Professional Documents
Culture Documents
=
y y
a m F
y x y
a
2
z y x
Sin s x P z x P
o o o
u o o o o =
y x y
a
y
P P
2
o
=
=
z z
a m F
z
x z
a
2
z y x
2
z y x
g Cos s x P y x P
o o o
o o o
u o o o o
=
( ) g a
2
z
P P
z x z
+ =
o
\
| c
c
c
z x
2
y
y
P
P o o |
.
|
\
| c
c
c
+
y x
2
z
z
P
P o o |
.
|
\
| c
c
c
y x
2
z
z
P
P o o |
.
|
\
| c
c
c
+
z y
2
x
x
P
P o o |
.
|
\
| c
c
c
z y
2
x
x
P
P o o |
.
|
\
| c
c
c
+
BASIC EQUATION FOR THE PRESSURE FIELD
How does the pressure in a fluid in which there are no shearing
stresses vary frompoint to point ?
j
i
K
( ) z , y , x P
( ) ( ) T . O . H ....... x
x
) x ( f
2
1
x
x
) x ( f
) x ( f x x f
2
2
2
+
c
c
Z
+
c
c
+ = + o o o
Neglecting all higher order terms
z y x
y
P
F
y
o o o o
c
c
=
T . O . H .....
2
y
y
P
2
1
2
y
y
P
P P
2
2
2
2
y
y
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
Z
+
c
c
+ =
+
o o
o
2
y
y
P
P P
2
y
y
o
o
c
c
+ =
+
z x
2
y
y
P
P z x
2
y
y
P
P F
y
o o
o
o o
o
o |
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ |
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
z y x
x
P
F
x
o o o o
c
c
=
z y x
z
P
F
z
o o o o
c
c
=
k
F j
F i
F F
z y x s
o o o o + + =
( ) z y x k
z
P
j
y
P
i
x
P
F
s
o o o o |
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
( ) z y x P F
s
o o o o V =
pressure of gradient V
Total forces = Surface forces (pressure) + Body forces (weight)
k
z y x k
W o o o o =
BODY FORCE
z y x P F
s
o o o o V =
SURFACE FORCE
By Newtons Second Law,
om a = Surface forces (pressure) + Body forces (weight)
a m F
( ) ( ) ( ) a z y x k
z y x z y x P o o o o o o o o o = V
a k
P
General equation of motion for a fluid no shearing stress
PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT REST
=
dz
dp
For liquids or gases at rest the pressure gradient in the vertical
direction at any point in a fluid depends only on the specific weight of
the fluid at that point
a k
p
l P Z
0 a ;
z
p
; 0
y
p
; 0
x
p
= =
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID
=
dz
dp
} }
=
2
1
2
1
z
z
p
p
dz dp
) z z ( p p
1 2 2 1
=
This pressure distribution HYDROSTATIC DISTRIBUTION
h g h P P
2 1
Hg of mm 760
81 . 9 1000 6 . 13
10 325 . 101
g
P P
h
3
2 1
=
=
P
AB
= h + P
o
PRESSURE IN A HOMOGENOUS, INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID
AT REST
depends on the depth of the fluid relative to some
reference plane
not influenced by the size of shape of the tank in which
the fluid is held
F
1
= (A
1
/A
2
)F
2
A
1
<< A
2
Large mechanical advantage can be developed
Small force applied at the smaller piston can be used to develop A
large force at the larger piston
Hydraulic jacks, lifts, presses
Hydraulic controls on aircraft
Heavy machinery
F
1
<< F
2
COMPRESSIBLE FLUID
=
dz
dp
} }
=
2
z
1
z
2
p
1
p
dz dp
Gases are compressible
g
T R
p
g
dz
dp
= =
=
2
z
1
z
2
p
1
p
T
dz
R
g
p
dp
=
2
z
1
z
1
2
T
dz
R
g
p
p
ln
z f T =
For isothermal condition
o
1 2
1
2
T R
) z z ( g
p
p
ln
= (
=
o
1 2
1
2
T R
) z z ( g
exp
p
p
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
T = 15
0
C (288.15 K)
p = 101.33 kPa (abs)
= 1.225 kg/m
3
= 12.014 N/m
3
v = 1.789 10
-5
Pa.s
FOR TROPOSPHERE
m / K 0065 . 0
z T T
a
=
=
|
|
Airplanes
=
2
z
1
z
1
2
T
dz
R
g
p
p
ln
z f T =
m / K 0065 . 0
z T T
a
=
=
|
|
}
=
2
z
1
z
a 1
2
z T
dz
R
g
p
p
ln
|
( ) z T ln
1
R
g
p
p
ln
a
1
2
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
| |
|
|
R
g
a
1
2
z T ln
p
p
ln =
Graphical Representation of Pressure
ABSOLUTE PRESSURES POSITIVE
GAGE PRESSURES POSITIVE & NEGATIVE
P
abs
= P
atm
P
gage
BAROMETER
vapor atm
p h p + =
For mercury at 20
o
C,
pa p
vapor
158585 . 0 =
h p
atm
~
Evangelista Torricelli - 1644
PIEZOMETER TUBE
Simple and accurate
Suitable only for pressure
greater than atmospheric
pressure
Pressure measured to be
reasonably small height will
be large
Capillarity effects are negligible
for large bore tube ie.,
diameters greater than 30 mm
atm A
p h P
U-TUBE MANOMETER
0
2 2 1 1
= + h h p
a
1 1 2 2 a
h h p =
If A contains gas,
2 2
h p
a
=
Capillarity effects are
negligible for large bore
tube ie., diameters
greater than 30 mm
DIFFERENTIAL U-TUBE MANOMETER
3 3 2 2 b 1 1 a
h h p h p
Capillarity effects cancel
INCLINED TUBE MANOMETER
3 3 2 2 b 1 1 a
h sin l p h p u + + = +
1 1 3 3 2 2
sin h h l p p
b a
u + =
If A and B contain gas
u sin
2
2
b a
p p
l
=
Amplification is
u sin
1
u
u u
sin
1
sin
Pressure Gage
Pressure gages