminal
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CHAPTER 9

9.2.2 Einsteins theory of photoelectric effect

A photon is a packet of electromagnetic radiation with particle-like characteristic and carries the energy E given by

E = hf

and this energy is not spread out through the medium. medium Work function W0 of a metal

Is defined as the minimum energy of EM radiation required to emit an electron from the surface of the metal. metal It depends on the metal used. used Its formulae is W0 = E min and E min = hf 0

W0 = hf 0

(9.6)

where f0 is called threshold frequency and is defined as the minimum frequency of EM radiation required to emit an electron from the surface of the metal. metal 20

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 9
f then the eq. (9.6) can be written as

Since c=

W0 =

hc

(9.7)

where 0 is called threshold wavelength and is defined as the maximum wavelength of EM radiation required to emit an electron from the surface of the metal. metal Table 9.2 shows the work functions of several elements. Element Aluminum Sodium Copper Gold Silver Table 9.2 Work function (eV) 4.3 2.3 4.7 5.1 4.3
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CHAPTER 9

Einsteins photoelectric equation In the photoelectric effect, Einstein summarizes that some of the energy E imparted by a photon is actually used to release an electron from the surface of a metal (i.e. to overcome the binding force) and that the rest appears as the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted electron (photoelectron). It is photoelectron given by 1 E = K max + W0 where E = hf and K max = mv max 2

1 2 hf = mv max + W0 2

(9.8)

where eq. (9.8) is known as Einsteins photoelectric equation. Since Kmax=eVs then the eq. (9.8) can be written as

hf = eVs + W0
where Vs

(9.9)
22

: stopping voltage e : magnitude for charge of electron

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 9
hf > W0 OR f > f 0 hf
-

Note:

1st case:

vmax W0

K max
Electron is emitted with maximum kinetic energy. energy

Figure 9.5a

Metal

2nd case:

hf = W0 OR f = f 0 hf
- v =0 W0 -

Figure 9.5b

Metal

Electron is emitted but maximum kinetic energy is zero. zero

K max = 0

3rd case:

hf < W0 OR f < f 0
No electron is emitted. Figure 9.5c

hf
Metal

W0
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Example 3 :

CHAPTER 9

Cadmium has a work function of 4.22 eV. Calculate a. its threshold frequency, b. the maximum speed of the photoelectrons when the cadmium is shined by UV radiation of wavelength 275 nm, c. the stopping potential. (Given c =3.00 108 m s1, h =6.63 1034 J s, me=9.11 1031 kg and

e=1.60 1019 C) 19 = 6.75 10 19 J Solution : W0 = 4.22 1.60 10

a. By using the equation of the work function, thus

W0 = hf 0

6.75 10 19 = 6.63 10 34 f 0
f 0 = 1.02 1015 Hz
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PHYSICS

Solution : W0 = 4.22 1.60 10 19 9 b. Given = 275 10 m

CHAPTER 9

) = 6.75 10

19

E = K max + W0 hc 1 2 = mvmax + W0 2 6.63 10 34 3.00 108 1 2 = 9.11 10 31 vmax + 6.75 10 19 2 275 10 9 vmax = 3.26 105 m s 1

By applying the Einsteins photoelectric equation, thus

)(

c. The stopping potential is given by

K max

1 2 = mvmax 2

1 2 eVs = mvmax 2 1 19 1.60 10 Vs = 9.11 10 31 3.26 105 2 Vs = 0.303 V 25

)(

PHYSICS
Example 4 :

CHAPTER 9

A beam of white light containing frequencies between 4.00 1014 Hz and 7.90 1014 Hz is incident on a sodium surface, which has a work function of 2.28 eV. a. Calculate the threshold frequency of the sodium surface. b. What is the range of frequencies in this beam of light for which electrons are ejected from the sodium surface? c. Determine the highest maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons that are ejected from this surface. (Given c =3.00 108 m s1, h =6.63 1034 J s, me=9.11 1031 kg and

e=1.60 1019 C)

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PHYSICS

Solution : W0 = 2.28 1.60 10 19 a. The threshold frequency is

CHAPTER 9

) = 3.65 10

19

W0 = hf 0 3.65 10 19 = 6.63 10 34 f 0 f 0 = 5.51 1014 Hz

b. The range of the frequencies that eject electrons is 5.51 1014 Hz and 7.90 1014 Hz c. For the highest Kmax, take

