ELEMENTARY FLUID MECHANICS

THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

Objective of this chapter
Application of Newtons second law (F = ma) as it is applied to fluid
particle motion
Obtain celebrated Bernoulli equation
Application of Bernoulli equation to various flows
If the Bernoulli equation is applied without proper respect for its
restrictions, serious errors can arise.
Bernoulli equation is called the most used and the most abused
equation in fluid mechanics
Inertial force = Particle mass particle acceleration
In case of inviscid flows Absolute Viscosity = 0 Ideal fluids
For ideal fluids, Viscous forces are not there
VISCOUS
FORCES
INERTIAL FORCE PRESSURE
FORCE
GRAVITY FORCE = +
+
INERTIAL FORCE PRESSURE
FORCE
GRAVITY FORCE = +
INVISCID FLUID FLOW IS GOVERNED BY PRESSURE AND GRAVITY FORCES
Flow in x-z plane Flow in terms of streamline
and normal coordinates
For steady flows, each particle slides along its path, and its velocity is everywhere
tangent to the path.
The lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the flow field are called
STREAMLINES.
Flow description is easy in terms of streamline co-ordinates
s = s (t) along the streamline from some convenient origin
R = R (s) - Local radius of curvature of the streamline
dt
ds
V =
Distance along the streamline is related to the particle speed
Radius of curvature of the streamline is related to the shape of the streamline
( )
R
V
a
V
s
V
dt
ds
s
V
dt
dV
a
s V V
n
s
2
=
c
c
=
c
c
= =
=
Acceleration in the s direction
Acceleration along the streamline exists velocity is changing along the streamline
Acceleration normal to the streamline exists particle does not flow in a straight line
, R =
To produce this acceleration, there must be a net, non-zero force on the fluid particle
F = ma along a streamline
INERTIAL FORCE PRESSURE
FORCE
GRAVITY FORCE = +
s
V
V V
s
V
V m ma F
s s
c
c
=
c
c
=

= o o o o
INERTIAL FORCE
PRESSURE FORCE
GRAVITY FORCE
u o u o o sin g V sin W W
s
= =
( ) ( ) y n p y n p p y n p p F
s s s ps
o o o o o o o o o o 2 = + =
V
s
p
y n s
s
p
F
ps
o o o o o
c
c
=
c
c
=
y n p y n
s
s
P
p y n
s
s
P
p F
s ps
o o o o o
o
o o
o
o 2
2 2
= |
.
|

\
|
c
c
+ |
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
V
s
p
sin g V
s
V
V V o u o o
c
c
=
c
c
s
p
sin g a
s
V
V
s
c
c
= =
c
c
u
s
p
sin g a
s
V
V
s
c
c
= =
c
c
u
ds
dp
ds
dz
g
ds
dV
=
2
2
1
0 =
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
=
n
p
, streamline a Along
dn
n
p
ds
s
p
dp
0
2
1
2
= + + gdz dV dp
C gdz dV dp = + +
}

2
2
1
Along a streamline
Along a streamline
C gz
V
p = + +

2
2
Under the assumption that the density is constant
Along a streamline
ASSUMPTIONS
Viscous effects are assumed to be negligible
Flow is assumed to be steady
Flow is assumed to be incompressible
The equation is along a streamline
Coined the
term integral
History of the Bernoullis equation
Euler responsible for the present day
so called Bernoullis equation
F = ma Normal to a streamline
INERTIAL FORCE PRESSURE FORCE GRAVITY FORCE
= +
R
V V
R
V
m ma F
n n
2 2
o
o o o = =

=
INERTIAL FORCE
PRESSURE FORCE
GRAVITY FORCE
u o u o o cos g V cos W W
n
= =
( ) ( ) y s p y s p p y s p p F
s n n pn
o o o o o o o o o o 2 = + =
V
n
p
y n s
n
p
F
pn
o o o o o
c
c
=
c
c
=
y s p y s
n
n
P
p y s
n
n
P
p F
n pn
o o o o o
o
o o
o
o 2
2 2
= |
.
|

