CHAPTER

NATURAL RESOURCES: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

of the biophysical environment but they become resources only when human preserves them. For example, coal was always there but it became a resource only when humans used it as a source of energy. The sum total of all the material components of the environment, both biotic and abiotic constitutes natural resources. In spite of the abundance, the vast proportion of the earths total stock of matter and energy is of very little interest to humans. Either it is inaccessible or it is in a form that cannot be used. Only that part of nature, which can be of some use to humans in meeting their needs is counted as resource. Resources can be thus defined as that portion of natural stock, which is conceived by human as resource and for which he/she develops know-how for purposive utilisation. Resources as such are largely derived from our own societys ceaseless attempts at finding new and more innovative uses for the raw materials. These persistent efforts have expanded the list of resources new elements are added and some old ones are deleted. Thus, resources are created through the interaction between humans culture and physical environment (Fig. 7.1) CLASSIFICATION
OF

Resources are the bases of both security and opulence; they are the foundations of power and wealth. These observations of Zimmer mann express the economic significance of resources for humankind. At every stage of development, resources play a critical role. But for them, human survival and development would be impossible. Without land, water, and air, we cannot have agriculture, and without minerals, we cannot have industries. Resources and development are thus interdependent. Natural resources help humans in three ways. One, they provide material, energy, and favourable conditions for development. Two, they constitute the natural environment in which man and other life forms live. Air, water, forests and various life forms are essential for human survival and development. And, three, resources are of different kinds. Some are exhaustible while others inexhaustible, some are renewable while others are non-renewable. Without land, water and air, life cannot be imagined. Initially human was collector of the resources because the resources were abundant and human needs were limited. As such, human was part of nature and his/her imprint on it was imperceptible. As people increased in number, armed themselves with new tools and techniques, the resources increased. They became the exploiter of nature. Many of the problems that we face today have resulted from unscientific use of natural resources. CONCEPT
OF

RESOURCES

RESOURCE

Based on content, resources can be classified into three groups: natural, human and cultural. Natural Resources: Those elements of the biophysical environment, which can be used to satisfy human needs are known as natural

Resources are often identified with tangible natural substances. They are the elements

Natural Resources: Theoretical Background

Fig. 7.1 Interaction between Human, Culture and Environment (After Zimmermann)

resources. Natural resources are organic and inorganic matter, provided outside the economic system, which are manipulated by humans to furnish the raw materials needed to satisfy human wants. Natural resources can also be defined as the features and products of nature amenable to use as factors of production and consumption of goods. Natural resources include physical features like land, climate, water, soil, and minerals and biological like vegetation, wildlife and fisheries. Human Resources: The number and quality of people constitute human resources. There is a critical number and quality of people, below which development gets decelerated. Too sparse population can be hindrance; so also an illiterate and malnourished population. As a matter of principle, humans should not be treated as resources. They are the very purpose and objectives around which all development activities should be weaved. Cultural Resources: Natural resources by themselves are not resources as such unless human beings so perceive them. The perception of natural phenomena as resources depends on the cultural heritage knowledge, experience, skills, organisation, technology, etc. Thus resources have a cultural content too. Resources expand and contract in response to human wants and tastes. These wants and tastes are influenced
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by the culture. Culture is the sum total of all ideals, knowledge and techniques human uses to attain these objectives. T o a considerable degree, the availability, renewability and exploitability of natural resources depend on scientific discoveries and technological inventions. Science and technology is the product of culture. As the attributes of culture broaden, the supply base of resources expands. (Fig. 7.2)

Fig. 7.2 Resource Endowments in High and Low Level Cultures

India People and Economy

Cultural factors influence the resources in yet another way. Some cultures have a built in system of using natural resources within the ecological limits so as to allow nature to recoup its loss. Indian culture falls in this category. Many other cultures consider natural resources as a physical rather than biological phenomenon and tend to exploit it beyond its capacity to recoup. Moder n European culture falls in this category. The former maintains ecological balances and conserves resources while the latter disturbs ecological balance and overexploits the resources at times to an extent that the very survival and development of human is jeopardised. Classification Based on Durability Natural resources can also be classified according to their ability to renew or reproduce themselves (Fig. 7.3). Renewable resources regenerate themselves naturally such as forests and fishes, provided that they are not subjected to wholesome destruction. The non-renewable resources cannot selfregenerate as their available stock is fixed, like fossil fuels, other minerals, etc. Each

