Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences

Mitigation of Environmental Problems in Lake Victoria, East Africa: Causal Chain and Policy Options Analyses Author(s): Eric O. Odada, Daniel O. Olago, Kassim Kulindwa, Micheni Ntiba and Shem Wandiga Reviewed work(s): Source: Ambio, Vol. 33, No. 1/2, Transboundary Issues in Shared Waters (Feb., 2004), pp. 13-23 Published by: Springer on behalf of Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4315451 . Accessed: 06/11/2012 20:20
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Springer and Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Ambio.

http://www.jstor.org

Eric 0. Odada, Daniel 0. Olago, Kassim Kulindwa, Micheni Ntiba and Shem Wandiga

of Mitigation Environmental Problems Victoria, East Africa: Chain Causal and Options Analyses
Lake Victoria is an international waterbody that offers the ripariancommunities a large number of extremely important environmental services. Over the past three decades or so, the lake has come under increasing and considerable pressure from a variety of interlinked human activities such as overfishing, species introductions, industrial pollution, eutrophication, and sedimentation. In this paper we examine the root causes for overfishing and pollution in Lake Victoria and give possible policy options that can help remediate or mitigate the environmental degradation.

in

Lake Policy

DRCongo

INTRODUCTION
The large lakes of the East African Rift Valley are unique naturalresources that are heavily utilized by their bordering countries for transportation, water supply, fisheries, waste disposal, recreationand tourism. The waters of Lake Victoria and its shoreline are shared between 3 countries; Kenya (6%), Uganda (43%), and Tanzania (51%) (Fig. 1). Additionally, the catchment of the principal affluent river, the Kagera, runs through the countries of Rwanda and Burundi. The Nile river outflow is an extremely important freshwaterresource for the Nile Basin countries of Uganda, Sudan, and Egypt. The demographic and physical characteristics of Lake Victoria basin are summarized in Table 1. The human population in the lacustrine basins of the East African Rift Valley lakes subregion is high (about 30 million people) (1),