\
|
c
c
+ |
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
V
n
p
cos g V
R
V V
o u o
o
c
c
=
2
n
p
cos g
R
V
c
c
= u

2
n
p
cos g
R
V
c
c
= u

2
0 =
c
c
c
c
+
c
c
=
s
p
, streamline a to Normal
dn
n
p
ds
s
p
dp
dn
dp
dn
dz
g
R
V
=

2
Weight and/or pressure can produce curved streamlines
If gravity is neglected (as is commonly done in gas flows) or if the flow is in a
horizontal plane (dz/dn = 0) plane, then
dn
dp
R
V
=
2

Pressure increases with distance away from the centre

of the curvature
Positive
R
V

Negative
dn
dp

Positive n direction points towards the inside of the curved streamline

Pressure outside a tornado (near atmospheric) is larger than it is near the centre of the
tornado (partial vacuum). This pressure difference is needed to balance the centrifugal force
associated with the curved streamlines of the fluid motion.
dn
dp
dn
dz
g
R
V
=

2
C gz dn
R
V dp
= + +
} }
2

Across the streamline

C gz dn
R
V
p = + +
}

2
Across the streamline
For incompressible flows, density is constant
ASSUMPTIONS
Viscous effects are assumed to be negligible
Flow is assumed to be steady
Flow is assumed to be incompressible
The equation is across the streamline
STATIC PRESSURE: Pressure of fluid whether at rest or in motion, can be sensed by a
probe that is at rest with respect to the fluid.
DYNAMIC PRESSURE : Pressure equivalent of the diverted kinetic energy of fluid
TOTAL PRESSURE : Sumof static and dynamic pressure sensed by a probe at rest with
respect to systemboundary when it locally stagnates the fluid isentropically.
TOTAL PRESSURE MEASUREMENT fairly simple. For any shape body in flow there is
a point where the fluid is brought to rest and pressure acting is the undisturbed flow
pressure.
STATIC, STAGNATION, DYNAMIC AND TOTAL PRESSURE
Principle of pitot tube : Bend a tube at
right angle will give the total pressure.
Static pressure measurement slightly
more difficult.
Both together PITOT STATIC TUBE.
1 2
2
1 2
2
1
V P P + =
TOTAL PRESSURE MEASUREMENT fairly simple. For any shape body in flow there is a point
where the fluid is brought to rest and pressure acting is the undisturbed flow pressure.
Principle of Pitot tube : Bend a tube at right angle will give the total pressure.
Static pressure measurement slightly more difficult.
Both together PITOT STATIC TUBE
2
2
3
V
P P

+ =
P P P = =
1 4
2
2
4 3
V
P P

+ =
( )

4 3
2 P P
V

=
Accurate measurement of static pressure requires great care
Henri Pitot (1695-1771) Arman in France
Astronomer and Mathematician
1732 measured velocity between two piers of a bridge over the Seine River in Paris
Measured the variation of the velocity with the depth of the river
Velocity was thought to increase with depth - Misconception
Pitot measured and reported that velocity decreases with the increase of the depth
Pitot used this tube before present formof Bernoullis equation was introduced in 1738
People got all wrong results because of not measuring static pressure
Prof. John Airey (Mech. Engg) University of Michigan performed series of experiments
1913
1915 Prof. Herschel and Dr. Buckingham International standards
HISTORICAL NOTE ON PITOT TUBE
Examples of use of the Bernoulli Equation
2
2
2
2 1
2
1
1
2 2
gz
V
p gz
V
p

+ + = + +
FREE JETS
V V ; V ; p p ; z ; h z = = = = = =
2 1 2 1 2 1
0 0 0
2
2
V
gh