time we extract, we deplete the stock and come closer to ultimate exhaustibility. These two broad classes of resources are also known as flow and fund resources, or inexhaustible and exhaustible or replenishable and nonreplenishable resources, respectively. Some of the renewable resources are renewable only so long as they are used prudently within the limits set by nature. For example, the ground water is renewable only if its use is not more than the recharging capacity. Similarly, a forest is renewable only if it is not uprooted and is allowed to grow again. Over exploitation of fish has eliminated them completely from some rivers, lakes, or even oceanic zones. But there are some renewable resources, which are always available independent of activity, e.g., solar and tidal energy. Further, the renewable resources constitute a complex dynamic system of interacting components. The use of one resource is likely to influence others. Because of net-like character of these resources their development should be planned in an integrated manner and not as individual resource isolated from others.

Fig. 7.3 Classification of Resources (After B. Goodall, 1987) 62

Natural Resources: Theoretical Background

Conservational Classification Resources can also be classified on the basis of conservational strategy. Renner (1951) suggested the following classification (Fig. 7.4): Inexhaustible and Immutable Resources: They include the ocean water, solar power, wind power, climate, clay, air, etc. Inexhaustible but Misusable Resources: Quantity and quality of such resources would deteriorate if used unwisely. They include land, wild animals, water resources, etc. Maintainable and Renewable Resources: Renewability of these resources depends on the method of their use. They include timber, human numbers, land fertility, ground water, etc. Maintainable but Non-renewable Resources: Such resources cannot be renewed after over exploitation. They include physical soil materials, human talent and genius, many fishes, trees, etc. Exhaustible but Reusable Resources: Those minerals, which can be used again and again,

are included in this class. They are gems, minerals such as iron, tin, copper, gold and silver. Exhaustible but Non-reusable Resources: They include coal, petroleum, natural gas, most non-metallic minerals and metals. They exhaust as and when they are used. RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND UTILISATION People have been using their biophysical environment to satisfy their needs. This process is called resource utilisation. As cultural evolution proceeds new resources are discovered and better methods of utilisation are found. This is called resource development. Resource utilisation thus means the actual use of the natural resources by transforming the neutral stuff into a commodity or service to serve human needs. Resource development suffers from three main constraints. These are: 1. Ecological, 2. Cultural, and 3. Economic perspectives.

Fig. 7.4 Classes of Resources after Renner (1951)

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India People and Economy

Some resources cannot be used in a given environment such as the coal deposits of Antarctica. There are certain resources, which are not being used because of cultural constraints, particularly lack of technology. Further, among the usable resources, only a few are economically gainful. Now, we can see the problem of resource development in a wider perspective: biophysical, economic, social, political, legal, institutional and technological. Resource appraisal, development and utilisation should be seen and analysed from all these perspectives. Planning for Resource Development Resource development requires systematic planning which consists of three components given below: Resource Inventory: It includes surveying, mapping and measurement of characteristics and properties of natural resources. Inventory has obvious value for the resource development planning, because before making any decision concerning future allocation of resources it is important to know the amount, quality and distribution along with their present state of utilisation. Infor mation thus collected is used in planning. Evaluation: In this component information of resource survey is examined against technology, economy, ecology and society to determine the possibility of development and the short as well as the long term policies and implications thereof. Development: The third component is concerned with the activities necessary to convert the potential of a resource into reality and actual use. Resource allocation and development must aim at the optimum utilisation of resources and maximisation of social benefits with least deterioration of the ecosystem. But in real life situations, individual development priorities control the entire process of resource development. Production of
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resources has been motivated by the maximisation of output and revenue returns rather than the optimisation of net social benefits. Exploitation of resources has increased phenomenally in the recent past without caring for the environmental disruption and impending scarcity. At the time of benefit-cost analysis of the resource development project, only tangible cost of the production is analysed, while it must include both tangible and intangible costs payable for environmental reconstruction. RESOURCES
AND

ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Economic development is a complex process, and depends on a myriad of factors; natural resources being one of them. As discussed earlier, the relationship between resour ce potentials and economic development is not simple. At least three types of situation can be perceived in a global context to support this: 1. Co-existence of vast resources and economic backwardness as in most of African and Latin American countries and India itself. 2. Highly developed without rich natural resource potentials like Japan, United Kingdom and Switzerland. 3. Rich resource potential and highly developed economies like the United States of America, Russian Federation, and South Africa. In the initial stage of the economic development, availability of local resources matters a great deal. It may be said that economic activities begin with the utilisation of natural resources. Economists in general accept the exploitation and export of resources as essential factor in economic growth. It can be concluded that resources are essential for development but merely their presence does not guarantee development. Rich regions and countries are capable of importing resources from outside. In this context, resources can be classified into two

Natural Resources: Theoretical Background

classes, viz., transferable and nontransferable. Only non-transferable resources (such as land) are utilised for the development of the region of their occurrences. Because of this fact, agriculture is well developed in regions of good and very good land. Contrary to it, transferable resources (such as minerals, forest produces, etc.) are extracted and exported to other areas for their processing and ultimate use. Natural resources are a kind of assets, which are double edged. They provide raw materials and energy for development; they also form part of the environment, which influences health and vitality. Wise use of the resources is therefore essential for human survival and development. The key lies in sustainable development, which Mahatma Gandhi advocated as early as in 1908. Sustainable development refers to a process of development wherein the quality of the environment is maintained and use of exhaustible resources is so articulated that the total stock of all forms of wealth (including environmental wealth) must not be depleted. Many for ms of development er ode the environmental resources upon which they are based; which in turn, undermine present economic development and reduce future possibilities drastically. Therefore, sustainable development should keep in view the stability of the ecosystem. With this view, the International Union of Conservation of Nature has defined sustainable development as improving the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystem. Thus, the question is not simply of sustenance of life but of good quality of life. RESOURCE CONSERVATION
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MANAGEMENT

Conservation means the use of natural resources, frugally by and without wastage. Conservation is a philosophy that inspires people to use resources prudently avoiding

overuse, misuse, and untimely use. Conservation, seen as a responsible attitude to natural resources, has a long history. It represents the coalescence of a number of interacting themes. It aims at the planned and harmonious interlocking of the cultural, socio-economic system on the one hand and the natural system on the other. The term Resource Management is now used in place of resource conservation. Resource management emphasises the wise use of the resources aimed at meeting the current human needs without destroying the ecological balance and jeopardising the needs of the future generations. It thus involves policies or practices regarding how resources are allocated under given conditions for development. Resource management is defined as a process of decision-making whereby resources are allocated over space and time according to the needs, aspirations and desires of human within the framework of his or her legal and administrative arrangements. Resource management should be visualised as a conscious process of decision involving judgement, preference and commitment, where-by desired resource output are sought from certain perceived resource combinations through the choice among various managerial, technical and administrative alternatives. Resource management should be conceived as the new dimension of conservation. It tends to emphasise rationality over emotionalism, ethics over economics and ecology over engineering. The emphasis is upon flexibility and the minimisation of long-ter m environmental catastrophes, while maximising net social welfare over time. Resource management, thus, involves strategies of action in evolving computations of tactics and methods and a variety of objectives. It is becoming increasingly concerned with the protection and enhancement of environmental quality and the establishment of new guidelines for the public use of common property as air, water, and landscape.

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India People and Economy

EXERCISES
Review Questions 1. Answer briefly the following questions: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f ) (g) (h) (i) In how many ways man uses his environment? Define resources. Explain the functional theory of resources. How the neutral stuffs of the biophysical environment become resource? How far is it correct to say that resources are only natural substances? Are resources only tangible things? If not, why? Discuss the recent changes in the concept of resources. Examine the concept of resource conservation. Why should resource management be conceived as resource conservation?

2. Examine the relationship between technological development and availability, exploitability and renewability of resources. 3. Discuss the concept of sustainable development. 4. Describe the general situation of resource development in India. 5. Examine the relationship between resources and economic development. 6. Distinguish between: (a) Human and cultural resources. (b) Stock energy resources and flow energy resources. (c) Resource conservation and resource management. Project Work 7. (a) Prepare an inventory of natural resources available in your state/ union territory. (b) Suggest measures for their development.

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