f = 7.90 1014 Hz

By applying the Einsteins photoelectric equation, thus

(6.63 10 )(7.90 10 ) = K
34 14

E = K max + W0 1 2 hf = mvmax + W0 2
max

+ 3.65 10 19
27

K max = 1.59 10 19 J

PHYSICS

CHAPTER 9

Exercise 9.1 : Given c =3.00 108 m s1, h =6.63 1034 J s, me=9.11 1031 kg and e=1.60 1019 C
1. The energy of a photon from an electromagnetic wave is 2.25 eV a. Calculate its wavelength. b. If this electromagnetic wave shines on a metal, electrons are emitted with a maximum kinetic energy of 1.10 eV. Calculate the work function of this metal in joules. ANS. : 553 nm; 1.84 1019 J 2. In a photoelectric effect experiment it is observed that no current flows when the wavelength of EM radiation is greater than 570 nm. Calculate a. the work function of this material in electron-volts. b. the stopping voltage required if light of wavelength 400 nm is used.
(Physics for scientists & engineers, 3rd edition, Giancoli, Q15, p.974)

ANS. : 2.18 eV; 0.92 V

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PHYSICS
Exercise 9.1 :
3.

CHAPTER 9
In an experiment on the photoelectric effect, the following data were collected. Wavelength of EM radiation, (nm) 350 450 Stopping potential, Vs (V) 1.70 0.900

a. Calculate the maximum velocity of the photoelectrons when the wavelength of the incident radiation is 350 nm. b. Determine the value of the Planck constant from the above data. ANS. : 7.73 105 m s1; 6.72 1034 J s

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CHAPTER 9

9.2.3 Graph of photoelectric experiment Variation of photoelectric current I with voltage V

for the radiation of different intensities but its frequency is fixed. fixed I

2I m

Intensity 2x Intensity 1x

Im
Vs

0
Figure 9.6a

Reason: From the experiment, the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of the radiation as shown in Figure 9.6b. 30

PHYSICS
I

CHAPTER 9
2I m
Im
0

Light intensity

Figure 9.6b for the radiation of different frequencies but its intensity is I fixed. fixed

Im
f2

f2 > f1
f1
Figure 9.7a

Vs2 Vs1 0

V
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CHAPTER 9
W0 h Vs = f e e

Reason: From the Einsteins photoelectric equation,

Stopping voltage,Vs

hf = eVs + W0

Vs2
Vs1

y =m x + c

0
W0 e

f 0 f1 f 2

frequency, f hf = e(0) + W0 If Vs=0, W0 = hf f 0

Figure 9.7b

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CHAPTER 9
Im
W01
W02 > W01

For the different metals of cathode but the intensity and frequency of the radiation are fixed. fixed

Figure 9.8a

W02

Vs1 Vs2 0
hf e

V
1 hf Vs = W0 + e e

Vs

Reason: From the Einsteins photoelectric equation,

hf = eVs + W0

Vs1 Vs2
0
Figure 9.8b

m y = x +c
W01 W02
hf = E

W0

Energy of a photon in EM radiation

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CHAPTER 9
Vs

Variation of stopping voltage Vs with frequency f of the radiation for different metals of cathode but the intensity is fixed. fixed

W01 W02

W03

W03 >W02 > W01

Figure 9.9

f 01

f 02

f 03

f
Threshold (cut-off) frequency hf = e(0) + W0 If Vs=0,

Reason: Since W0=hf0 then

hf = eVs + W0

W0 h Vs = f e e

W0 f 0

y =m x + c

W0 = hf

f0

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CHAPTER 9

9.2.4 Failure of wave theory of light

Table 9.3 shows the classical predictions (wave theory), photoelectric experimental observation and modern theory explanation about photoelectric experiment.
Experimental observation

Classical predictions

Modern theory

Emission of photoelectrons occur for all frequencies of light. Energy of light is independent of frequency.

Emission of photoelectrons occur only when frequency of the light exceeds the certain frequency which value is characteristic of the material being illuminated.

When the light frequency is greater than threshold frequency, a higher rate of photons striking the metal surface results in a higher rate of photoelectrons emitted. If it is less than threshold frequency no photoelectrons are emitted. Hence the emission of photoelectrons depend on the light frequency 35

PHYSICS
Classical predictions
Experimental observation

CHAPTER 9
Modern theory

The higher the intensity, the greater the energy imparted to the metal surface for emission of photoelectrons. When the intensity is low, the energy of the radiation is too small for emission of electrons.

Very low intensity but high frequency radiation could emit photoelectrons. The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is independent of light intensity.

The intensity of light is the number of photons radiated per unit time on a unit surface area. area Based on the Einsteins photoelectric equation:

K max = hf W0

The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron depends only on the light frequency and the work function. If the light function intensity is doubled, the number of electrons emitted also doubled but the maximum kinetic energy remains unchanged. 36

PHYSICS
Classical predictions
Experimental observation

CHAPTER 9
Modern theory

Light energy is spread over the wavefront, the amount of energy incident on any one electron is small. An electron must gather sufficient energy before emission, hence there is time interval between absorption of light energy and emission. Time interval increases if the light intensity is low.