L i _ Wdoto___ :

~~~~~Lake

Landcover
Barren O 100 Kot I _ 0 OGIWA003 Cropland Forest Grassland Savanna Shrubland

Figure 1. General features of the LakeVictoria basin.

Table 1. Demographic and biophysical characterization of the inlet drainage basins of Lake Victoria (4). (Est. - estimated; Ave. - average). River basin Nzoia /Yala Nyando Sondu Miriu Gucha Mara Gurumeti Mbalaget Duma I Simiyu Magoga I Muame Isonga Kagera Countries sharing basin Kenya Kenya Kenya Kenya Kenya Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Tanzania Uganda Rwanda Burundi Kenya Tanzania Uganda Est. basin size (kM2) 15 143 3517 3583 6612 13 915 12 290 5702 9702 5104 8972 59 158 40 682 Ave. est. 2000 pop. density (km-2) 221 (?154) 174 (?127) 220 (?148) 224 (?183) 46 (?56) 21 (?26) 37 (?22) 50 (?26) 88 (?47) 48 (?22) 181 (?196) 133 (?175) Est. total pop. In 2000 3 346 611 788 1 481 640 000 000 000 000 000 Ave. annual rainfall (mm) 1306 1360 1415 1300 1040 879 766 804 842 897 1051 1077 Ave. sediment transport capacity index 0.14 0.30 0.14 0.16 0.15 0.12 0.05 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.24 0.21 Ave. % slope 2.3 5.0 2.3 2.0 2.0 1.6 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 3.0 1.4

258 000 211 000 485 000 449 000 430 000 10711000 5411000

Lake edge

Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1-2, Feb. 2004

? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 http://www.ambio.kva.se

13

growingrapidly, heavilyconcentrated the lakes(2). Waters Assessment (GIWA) transboundarydiagnostic and near The lakebasin supports of the densestandpoorestrural analysisapproach one were:unsustainable exploitation fisheries of in populations the world,with humanpopulationdensityin (overexploitation,excessive by-catch and discards, and the LakeVictoria basinbeingwell over 100km-2(2). It is thus destructive fishingpractices), pollution(microbiological, and the most heavily populatedbasin within the East African eutrophication,chemical and suspended solids). In this Rift Valley Lakes subregion.It is multi-ethnic, comprising paper,we addressthe root causes of these problems-overcommunities from Kenya,Uganda,Tanzania, Burundi,and fishingandpollution-and suggestmitigating policyoptions. Rwanda. population the regionis expectedto double The of withinthe next two decades(3). GIWAIssue for Immediate Divlng Intermedkite LakeVictoriais an "international water" is that Cause OVERFISHING Cause Forces underconsiderable pressurefrom a varietyof interlinked humanactivities;it has undergone enormous environmental changes within the last 40 years or so. Overfishing,siltationfrom the erosion of deforestedwatersheds,species introductions, industrial pollution, eutrophication, and climate change are all contributing a to hostof rapidly evolvingchangesin the lake(and the other East African lakes) that seriously threatensits ecosystem function and overall diversity(5, 6). Today,nearlyhalf of the lake floor experiences prolonged anoxia (lack of oxygen) spells for severalmonths of the year comparedto 4 decades ago when anoxia was sporadicand localized (7-10). Algal biomass concentration almost 5 times greaterin the is surfacewaterstodaythanreported the 1960s in (1 1), which indicateshigherratesof photosynthesis. Also, the transparency values have de creasedto one third, the silicaconcentration and has gone down to one tenth of what they were about40 years ago (5, 9, 12). These and other relatedenvironmental changes, arising out of Figure 2. Causal chain analysis diagram for overfishing. naturalor anthropogenic causes, have significantly impacted Lake Victoria's fish populations. For PROBLEMS: example, the extinction of several hundred species of ENVIRONMENTAL THE ROOTCAUSES haplochromine cichlid fish in LakeVictoria,primarily a as resultof the introduction the Nile perch,remainsa single UnsustainableExploitationof Fisheries of most dramatic eventof vertebrate species extinctionattribuOverexploitation tableto specific humanactivities(13). Two immediatecauses were identifiedfor overexploitation, The Lake Victoriabasin (LVB) faces far more complex social, economic,politicaland technicalbarriers thanother i.e. increasedeffortandtechnologicalchange(Fig. 2). Increased fishing effort and technological change: transboundary lakes in the region (14). The environmental Overexploitation mainlydue to increased is fishingeffort(55 degradation of LVB over the last 3 decades, due to - 75%).As a resultof increased totalfishingeffort,efficiency unsustainable use of natural resources, massive algal blooms, waterbornediseases, water hyacinth infestation, of fishing gearandextensionof fishing groundsto maintain the yield, therehas been a progressivedecline in catch per oxygendepletion,introduction alien fish species,etc., has of unit effort(CPUE)andmeansize of fish caught(16, 17). In putthe economicallyimportant fisheriessectorat risk.It has all 3 countries,efforts in terms of boats and numbersof been estimated if the largeexportfishery for Nile perch that fishermenhave morethandoubledin the past 10 years (18, is lost, the riparian communitiesstandto lose USD 270 19). The numberof fishermen in Lake Victoria increased 520 million in revenue(1). The alarmover the accelerated from about84 000 in 1990/1991to about 122 000 in 2000 was degradation the key drivingforce for the approval the (19). Withincreasedfishing pressure,predation,and comof Lake Victoria GEF project in the mid-1990s, as the then petition among species, the multispecies fishery of Lake largestGEF international watersprojectat USD 77 million Victoriafishery has changedto only 3 species: Nile perch (14). At about the same time, the Lake VictoriaFisheries (Lates niloticus), the pelagic cyprinid-dagaa(Rastrioneobola Organization (LVFO)was formedby Kenya, Uganda,and argentea and Pellegrin), the introduced tilapiine (Oreochromis Tanzaniaunder the Convention of Fisheries. The Lake niloticusL.) (Fig. 3). By 1998, totalNile perchcatcheswere Victoria5-yearGEFprojectwas the first of severalintended half those at the beginningof the decade despiteincreased interventions time(14).Thetransboundary over nature Lake effort,andcatches Rastrineobola of of havealsolevelled argentea Victoria the presents mainchallengeto regionalmanagement off despite increased effort (20). The unrestrictedaccess of waterand otheraquaticresources. status of the lake and lack of enforcement of existing The major concerns (issues) that emerged from the legislation are linked to increasing and crippling fishing environmental assessment usingthe GlobalInternational effort (21). (15)
14 ? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 http:Ilwww.ambio.kva.se Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1-2, Feb. 2004

Overexploitation also relatedto technologicalchange is (20-30%). Changes in the efficiency of fishing gears, motorization canoesandincreasein total fishing effortto of maintain production contributed thedeclineof theNile have to perchsincethe mid-I990s (21). Mostof the region's factories sufferfrom fish supplyproblems,attributed low catches to andcompetition with otherfish factories(22) andin orderto stayoperational, they drivefishermento catchmorefish. Relatedsectors and activities:Increasedeffort has been driven by a much greater demand for fish by recently established processing fish factories havea largecapacity that for processedproducts(23). Nile perchfisheriesopenedup greateremploymentopportunities, attractingmore fishers to (artisanal large-scale),more fishing gear and vessels to access the resource,and the establishment fish filleting of factories Dwindling stocksarenecessitating fish (21). increased to the effortin order maintain samelevel of catch(24). Technological change has come about mainly due to a for demand higherfish catchesto supplythe fish processing the A factories consequently hugeexportmarket. number and of fish processingplants have been constructedalong the shoresof the lake, 11 of which are licensedto operatein the Uganda sector of the lake (25), 12 in Kenya and 12 in Tanzania(26). The large numberof processing factories, whose capacityis about 120 000 tonnes (t) versus the total landingsfor the lake being in the regionof 210 000 t, is an
200 Lates niloticus
_160
g

Kenya Tanzania

120 c 80 c 40
0

Uganda

r% 0
0%

0%

O 0%

00 00C 00 Ch

.~
0% 0h

. ' O 0.0 co 0%

ao 0% %

o 0 % 0%

4%
0

0
c

Year 120 100 o 80

60-

Rastrineobola argenta Kenya --* Tanzania Uganda

0420 0%
c0o0

&-A<
(N 4 00 (N

. 0%

00 co 0%

00 0%

0%

0 co %

%0

0 X0%

0% 0%

co0

Year

importantdriverof exploitationof the fishery (21). Nile perchis purchased processedmainlyby the large-scale and processors(21). The establishment the Dutch Government of sponsored in fish mealplantin Mwanza, Tanzania the 1970scontributed in to substantially the declineof the haplochromines the lake sincethe factorytargeted fish group(21). Of the factories this currentlyoperatingin the region, the majoritycommenced operations after1990, an indication the region'srelatively of recententryinto the global fish market(22). Fifteenout of 25 factoriessurveyedin the region(22) havebeen obligedto close downat leastonce between1997 and 1998to carryout modificationsso as to comply with EU importregulations (22). Many of the fish processedare small sized because demand from export markets is fillets from small sized individuals,which are less fatty and provideportion-sized fillets (21). The decline of fish catches over time has also necessitateda change in the technologyused in fishing to using illegal degrading technologiesin orderto catch more fish (23, 24). Root causes for overexploitation fisheries:The marketing of of Lake Victoria'sfish was localized within the riparian statesduring pre-Nileperchera,butas most fish filleting the factorieswereestablished the 1990s, boththe regionaland in international tradeexpanded(21, 23, 24). The high demand for processedfish productsis, therefore,drivenmainly by the largeexportmarket Nile perchfillets thatemergedin for the early 1990s (23). Increasinghumanpopulationswithin in the lake basin,poor governance the fishing industry, and theunrestricted accessstatusof the lakearesecondary drivers. The largeexportfishery for the Nile perchis estimatedat USD 270 to 520 million (14). Fishersannualincomes (per capita) are estimated as follows: Kenyan, USD 3269, USD 2294, Uganda,USD 1157 (21). The Nile Tanzanian, EU perchis now sold not only to the traditional and Middle Easterncountries,but also to Japan, and Australia, northern andsouthern America (21). Thepricerangesfor fish products such as chilledfillets, frozenfillets, portions, head-ongutted fish, head-off gutted fish and kosher products are from USD 2 to 4.5 kg-' (22). By-productsfrom the factories are numerousandincludeskins,off-cuts(chips),swim bladders andcarcasses(frames).Swim bladders the most valuable are and are exportedto the FarEast (22). The gap betweenthe richestand poorestfishers in some coastalareasis widening,and the gap betweenthe benefits obtainedfrom the fishery by vessel owners and employed fishermenis also widening (21). Due to high demandfor Nile perch,processorsare providingloans to some fishers who then repatriatethe outlays through catches to the companies (21, 22). The scarcityof fish has increasedfish
100 90o 80 70 ?, 60 84
B 0o

30
30 a025?

Tilapias 25 Tanzania Uganda

KenyaA

seine Mosquito Longline Gilinet

m Beachseine
lo _3

x 20 >

15

15

20 10 87 88 89 90 91

%0

00

00

00

0a

Year

92 Year

93

94

95

96

97

Figure3. Trends in landings (tonnes (t)) of the majorcommercial fish species in the ripariancountries of LakeVictoria(49).
Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1-2, Feb. 2004

Figure 4. The percent contribution by weight of the 4 major fishing gears to the Kenyan LakeVictoria catches (20).
15

? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 http://www.ambio.kva.se

Relatedsectorsand activities:Most of the region'sfactoriessuffer from fish supply proLongLines 360 to U) Beach Seines -*--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ blems, attributed low catches and competition with other fish factories(22). Due to the z 320 .~~~~~~ -a---- ~~~~Mosquito ~~. Seines 280 boom in the Nile perch export market,many co t o 240 morepeople who wereneverfishermenmoved to cash in on the "lucrative" industry. This may have pushedtraditional fishermento resortto 0~ the use of destructive fishing methods to 12 0 -~ sustaintheirlevel of livelihoodandfood requirements.The use of poison, which led to a ban 40 o on fishing and the sale of fish in March1999 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 (26), was probably largelydue to rent-seekers. The remotenessof some of the landing sites Figure 5. Trends in catch per unit effort for Nile perch in commercial fisheries of LakeVictoria (20, 21, 50). and the inadequate infrastructure transportation impose severe constraints the post harvest on prices at the landingsites (21). Thus,rich firms are able to sectorof the LakeVictoriafishery (21). Handlingfacilities, displaceless-rich processors, someof whomhavebeenforced ice plants, storage facilities, sanitaryconditions(including to close down.Thishas led to seriousimpactsin the fisheries boatswithcontainers) eitherlackingor inadequate lanare at sectorandhasintensified existingconflicts between users(27). ding sites, contributing poor fish quality(21). to Root causes for destructive fishing practices: The reducDestructive fishing practices tion of taxes on all nets has resultedin morenet purchases. Destructivefishing practicesand reducedcapacityto meet Theincrease population resultedin increaseddemand in has humanneeds:Destructive fishingpractices mainlydue to for fish (particularly are Tilapia) for local consumption.The increased effort(55 - 75%). There beena reduction mesh unrestricted has in access status of the lake and lack of enforcesize of netsused,andanincreased of fish mentof existinglegislationis linkedto increasing crippproportion immature and in the catches(21). Mesh sizes have progressively declined ling fishing effort (21). There is also a lack of awareness overthe past 10 yearsor so with 24%of the nets (24, 28) in among some of the fisherfolk on the mid- to long-term mesh size of 5 inches, consequencesof destructivefishing methods.Thepolicy of Ugandanow below the recommended and now more recentbeach surveys (L. Muhoozi,cited in free and unrestricted access to the Lake Victoriafisheries 21) suggest that this is now as high as 50%. In Kenyaand appearsto be a majorloophole that was exploitedby the Tanzania, and 18%,respectively, the gillnets are below rent-seekers. 3 of Withthe neardisappearance manyfood-fish of the legal mesh size limits (21). Trends (1987 - 1997) in species(30) and signs of declinein L. niloticus (Othinaand percentagecontribution weight of the 4 major fishing Osewe-Odera, by cited in ref. 30), a numberof management gearsto the KenyaLakeVictoriacatchesshowthatmosquito measureswere effectedincludinga ban on beach seines and seine andbeach seine landingshave increaseddespitea ban undersizedmesh nets (< 127mm stretchedmesh) in 1994, on their use, while the gillnet and long-line contributions anda banon trawlers 1996 (30). Failure monitoring in in and have declined (Fig. 4) (20, 23, 24). Rent-seekingbehavior enforcementof these bans is evident, e.g. the continued probablyaccounts for up to 20% of the contributionto beach seineing in Kenyan waters despite its ban. destructive fishing practices.Beach seines andtrawls(10 of Overfishing and the use of damaging or illegal fishing which were operatingin Kenyanwatersuntil recently)(M. gear is only in parta reflectionof the failureof centralized Njiru,cited in 21) arebannedgearsin the region. of management strategieson the lake, and are symptomatic Reducedcapacityto meet humanneeds can accountfor broadersocial, economic, and developmentaldislocations up to 40% of the destructivefishing practices(Figs 4, 5). (21) such as poverty,lack of employment,etc. Theft (of As traditionalfishing methods are now often considered fishing gears, vessels, etc.) and piracy are rampant the on for inadequate landinga sufficientcatch,fishermenincreas- lake, and may become worse as the disparityin distribution ingly resort to deploying illegal fishing gear such as cast of benefits fromthe fisherybecomesmorepolarized(21). nets, fish poison and weirs to improvetheir catches (26). Someof the gearsusedto fish area falloutfromothersectors such as the flower industry,where fine mesh nets that are used to protect flowers from birds are now In being used in the fishing industry. a 1999 LVRFP studyof 1066fishersin all 3 countries of Table 2. Number of sewered and unsewered people in urban populations the lake, 33%of respondents linkeddeclinesin (from 33). the stockto the contravention fishing regulaof tions, 32% felt this was due to excessive Urban Population (1000 people) Total population fishing effort and 11%to pollutionor the pre(1000 people) Sewered Unsewered Number of Towns sence of water hyacinth(29). In most cases, these reasonsprovidedfor catch declines indiKenya 10 200 390 630 18 5600 Uganda 210 870 9 cate a widespreadacknowledgement amongst Tanzania 27 4 5200 340 the lakes fishing communities effortlevels that Rwanda 400 5 5900 are excessive, thatdamagingfishingtechniques Burundi 4 140 2800 arein use andthatregulations generally are igno627 Total 40 29 700 2380 red (21).
440
3

400in-

Gilinets

7-

16

? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 http://www.ambio.kva.se

Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1-2, Feb. 2004

GIWA Issuefor POllUTION

Inwnedkite Cause

Inlemedi* Cause

Dving Forces

Pollution

-3
~~UOhSO10GICAL

mwuee~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I

-ON~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A
/

issues;microbiological, The followingpollution solids chemical,andsuspended eutrophication, It wereidentifiedas being the most important. was noted that suspendedsolids are part and to parcelof the factorsthat contribute microand biological,eutrophication chemicalpolluin tion, and that their role is more important thanon synergieswiththe other3 issues rather suspendedsolids is nested its own. Therefore, withinthe other3 issues.
Microbiological

L
I3

..W;.K.1

ffi:il