=
gh V 2 =
C gz dn
R
V
p = +
}
+
2
Between 2 and 4
Streamlines are straight, R , Hence p
2
= p
4
= p
atm
Between 1 and 2
Between 1 and 5
( ) h H g V + = 2
gh V 2 =
Horizontal flow from a tank
Vena-contracta effect for a sharp edged orifice
The diameter of a fluid jet is often smaller
than that of the hole fromwhich it flows
d < h; velocity differences can be
negelected
Contraction coefficient
Confined flows
2 2 2 1 1 1
V A V A =
Continuity equation
Incompressible flow
2 2 1 1
V A V A =
2 1
=
A stream of water of diameter d = 0.1 m flows steadily from a tank of diameter D = 1 m as in
figure. Determine the flow rate, Q, needed from the inflow pipe if the water depth remains
constant, h = 2 m
ASSUMPTIONS:
Steady, inviscid and incompressible flow
ANALYSIS:
2
2
2
2 1
2
1
1
2 2
gz
V
p gz
V
p

+ + = + +
2 2
2
2
2
1
V
gh
V
= +
2 2 1 1
V A V A =
2
2 1 2
2
1
2
4 4
|
.
|

\
|
= =
D
d
V V V d V D
t t
2 2 2 2
2
2
4
2
2
2
2
2
1
V
gh
D
d V V
gh
V
= + |
.
|

\
|
= +

4
2
1
2
|
.
|

\
|

=
D
d
gh
V
s / m .
.
.
.
V 26 6
0 1
1 0
1
2 81 9 2
4 2
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
( ) 26 6 1 0
4 4
2
2
2
. . V d Q
t t
= =
s / m . Q
3
0492 0 =
Water flows through a pipe reducer as shown in Fig. The static pressure at (1) and (2) are
measured by the inverted U-tube manometer containing oil of specific gravity, SG, less than
one. Determine the manometer reading, h
2
2
2
2 1
2
1
1
2 2
gz
V
p gz
V
p

+ + = + +
2 2 1 1
V A V A Q = =
( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
2
1
2
2
2
1 2 2 1
1
2 A
A V
z z g p p

( )
2 1 2 1
p gl gh SG gh gl z z g p = + +
( ) ( ) gh SG z z g p p + = 1
1 2 2 1
( ) ( ) ( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ = +
2
1
2
2
2
1 2 1 2
1
2
1
A
A V
z z g gh SG z z g


( )
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
A
A V
gh SG

( ) SG g
A
Q
A
A
h

|
|
.
|

\
|
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
1 2
1
2
2
2
1
2
Pressure variation and cavitation in a variable area pipe
Vapour pressure of water at 20C is 2338 Pa (absolute)
FLOW RATE MEASUREMENT
2 2 1 1
V A V A Q = =
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2
1
2
2 1
2
1
2
A
A
p p
A Q

Kerosene (SG = 0.85) flows through the venturimeter shown in Fig with flow rates between
0.005 and 0.05 m
3
/s. Determine the range in pressure difference, p
1
-p
2
, needed to measure
these flowrates.
( )
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
4
2 1
2
4
1
2
2 1
2
1 0
06 0
1 85 0 1000
2
06 0
4
005 0
1
2
.
.
.
p p
. .
D
D
p p
A Q
t

( ) kPa . Pa p p 16 1 1160
2 1
= =
( )
( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
4
2 1
2
1 0
06 0
1 85 0 1000
2
06 0
4
05 0
.
.
.
p p
. .
t
( ) kPa p p 116
2 1
=
RESTRICTIONS ON THE USE OF THE BERNOULLI EQUATION
Compressibility effects
C gz V
dp
= + +
}
2
2
1

RT
p
=
C gz V
p
dp
RT = + +
}
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
gz
V
g z
V
p
p
ln RT + = + +
|
|
.
|

\
|
2
2
2
2 1
2
1
1
2 2
gz
V
p ln RT gz
V
p ln RT + + = + +
For inviscid and isothermal flows
Isentropic flow reversible adiabatic process with no friction or heat transfer

1 1

= = C p C
p
C gz V
dp
= + +
}
2
2
1

|
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

= =

} }
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
1 1 1
1 1
1 1
2
1
2
1

p
p
p
p p p C dp p C
C p
dp
p
p
p
p
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
}

1
1
2
2
1 1
1
2
1



p p
C p
dp
p
p
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
2 1 2 1
gz
V p
gz
V p
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|