Photoelectrons are emitted from the surface of the metal almost instantaneously after the surface is illuminated, even at very low light intensities.

The transfer of photons energy to an electron is instantaneous as its energy is absorbed in its entirely, much like a particle to particle collision. The emission of photoelectron is immediate and no time interval between absorption of light energy and emission.

37

PHYSICS
Classical predictions
Experimental observation

CHAPTER 9
Modern theory

Energy of light depends only on amplitude ( or intensity) and not on intensity frequency. Note:

Energy of light depends on frequency.

According to Plancks quantum theory which is

E=hf
Energy of light depends on its frequency.

Table 9.3

Experimental observations deviate from classical predictions based on wave theory of light. Hence the classical physics cannot explain the light phenomenon of photoelectric effect. The modern theory based on Einsteins photon theory of light can explain the phenomenon of photoelectric effect. It is because Einstein postulated that light is quantized and light is emitted, transmitted and reabsorbed as photons. photons
38

PHYSICS
Example 5 :

CHAPTER 9

a. Why does the existence of a threshold frequency in the photoelectric effect favor a particle theory for light over a wave theory? b. In the photoelectric effect, explains why the stopping potential depends on the frequency of light but not on the intensity. Solution : a. Wave theory predicts that the photoelectric effect should occur at any frequency, provided the light intensity is high enough. However, as seen in the photoelectric experiments, the light must have a sufficiently high frequency (greater than the threshold frequency) for the effect to occur. b. The stopping voltage measures the kinetic energy of the most energetic photoelectrons. Each of them has gotten its energy from a single photon. According to Plancks quantum theory , the photon energy depends on the frequency of the light. The intensity controls only the number of photons reaching a unit area in a unit time.
39

PHYSICS
Example 6 :

CHAPTER 9

In a photoelectric experiments, a graph of the light frequency f is plotted against the maximum kinetic energy Km of the photoelectron ax as shown in Figure 9.10.

f 1014 Hz

4.83

Figure 9.10 Based on the graph, for the light of frequency 7.14 1014 Hz, calculate a. the threshold wavelength, b. the maximum speed of the photoelectron. (Given c =3.00 108 m s1, h =6.63 1034 J s, me=9.11 1031 kg and

K max (eV)

e=1.60 1019 C)
40

PHYSICS
f 1014 Hz

CHAPTER 9
W0 1 f = K max + h h 1 f = K max + f 0 h

Solution : f = 7.14 1014 Hz a. By rearranging Einsteins photoelectric equation,

hf = K max + W0

4.83

K max (eV)

m y= x + c

f 0 = 4.83 1014 Hz From the graph,

Therefore the threshold wavelength is given by

c 0 = f0 3.00 108 = 4.83 1014 0 = 6.21 10 7 m

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CHAPTER 9
1 2 hf = mvmax + W0 2 1 2 hf = mvmax + hf 0 2 1 2 mvmax = h( f f 0 ) 2

Solution : f = 7.14 1014 Hz b. By using the Einsteins photoelectric equation, thus

1 2 9.11 10 31 vmax = 6.63 10 34 7.14 1014 4.83 1014 2 vmax = 5.80 105 m s 1

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CHAPTER 9

Exercise 9.2 : Given c =3.00 108 m s1, h =6.63 1034 J s, me=9.11 1031 kg and e=1.60 1019 C
1. A photocell with cathode and anode made of the same metal connected in a circuit as shown in the Figure 9.11a. Monochromatic light of wavelength 365 nm shines on the cathode and the photocurrent I is measured for various values of voltage V across the cathode and anode. The result is shown in Figure 9.11b. 365 nm
G V

I (nA)
5

Figure 9.11a

0
Figure 9.11b

V (V)
43

PHYSICS
Exercise 9.2 :
1.

CHAPTER 9

a. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron. b. Deduce the work function of the cathode. c. If the experiment is repeated with monochromatic light of wavelength 313 nm, determine the new intercept with the Vaxis for the new graph. ANS. : 1.60 1019 J, 3.85 1019 J; 1.57 V 2. When EM radiation falls on a metal surface, electrons may be emitted. This is photoelectric effect. a. Write Einsteins photoelectric equation, explaining the meaning of each term. b. Explain why for a particular metal, electrons are emitted only when the frequency of the incident radiation is greater than a certain value? c. Explain why the maximum speed of the emitted electrons is independent of the intensity of the incident radiation?
(Advanced Level Physics, 7th edition, Nelkon&Parker, Q6, p.835)
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CHAPTER 9

Next Chapter
CHAPTER 10 : Wave properties of particle

45