~~~~~~~~~~ACSCIrf

w1 1

NIDUSUI

//~~NO

{H}mm
\

mm
-ON

Figure.Causa chain anlsi

digrmfrpluin
ammis
HEIIALTH

\Cm

causeshavebeen identifiedin Fourimmediate pollution, namely, municipal microbiological untreatedsewage, runoff, and storm water, animal waste, and maritimetransportwaste (Fig. 6). Of these immediate causes, the 2 sewaare most important municipaluntreated ge, andrunoff,and stormwater. Municipal untreatedsewage, runoff, and storm water: Direct discharge of municipal untreatedeffluent into rivers and the lake directly contributeto microbiologicalpolluto tion. These have contributed the degradaqualityfor habitats tion of riverandlake-water and drinkinguse (26, 31). The low standards of healthin the regionare causedby a general lack of awarenessof good hygiene practices, directcontamination beach watersthrough of waste bathingand washing,and uncontrolled the disposalaround shoreline (32). Reduction of the biologicaloxygen demand(BOD) load of such effluent can significantlyreduce the occurrence of waterbornediseases such as typhoidand cholerawhich are commonin the region.Runoffandstormwatercollect a lot of animal, plant, and human waste from point and nonpoint sources and channel these to rivers and the lake, creatingan environment that supports microbiological pathogens. Harborand bilge dischargescompound the pollutionproblem. microbiological Relatedsectors and activities:There are 2 major sectors from which the municipal i.e. untreated effluentis derived, agro-industry and urbanization.Beer-brewing, pulp and paper production,tanning, fish processing, agro-processing and abattoirs discharge raw/untreated waste to feederriversand lakes (e.g. 26, 31). The numberof people without is sewersin urbanpopulations high (Table2), and with an urbanpopulationgrowthover 510%yr' in most of the largertowns (against 2-4%/in most partsof the lakebasin)(33), the situationis likely to get worse. In ruralareas thereareno sewersat all. An assessmentof BOD5 loading of Lake in for Victoria (corrected purification treatment plants, rivers wetlands) and showsthatdomestic pollutionaccountsfor most of the BOD load, (mainlyfrom with the contribution industry of breweries,sugar-canefactoriesand soap and
17

Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1-2, Feb. 2004

?DRoyal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 http://www.ambio.kva.se

oil factories) being relatively low (33). Kenya contributes a BOD load of 7510 t yr', Uganda contributes a BOD load of 4540 t yr' while Tanzania contributes a BOD load of 3920 t yr-1(33). 75% of the BOD load from Uganda originates from Kampala, while in Kenya, 50% of the BOD load originates from Kisumu (33). Water hyacinth infestations have also been reported to lower the water-quality in Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania (in terms of color, pH, turbidity of water) and to increase the treatment costs (particularlyassociated with keeping the water intake points free of water hyacinth) (34). There are several sectors that contribute to microbiological pollution of runoff and storm water. These include wildlife, agriculture, urban, forestry and rural settlements sectors. During the rainy seasons when runoff and storm water discharge are peaking, the incidences of water-related diseases reach high levels. Root causes for microbiological pollution: The treatment works in municipalities are either inadequate, using old and obsolete technology, have ageing components, or have simply ground to a halt. They have also not been able to expand to keep pace with the increasingly larger populations. The municipal by-laws, such as those of Kisumu City, did not predict the growth and type of industries existing today, and so there is no capacity to manage the waste from these industries. Industries flout the by-laws and regulations as there is no monitoring and enforcement mechanism. Poor planning, maintenance, and inadequate investment in municipality wastewater-treatment systems have contributedto the increaseduntreatedeffluent discharge. If the present treatment plants in Kisumu performed optimally, the BOD loads could be broughtdown by 50% (33). Watersupply to both municipalities and villages is also affected by water hyacinth. In municipalities, water hyacinth interferes with the water-intake points through blockage, which lowers the quantity of water pumped (in Kisumu the water supply has dropped from 20 000 m3to 10 000 m3day-') (34). This decline in water supply invariablycauses more people to look for alternative, and often untreated,water sources. Flooding is common in the region, particularly around the lakeshore, during the rainy season and its impact is exacerbated by poor practices when carrying out activities in the above sectors. Contamination of drinking water results from poor sanitation, hygiene, and poor floodwater management. For example, there were 14 275 cholera admissions in Nyanza province, LVB, Kenya, alone between June 1997 and March 1998, with 547 deaths reported (32). One of the major risk factors identified for cholera among a sample of these patients was drinking water from Lake Victoria or a stream (32). The period coincided with widespread heavy rainfall that caused flooding across the East and the Horn of Africa (35). Eutrophication Three immediate causes of eutrophication can be identified; i.e. enhanced effluent discharge, runoff and storm water, and enhanced discharge of solids. Enhanced effluent discharge and runoff and storm water are the most importantimmediate causes of eutrophication. Enhanced effluent discharge, runoff and storm water: Analyses of sediment cores from the lake show an increasing rate of sedimentation over the past 150 years (6, 36). There are many densely cultivated areas in the LVB, especially in
18

Kenya, Rwanda and Burundi (33). Some rivers, such as the Sio, Nzoia, Yala, Sondu, Nando and Kuja in the LVB Kenya, drain highly productive agriculturalareas. The sediment load of the Nyando River, for example, has increased by 7.5 times during the last 16 years, with turbidity measured at 527 NTU in the rainy season of 2001 (36).
Table 3 Agricultural characteristics of Lake Victoria basin (33). Catchment land area (1000 ha) Kenya Uganda Tanzania Rwanda Burundi Total Cultivated 1470 1400 1500 930 670 5970 Noncultivated 3400 2100 5540 1130 640 12 810 Total 4870 3500 7040 2060 1310 18 780

Habitat modification through vegetation clearance for infrastructureprovision, agriculture, urban settlements and plantharvestingfor use as building materials,furniturecrafting and fuelwood, etc., enhances erosion and increases the suspended solids load in rivers. Enhanced erosion of the lakeshore and river channels are directly contributing to increased suspended solids in the lake. Soaps and detergents that are being used within the basin are outdated or banned and are contributing to eutrophication.Analysis of nutrients (N and P) in the rainy season of 2001 in the Nyando, Sondu, Nzoia, and Yala rivers indicates that continued addition of input of such high nutrient concentrations into the Winam Gulf will seriously affect aquatic systems and water-quality (36). Nutrient loads to the lake are associated mainly with atmospheric deposition and land runoff, together accounting for about 90% of the phosphorus and 94% of the nitrogen input into the lake (33). Related sectors and activities:The change from small-scale to large-scale industrial production, and change from small to large farms, etc. have all contributed to enhanced effluent discharge. The agricultural characteristics for the LVB as a whole are as shown in Table 3 below (33). Human population increase, as well as increased rates of urbanizationand agriculture in the region have increased the per capita demand for land (37), and hence more land is cleared to create the additional space required for these sectors, including wetlands (37, 38), leading to increased sediment deposition in the rivers and lake. There is, for example, large-scale draining of the Yala Swamp (LVB Kenya) to create land for agriculture and settlement (39). Clearing of riparianvegetation has led to erosion and loss of the vegetation that acted as filters (40), while nutrient-rich sediments from agriculturalrunoff and also low-lying, deforested riparian zones and other areas surrounding the lake contribute to eutrophication, and feed the carpets of water hyacinth (41). The degree to which urban runoff and solid wastes contribute to suspended solids load has not been assessed (26). Root causes for eutrophication:There has been a lack of monitoring and enforcement of regulations. Those industries that have tried to install recycling facilities in urban areas have not had support from the regulating authorities. The food and cash crops grown on wetlands require application
Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1-2, Feb. 2004

? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 http://www.ambio.kva.se

of but generallyabsent, in Kenyaa majority factories operate a treatment plant(33). Some recentstudieshave shownthat fish in LakeVictoria contain varyinglevelsof organochlorine the of pesticide residues (44),reflecting transport agrochemical residues from farms within the catchment,throughrivers to the lake. Only a few industries are connected to an urban sewage system (33). Growthin industrieshas taken place againsta backdropof no infrastructure development for disposal of effluents. The currentlyexisting sewage infrastructurehas not been expanded or improved for are decades.However, some of the industries being allowed in to establish theiroperations areasthathavebeendesignated as "non-industrial", they lack the infrastructure handle to so their waste products.There is no enforcementof existing regulations chemicalsuse and theirdisposal,and regarding the current and legislationsareout-dated in need of revision. Lackof monitoring poor scientificknowledgehas led to and the use of inappropriate obsolete technologies to the or Chemical pollution The governmentsof the 3 The identifiedimmediate causes for chemicalpollutionare: detrimentof the environment. countries havenot takendeliberate actionsto put in enhancedeffluentdischarge;enhanceddischargeof solids; riparian needs runoff and storm water;and atmosphericdeposition.The capitalresourcesto meet the economic development the latteris currently least important in termsof supply of the region. but, of nutrientssuch as N and P, it may become increasingly as important land-usein the basin and outsidecumulatively the reducesthe vegetation cover,thusincreasing atmospheric POLICYOPTIONS load of fine particulate matter. We evaluated relativelikelihoodof success of the policy the Enhanced effluent and solids discharge: Increasing optionsusing the followingcriteria: effectiveness, efficiency, volumes of chemicaleffluentdischarges directlyinto the equity, political feasibility and implementationcapacity. go riversandlake.Leachates fromminingtailingsthatareclose The policy optionsin the LVB were additionally evaluated to therivers lakeshore, or industrial wastessuchas barley waste within the context of the policies that guide the recently and chemicals are dumpedinto the lake in an uncontrolled re-established AfricanCommunity East (EAC)(45, 46). The manner. Thereis also disposalof expiredpesticides,medical LakeVictoriaDevelopment Programme (LVDP)has already waste, petrol station wastes, bunkeringwastes, etc. Some established operationalized and NationalFocalPointsin the havestockpiles banned of substances suchas DDT. Partner States' ministries responsible for Lake Victoria companies Related sectors and activities: Most industryis located development. These ministries include the Ministry of in the large towns borderingthe lake; Kampalaand Jinja Environment NaturalResourcesin Kenya,the Ministry and in Uganda, and in Mwanza Musoma Tanzania, Kisumu in of Waterand Livestock Developmentin Tanzaniaand the and withtheexception the largesugar of in Kenya, factories Kenya Ministry Foreign of Affairs Uganda. otherachievements in The located at some distance from the lake (33). Small-scale arein termsof studiesconducted facilitating basisfor for the mining is increasingin parts of the Tanzanian catchments, objectivedecisions on environmental naturalresources and of leadingto contamination the waterways mercury. by Very managementin implementation the Treaty.The East of few industries haveadopted cleantechnologies. example, AfricanCommunity For therefore offersa good prospectfor the Limitedin Kenya(discharging Panpaper into Nzoia River) success of the policies thathave been proposedhere in that could use an extraprocessingstep of scrubbing for technology it providesa conduciveenvironment Kenya,Uganda,and to to reduceSO2andproduce commongoals. sulfuric (added acid valueproduct). Tanzania worktogethertowards Used chlorinehas been dumpedinto the lake killing many In aquaticorganisms. Uganda,expiredchemicalsas well as Overexploitationof Fisheries drugs and partially-treateddomestic sewage from the Quotafor fishing Kampalaarea are dumped into public waterways,finally Thishas a highprobability successin the medium-term of (5 endingup in LakeVictoria(43). years).Thereshouldbe involvement stakeholders of (fishers The use of agrochemicals increasingin the lake basin in co-management), changeof attitude is with fromgovernmentwherethereare large-scalefarmsof coffee, tea, cotton,rice drivento community-driven management ownership and of maize, sugar,andtobacco(26). Muchof Ugandanindustrial the process.The process shouldbe initiatedin areaswhere effluents drainthroughwetlandsbefore reachingthe lake the environment favorsself-regulation sustainability. and A water (33). The urbanand peni-urban growth is rapidand conduciveenvironment the success of the instruments for largely unplanned;many buildings are erected without that need to be put in place (revisionof by-laws;scientific authorization,runoff rates are increased due to lack of basis for decision-making; educationandtraining; financial storm-water drainage handleurbanrunoff,andmunicipal and technologicalassistance;etc.) shouldbe created.This to authorities poorlymanagewastedisposal.Mostof the poorly measure shouldbe ableto controlthe number entrants of and disposedof urbanwastesarethenwashedinto watercourses effortsto a sustainable level at minimumcost. and eventually reachthe lake. Root causes for chemical pollution: In Tanzaniaand Quota for processing Uganda, industrial wastewater treatment facilities are This should go along the same lines as the quotas for of fertilizers and pesticides (37). Unsustainableland-use practiceslead to increasedsoil erosion and nutrientland nutrient loadsareattributed runoff(33).Thehighatmospheric and dustdueto soil erosion(42). to forestburning, increased 5-10 km away Sandharvesting activityis mainlyperformed in from the lake, particularly Winamand Ahero Divisions, LVB,Kenya,but some sand harvestingis undertaken right on the shoresof the lake (37). is for An important sourceof income,papyrus, harvested thatching houses andthe makingof mats,baskets,furniture (chairs), fishing floats, rafts, etc., while both shrubs and are papyrus used for wood fuel (37). Thereare farms,roads, close to or on the fishing campsand housingdevelopments wetlands (37). Soil erosion in the wetlands is generally but connectedwith cultivation, specificallyto poor farming practices(37).
Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1-2, Feb. 2004 ? Royal SwedishAcademy of Sciences 2004 http://www.ambio.kva.se 19

fisheries. It holds the highest possibilityof controllingthe amountof fish landed due to restrictingthe main market. frombothsellersandbuyers fish,but of is Resistance expected stockof fish andreduced in with the dwindling supply, terms of both quantityand quality,it is expectedthat awareness creationproperly publicizedwill avoidthis obstacle.
Review of the rules and regulations and existing policies

stocks. This policy option is now achievablesince most of the owners of the processingplants have realizedthat the of availability small-sizefish for theirfactoriesis becoming a problem.
Provision of credit to artisan fishers

that to In orderfor co-management succeed,an environment This shouldbe provided. will includerecognition is conducive The of propertyrightsand entitlements. review of policies, rules and regulationsare alreadybeing workedout under EAC. This, however,should be carriedout in conjunction The witheffectiveenforcement. policyoptionwill havea high in of probability success if well implemented a participatory in mannerwith stakeholders the fishing communities along the lake shores,as has alreadybegununderco-management Units (BMUs). through Beach Management
Civic education and awareness

to Lackof capital buythe recommended fishinggearhampers fishers.Havingbeingdispossessed compliance small-scale by of their illegal gear, they cannot afford to buy new legal fishing gear. Provision of credit to these fisherfolk will facilitate compliance of restrictionsand regulations by the enablingthemto purchase required gear,whichdoes not the of Withthe experience endanger sustainability the fishery. NGOsin creditprovision small-scale to gainedby numerous this entrepreneurs, policy option has a high probabilityof success. It has the double advantage alleviatingpoverty of among the fishing communities while at the same time utilizationof fisheriesresources. facilitatingsustainable PollutionPolicy Options

in It is important increasepublic participation orderto Accreditation of analytical laboratories for standards to enhance effective decision-making and compliance by enforcement Thereis politicalwill at the regionallevel, as In order to facilitate water-quality self-regulation. standardsenforcement demonstrated theEACtreaty document implementation conveniently relatively and by and accreditation regional of cheaply, of the intended so objectives far.Thisoptionwill leadto more and national water-quality laboratories is essential. of in popular participation thecommunities theenvironmental, Implementation this policy optionwill go a long way in of issuesthataffecttheirlivelihoods. reducinghealthcosts and increaselaborproductivity. economic,anddevelopment Under It wouldalso be moreinclusivein termsof sharingaccruing the EAC, programsare alreadyunderwayto addressthis costs andbenefits. situation. DestructiveFishing Practices
Strengthening monitoring and enforcement of restrictions and rule of law Liberalization of waste disposal activities to involve the private sector and communities

of and and Monitoring enforcement regulations restrictions putsthe riskfactorfor contraventions so as to encourage high The of compliance. effectiveness thispolicyis high,especially consideringthe EAC initiative's politicalwill and intention towardsstrengthening of capacityfor the management Lake Victoria. The move towards co-management should be supported because it involves communities in effective managementat a lower cost hence making it possible to achievethe monitoring enforcement and goal.
Provide civic education and awareness, empower and involve more communities in management

Privatesector participation waste disposal activities is in obviously importantin order to fill the void left by the whichhavefailedto render publicinstitutions theseservices. The feasibilityandeffectivenessof this policy optionis that it is a business venturewith the capabilityof generating income.Thereare,for example,environmental sanitation and in and companies Dares Salaam othertownsthatarecarrying out the enterpriseprofitably.In some places there are establishedcommunityyouth groupsthat engage in waste collectionanddisposalfromresidential areas.
Revise regulations in urban planning that have not taken into account environmental issues and improve monitoring and enforcement

Thegenerallackof awareness boththe statusof the fishery of and the adverseimpactsof destructive fishing practiceson the fishery may be a contributing factorto the irresponsible behavior.The people's lack of awarenessand ignoranceof their rights and obligationsin bringingabout a conducive environment a sustainable for fishery may also undermine theireffectiveparticipation the management theirnatural in of resources and fisheries in particular.Empowering the community in both these and other forms of awareness would go a long way towardseffective managementand consequentlysustainable utilization fisheriesresources. of
Imposition of size restrictions on fish-p rocessing factories