= + +
|
|
.
|

\
|




Assuming z
1
= z
2
and V
2
= 0
Assuming z
1
= z
2
and V
2
= 0
RT C ;
C
V
M = =
1
1
1
1
( )
2
2 1
2
1
1
1
1 2 1


p T R M p
|
|
.
|

\
|

= +
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
2 1 2 1
gz
V p
gz
V p
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|

= + +
|
|
.
|

\
|




2
2
2
1
1
1
RT
p
;
RT
p
= =
( )
2
1
2
1
1
1 2 1
RT
T R M
RT
|
|
.
|

\
|

= +
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|

+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|

= +
|
|
.
|

\
|

2
1 1 2 2 1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2 1
1
M T T T T
M
T


|
.
|

\
|

+ =
2
1
1
2
2
1
1 M
T
T
(
(

|
.
|

\
|

+ =

1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1 2

Ma
p
p p
2
1
1
2
2
1
T
T
p
p
RT
p
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

1
|
.
|

\
|
= =
C
p
C
p
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
T
T
p
p
p
p
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

T
T
p
p
T
T
p
p
T
T
p
p
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
1

|
.
|

\
|

+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

M
T
T
p
p
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
2
1
1
2
2
1
1 M
T
T
1
2
1
1 1
1
2
1
1
2
|
.
|

\
|

+ =

M
p
p
(
(

|
.
|

\
|

+ =

1
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1 2

M
p
p p
2
2
2
2 1
2
1
1
2 2
gz
V
p gz
V
p

+ + = + +
For incompressible flow
Assuming z
1
= z
2
and V
2
= 0
( ) ( )
1
1
2
1
1
1 2 1
2
1
1 2
2
1
1 2 2
2
1
1
2 2 2 2 p
RT M
p
p p RT M
p p
V
p p p
V
p

=

= = = +
2
2
1
1
1 2
M
p
p p
=

|
.
|

\
|
+

+ + =

... M M
M
p
p p
4
1
2
1
2
1
1
1 2
24
2
4
1
1
2

( )
( ) ( )( )
.... x a
!
n n n
x a
!
n n
x na a x a
n n n n
n
+

+

+ + = +
3 3 2 2 1
3
2 1
2
1
( )
( ) ( )( )
.... x
!
n n n
x
!
n n
nx x
n
+

+

+ + = +
3 2
3
2 1
2
1
1 1
2
1
2
1
1
M x n

=

2
1
2
1
2 2
1
1
M M nx

=
2
1
2
M nx

=
( ) ( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

4
1
2
4
1
2
2
4
1
1
1
1 2
1
4
1
1
1 1 2
1
2
1
M M x
!
n n

( )
8 2
1
4
1 2
M
x
!
n n
=

( )( ) ( ) ( )
6
1
3
6
1
3
3
8
1
1
2
1
1
1 6
1
8
1
2
1
1
1 1 6
1
3
2 1
M M x
!
n n n
|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

( )( ) ( )
6
1
3
48
2
3
2 1
M x
!
n n n
=

( ) ( )
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

+ + = +

+ + + = |
.
|

\
|
+

.. M
M
M .. M
M
M M
4
1
2
1 2
1
6
1
4
1 2
1
1
2
1
24
2
4 2
1
48
2
8 2
1
2
1
1

|
.
|

\
|
+

+ + =

... M M
M
p
p p
4
1
2
1
2
1
1
1 2
24
2
4
1
1
2

2
2
1
1
1 2
M
p
p p
=

Upto M = 0.3, the comparison between the compressible and

incompressible equations agree within 2%
M
1
1
1 2
p
p p
= 1.4
Unsteady effects
0
2
1
2
= + + +
c
c
gdz dV dp ds
t
V

( )
t
V
V
s
V
t
V
dt
ds
s
V
a
t , s V V
s
c
c
+
c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
=
=
For incompressible flow
Along a streamline
}
c
c
+ + + = + +
2
1
2
2
2
2 1
2
1
1
2 2
s
s
ds
t
V
gz
V
p gz
V
p

Along a streamline
In general, it is not easy to evaluate this integral because the variation of cV/ct along
the streamline is not known.