Current and urban-planning regulations plans are outdated. Town-planningservices have not taken into account the increasing populations whichhavefar outstripped projections made in the 1960s and 1970s. Lack of monitoring and enforcementof buildingand new settlementdevelopments have resultedin urbancenters evolving haphazardly with and poor sanitation lack of essentialservices.However, the the capacityto undertake revisionand correctivemeasures exists withinrelevant landoffices in EACpartner states.
Imptvvenaturalresourcemanagement, farmingpractice through governance technologies agriculture and in training,

Fish-processing factoriesplace the highestdemandon Nile perch, and prefer small-size fish, which they export to foreignmarkets. Therefore, discouraging purchaseof by the small-sizefish, the effect will be to facilitategrowthof fish to full size wherereproduction take place to replenish will
20

Training farmers of around laketopractice production the clean and to avoid fanning bad practices, which result pollution thelake, in of is essential. farming Poor practices mainly to lackof educaare due tion and awareness. implementation The capacity thispolicy of option exists within partner andthepolitical technical states and feasibility manifested theexistenceof LVEMP. is by
Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1-2, Feb. 2004

? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 http://www.ambio.kva.se

Stronger vetting of technologies that are being promoted by the national and international agencies

Enforce compliance to international conventions, e.g. RAMSAR, CITES, and the Biological Diversity Convention Manyfactoriesare using old, obsolete and/orinappropriate ofAgenda 21

technologies do not adequately that reducethe pollutant load in effluentsbeforedischargeto riversand the lake. In some cases, prohibitedchemicals such as DDT are used. Clean technologiesshouldbe promoted alongsidebettereconomic incentives,and stronger vettingof prohibited chemicalswill reducethe risk of the adverseeffects of pollutionon human healthandthe environment.
Strengthen enforcement of regulations requiring effluent treatment in municipalities and industries

All the partner states have ratified many international conventionsincludingthe ones mentionedabove.However, not all the ratifiedconventionsare implemented desired. as The resultof such a stateof affairsis to exacerbate environmental degradation biodiversitydecline among others and with disastrous effects.Withproperawareness, mobilization andcommitment, seems to be one way popular participation of facilitatingthe objectives throughputting pressureon relevantauthorities.
Strengthening of capacity of National Environmental Protection authorities in order to be more effective

While rules and regulations waste disposalexist in all 3 on countries,their enforcementis seriously lacking. In the industrial ordinance of Tanzania, the factory inspector requires processing all plantsto havewaste-treatment facilities fromtheirfactories.However, industries few have"working" treatment plants or ponds for that matter.Wastewater and solid waste is left to spreadto streamsand residential areas where they affect the health of inhabitantsliving in the vicinity of these areasor those who use contaminated water from streamsand rivers. In other places, the disposal of industrial municipaleffluentresults in huge economic and lossesto theeconomy destruction tourist of through attractions such as coral reefs. With the enactmentof environmental policies and frame law in all the 3 partnerstates, and establishmentof environmental protection agencies, this of policy optionhas a high probability succeeding.
Incorporate all stakeholders in drafting of regulations and in monitoring and enforcing agreed upon regulations

For all its existence to date, the National Environmental ManagementCouncil (NEMC) of Tanzania has been a "toothless dog"in thatit did not havelegalbackingto enable it to execute the mandate of an effective environmental protectionagency, as we know it. With the work on the Institutional and Legal Framework for Environmental Management in Tanzania nearing completion with the formulationof the environmental frameworklaw, NEMC will haveexecutivepowersto monitorandenforcerules and regulationspertainingto environmental managementand Suchinstitutions in protection. havealready been established Uganda(NEMA)and Kenya(NEMA).

CONCLUSIONS
A comprehensive assessment of the environmentaland socioeconomic issues affecting Lake Victoria Basin was carried out following the methodology outlined by the GIWAproject(47). This assessmentidentifiedoverfishing andpollutionas the issues of greatestconcern(48). The root causesof these environmental problemsaremany,reflecting the complexityof issues affectingLakeVictoria. The underlyingcauses for overexploitation fisheries of include:high demandfor fish and fish productsin export in markets,and improvements fish handlingcapacitiesand technologiesused in the fisheries sector.Othercauses are related to lack of sufficient controls throughregulations and legislation. For example, lack of fishing quotas and the unrestricted access status of the lake has abettedhigh fish harvesting rates and high influx of fishermen that threatensthe sustainabilityof the fisheries resource.There is a general lack of compliance to and enforcement of

have been foundto be effective in Participatory approaches of implementation policies and decisions,which requirethe in inputof the community wherethe communities turn and stand benefitfromtheprocess.Thisis becauseinvolvement to of the beneficiariesinculcatesa sense of responsibility and ownership amongothers.Becausethe cost of implementation and the benefit accrues to them, they become effective partnersensuring proper and successful implementation. This policy option has a high probabilityof success. It provideshigh dividendsin terms of high success rates, as has been experiencedacross the region in several project implementations.
Integration of institutionalframework, regulations and laws at two levels: National and regional

Inorder havea consistent smooth to and policyimplementation for the management the lake, harmonization policies, of of and within regulations laws is vital. This work is underway the auspicesof EAC for fisheries, environment natural and resources management.
Legal and economic empowerment of institutions

Giventhatconflicts occurbetweenpeople from the partner states over sharedresources(e.g. between fishermen),the currentpracticeis such that countryrules and regulations Inut..nnaPhto 0. andinstitutions usedto solve thesetransboundary of are types problems. In order to avoid complaints from parties in conflict,an impartial institution recommended takecare is to of suchoccurrences. will fosterharmonious This coexistence amonginhabitants the 3 statessharingthe sameresources of through reduction transboundary of conflicts.
Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1-2, Feb. 2004 ? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004
http://www.ambio.kva.se

21

regulationsand legislation governingthe industrythat is References and Notes as partlydue to corruption, well as weakregionalintegration 1. World Bank 1996. Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda: Lake Victoria Environmental ARF. mechanisms. There 2. ManagementProject. GEF DocumentationReportNo. 15541 -Anthropogenic threats, and of legal, institutional, implementing Cohen, A.S., Kaufnan, L. and Ogutu-Ohwayo, R. 1996. impacts and conservation strategies in the African Great, Lakes: A review. In: The of in is a notablelack of involvement stakeholders decisionLimnology,Climatologyand Paleoclimatologyof the EastAfricanLakes.Johnson,T.C. makingprocesses, and a low level of civic educationand and Odada,E. (eds). Gordonand Breach,Toronto,pp. 575-624. 3. World Bank 1999. Country Profiles (Burundi, D.R. Congo, Tanzania, Zambia). awarenessat all levels on the consequencesof unregulated (http://www.worldbank.org.html.extdr/offrep/afr) Shepherd,K., Hansen, Swallow,B., Awiti, A., Hai, fishing and use of destructive fishing methods.The lack of 4. M., Nyantika,Walsh,M., Mugo, F., Ong, C.,Mbote, F.T.S.,Mungai,D. 2000. Improved and D., Ombao,D., Grunder, M., harmonization legislationin closely related of cross-sectoral Land Managementin the Lake VictoriaBasin: LinkingLand and Lake, Research and Extension, Catchmentand Lake Basin. Final Technical Report, StartupPhase, July industries lead, for example,to unjustifieddisjunctions can 1999 to June2000, WorkingPaperSeries, WorkingPaper2000-2. International Centre for Research in Agroforestry and Kenya Ministry of Agriculture and Rural in the requirements the minimumoperating for standards. Development, Soil and Water Conservation Branch, National Soil and Water to The factorscontributing the pollutionof the lake and ConservationProgramme, Nairobi, Kenya. 5. Hecky, R.E. and Bugenyi, F.WB. 1992. Hydrology and chemistry of the African influent rivers include: poor urban planning against the great lakes and water-quality issues: Problems and solutions. Mitt. Int. Ver.Theor. Angew. Limnol.23, 45-54. of and backdrop population industrial growth,the use of old, 6. Verschuren, Johnson,T.C., Kling, H.J., Edgington,D.N. Leavitt,P.R.,Brown, E.T., D., dilapidated inappropriate and technologies, poormaintenance Talbot, M.R. and Hecky, R.E. 2002. History and timing of human impact on Lake Victoria,East Africa. Proc. Roy. Soc. of treatmentplants, lack of waste treatmentand disposal 7. Talling,J.E 1965.Thephotosynthetic LondonB. 269, 289-294. Hydrobiol.50, 1-32. in EastAfricanLakes.Int.Rev. mechanisms,poor sanitationinfrastructure, poor agricul- 8. Talling,J.F.1966. The annualcycle of stratificationand phytoplanktongrowthin Lake Victoria.Int. Rev.ges. Hydrobiol.Hydrogr.51, 545-621. use tural/land-use practices,and inappropriate and disposal 9. Hecky, R.E. 1993. The eutrophicationof Lake Victoria. Proc. Int. Ass. Theor Appl. Limnol.25, 39 -48. of chemicals such as pesticides, fertilizers,and industrial 10. Hecky, R.E., Bugenyi, EWB., Ochumba,P.O.B., Talling, J.F.,Mugidde, R., Gophen, M. and Kaufman, L. 1994. Deoxygenation of the hypolimnion of Lake Victoria. there are poor standardsfor industrial wastes. Currently, Limnol. Oceanogr 39, 1476-1481. operations,and there are no incentives to encouragethe 11. Mugidde, R. 1993. The increase in phytoplanktonproductivityand biomass in Lake 25, 846-849. to industries engage clean technologies.In additionto this, 12. Victoria(Uganda).Int.Ass. Theor.Appl. Limnol.Proc. African Great Lakes. In: The Lehman, J.T. 1996. Pelagic food webs of the East Limnology,Climatologyand Paleoclimatologyof the EastAfricanLakes.Johnson,T.C. the governmentshave failed to provide services such as and Odada,E. (eds). Gordonand Breach,Toronto,pp. 281-301. and sewagetreatment wastedisposalin bothurbanandrural 13. Johnson, T.C., Scholz, C.A., Talbot. M. R., Kelts, K., Ricketts, R.D., Ngobi, G., Beuning, K. R.M., Ssemanda,I. and McGill, J.W 1996. Late Pleistocene desiccation areas. There is a lack of monitoringand enforcementof of Lake Victoriaand rapidevolution of cichlid fishes. Science 273, 109 - 1093. existing regulationsand legislation, and, in most sectors, 14. Duda, A. 2002. Restoringand protectingthe African GreatLake Basin ecosystems lessons from the NorthAmericanGreatLakes and the GEE In: TheEastAfrican Great to lack of resourcesandwill on the partof the governments Lakes: Limnology, Palaeolimnology and Biodiversity. Odada E.O. and Olago D.O. (eds). Advancesin GlobalChangeResearch,KluwerAcademicPublishers, 537-556. pp. mitigatethe environmental problems. 15. Odada,E.O., Olago, D.O., Bugenyi, F., Kulindwa,K., Karimumuryango, West, K., J., Ntiba,M., Wandiga,S., Aloo-Obudho,P.andAchola, P.2003. Environmental assessment On the policy option part, we observe that in several Sci. 65, cases, morethanone policy oughtto be takenup at once in 16. of EastAfrican Rift Valley lakes. Aquat.A pilot 254-271. survey for monitoring the Ligtvoet, W and Mkumbo, O.C. 1991. sampling artisanalNile perchLates niloticus fishery in the southernLakeVictoria(EastAfrica). orderto obtainthe desiredimpact.This is true with quotas In: Catch Effort Sampling Strategies: Their Application in Fresh WaterFisheries forfishingandprocessing. Also,thesuccessful implementation Management.A.G. Cowx (ed.). Fishing News Books, pp. 349-360. of thesepolicyoptionswill notbe achieved without involving, 17. Mkumbo, O.C. and Cowx, I.G. 1999. Catch trends from Lake Victoria Tanzanian waters.In:Reporton FourthFIDAWOG held Workshop at Kisumu, 16-20 August 1999. I.G. Cowx and D. Tweddle (eds). LVFRP/TECH/99/07, The Lake Victoria Fisheries in a participatory manner,the communitiesliving on the ResearchProjectTechnicalDocumentNo. 7, pp. 99-107. lakeshoreswho are involvedin fishing as a sourceof their 18. Namisi, P.W2000. SocioeconomicImplicationsof the Fish ExportTradeon the Fishers and Fisheries of Lake Victoriain Uganda. MSc Thesis, NationalUniversityof Ireland, subsistence livelihood and income generation. Capacity Cork,Ireland.Publishedas: Namisi, P.W2001. Socioeconomic implicationsof the fish exporttradeon the fishers and fisheries of LakeVictoriain Uganda.LVFRPTechnical building in terms of civic education and leadershipand DocumentNo. 14. LVFRP/TECH/01/14. Jinja,Socioeconomic DataWorkingGroupof management skills will enhance this empowerment. the LakeVictoriaFisheriesResearchProject. Knowledgegaps are identifiedas being lack of information 19. Asila, A.A. 2001. Workingdocumentfor LakeVictoriafishereismanagementdecisions. Document prepared for Lake Victoria Research Project (LVFRP), March 2001, on quantitativeestimates of benefits and costs (in both 20. Jinja, 30 pp. The status of the artisanalfishery of Lake Victoria,Kenya. In: Lake Othina,A. 1999. physicalandmonetary terms)of the LakeVictoriawaterand VictoriaFisheries Research Project Phase II: Part 1 - Report on ThirdFIDAWOG held at the TriangleHotel, Jinja,29 Marchto 1 April 1999. D. Tweddleand Workshop fisheriesresources. EAChas identifiednatural The resource I.G. Cowx (eds). LVFRP/TECH/99/06, TechnicalDocumentNo. 6, pp. 73-78. 21. Bwathondi, P.O.J.,Ogutu-Ohwayo,R. and Ogari, J. 2001. Lake VictoriaFisheries valuation and accounting as very importantaspects in ManagementPlan. LVFRP/TECH/01/16, TechnicalDocument No. 16, 64 pp. Edited planning and development. It is importantto know the by I.G. Cowx and K. Crean. SEDAWOG1999. MarketingStudy.LVFRP/TECH/99/02, The values of these natural 22. ResearchProjectTechnicalDocumentNo. 2, Jinja,Uganda. LakeVictoriaFisheries economic, social and environmental 23. Abila, R.O. 2002. TheDevelopmentof the Lake VictoriaFishery:A Boon or Banefor resourcesin orderto allocatethem efficientlyand equitably Food Security?Workingdocumentfor LakeVictoria fisheries managementdecisions. for the presentandfuturegenerations. Lake VictoriaFisheriesResearchProject,March2001, Jinja,Uganda, 30 pp. Kulindwa, the Immediate further studies/actionsare requiredon the 24. Economy. K.A. 2001. The Contributionof Lake VictoriaFisheries toLakeTanzanian Report Submtted to: The Vice President's Office, Victoria Environmental ManagementProject(LVEMP),Dar es Salaam. followingwideraspects:water-quality assessment; sociocul- 25. Odongkara,O.K. and Okaronon,J.O. 1999. Impact of economic reforms on the perturalissues (holisticrather thanfocusingwithinthe fisheries formanceof fish processingfirms and the fisheries resource.In: CapacityBuildingfor IntegratingEnvironmentalConsiderationsin Development Planning and Decisionalso sector,encompassing health,agriculture, education, etc. Making with Particular Reference to the Fishing Industry in Uganda. Bahiigwa G. (ed.). Economic Policy Research Centre, Makerere University Campus, Kampala, within the entire lake basin); resourceinventory, mapping Uganda, pp. 8-26. anduse (including of criticalresources); mapping assessment 26. Ntiba, M.J., Kudoja,WM. and Mukasa, C.T. 2001. Managementissues in the Lake and harmonizationof legal and institutional status of 27. Victoriawatershed.Lakes Reservoirs:Res. Mgmt6, 211-216. the Fisheries of Lake Yongo, E.O. 2000. Poor Fisheries, Poor Fisherfolk:Sustaining Victoria Future Use. MSc. Thesis, Universityof Hull, Hull, UK. 114 pp. for National Acts, regional and internationalTreaties and 28. LVFO 2000. The Results of the First Regional Fisheries Frame Survey on Lake Conventions; biology andecology of the Nile perchand the Victoria.Lake VictoriaFisheriesOrganization Publication.Jinja,Uganda. 29. SEDAWOG 2000. Fisheriesco-managementoptions at Kiumbabeach: a participatory otherfishes. pilot study. LVFRP/TECH/00/08,The Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project
TechnicalDocumentNo. 6, Jinja,Uganda. 30. Mkumbo, O.C. 1999. Recent trends in the distributionpatternsand catch rates from trawl surveys in Lake Victoria,Tanzania.In: Lake VictoriaFisheries ResearchProject Phase II. Part 1 - Report on ThirdFIDAWOG Workshop held at the Triangle Hotel, Jinja,29 Marchto 1 April 1999. TweddleD. and Cowx I.G. (eds). LVFRP/TECH/99/06, TechnicalDocumentNo. 6, pp. 18-29. 31. Wandiga,S. and Onyari,J. 1987. The concentrationof heavy metals: Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb in sedimentsand fish fromthe WinamGulf of LakeVictoriaand fish bought in Mombasatown markets.KenyaI Sci. 8, 5-18. 32. Karanja,D.M5S.2002. Health and diseases: a case study of Lake Victoria basin. In: The LakeVictoria Training Project,AnnualReport2002. Pan-African STARTSecretariat, Nairobi.

22

? Royal SwedishAcademy of Sciences 2004 http://www.ambio.kva.se

Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1-2, Feb. 2004

33. Scheren, P.A.G.M., Zanting, H.A. and Lemmens, A.M.C. 2000. Estimation of water pollution sources in Lake Victoria, East Africa: Application and elaboration of the rapidassessment methodology.J Environ.Mgmt 58, 235-248. assessmentof the social, economic and environmental 34. Mailu, A.M. 2001. Preliminary impacts of water hyacinth in the Lake Victoria basin and the status of control. In: Biological and Integrated Control of WaterHyacinth, Eichornia crassipes. Julien, M.H. and Hill, M.P.(eds). ACIARProc. 102, 130-139. 35. Conway, D. 2002. Extreme rainfall events and lake level changes in East Africa: recent events and historical precedents. In: The East African Great Lakes: Limnology, Palaeolimnology and Biodiversity. Odada, E.O. and Olago, D.O. (eds). Advances in Global Change Research,KluwerAcademic Publishers,pp. 63-92. 36. Swallow, B., Walsh, M., Nyantika, D., Muriithi, S., Noordin, Q., Ong, C., Shepherd, K., Place, E, Awiti, A., Hai, M., Ochieng, O., Cohen, M., Mugo, F., Oyasi, S., Omuto, C., Cohen, L. and Okono. A. 2002. ImprovedLand Management in the Lake Victoria Basin. Annual Technical Report July 2001 to June 2002. World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), Natural Resource Problems, Priorities and Policies Programme, Working Paper Series, Working Paper 2002-2. World Agroforestry Centre and National Agricultural and Livestock Extension Programme of the Kenya Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Nairobi, Kenya. 37. Kairu, J.K. 2001. Wetland-useand impact on Lake Victoria, Kenya region. Lakes Reservoirs:Res. Mgmt 6, 117-125. 38. Gichuki, N.N., 2003. Review of wetland research activities in Lake Victoria basin, Kenya: Analysis and Synthesis Report. SIDA/Inter-UniversityCouncil for East Africa. Kampala,Uganda. 39 pp. 39. Grabowsky and Poort B.V and African Development and Economic Consultants Ltd., 1987. Yala Swamp Reclamation and Development Project. Inception Report. Ministry of Energy and Regional Development, Government of Kenya and Ministry of ForeignAffairs, Governmentof the Netherlands,Nairobi (unpubl.). 40. Lowe-McConnell,R. 1994. The changing ecosystem of Lake Victoria, East Africa. FreshwaterForum,4, 76-89. 41. Wilson, E., Sutherland, J. and Ekola, A. 1999. Scientists discover previously unknown source of pollution that is killing the world's second largest freshwaterlake. (http://www.futureharvest.org/news/l 999.shtml) 1051 42. Bootsma, H.A., and Hecky, R.E. 1993. Conservation of the African Great Lakes: a limnological perspective.Conserv.Biol. 7, 644-656. 43. Kiremire, B.T., 1997. The Status of Chemicals in Uganda and a Survey of Disposal Methods. February1997, Lake View Hotel, Mbarara, Uganda. 44. Mitema, E.S. and Gitau, EK. 1990. Organochlorineresidues in fish from Lake Victoria,Kenya.Afr J Ecol. 28, 234-239. 45. East African Community 2001. Treatyfor the Establishmentof the East African EAC, Arusha,Tanzania. Communitv. 46. In a wider political context the East African Community is playing an important role by providing a basis for harmonisation of legislation, and uniformity of standards.Through such efforts databases are being developed and dissemination of information is continuing. Integrated programmes to address regional issues, such as Human Resource Development, GIS water resource mapping, and regional Fisheries Management Plan, have been initiated. Private sector processors of fish are employing internationallyaccepted standardson quality and sanitation: QC, SSOP under HACCP are very much uniform allowing traceability of fish handling and origin. Water-qualitystandards have already been streamlined and harmonized. In the commercial private processing sector, the 3 national Fish Processing Associations are considering non-governmental led interventions for sustainable management of the fishery. Some issues, on the other hand, remain unresolved.Because of problemsin mobilisationand empowermentit means that community responses to issues remain low and, more or less, unfocussed. Part of the reason for this is the lack of ownership of natural resources, linguistic and education barriers to mass media, difficulties in cross border trade and an imbalance in the ownership of the means of production. Additionally, where resolutions and decisions have been made, the speed of implementationis very slow. 47. GIWA Methodology Stage 1: Scaling and Scoping. Guidance to the Methodology and its Use. I0th July 2001. I http://www.giwa.net/methodology/RevScalScop-Methl1OJuly200 .PDF 48. Odada, E.O., Olago, D.O., Kulindwa, K., Ntiba, M., Bugenyi, F., Karimumuryango, West, K., Aloo-Obudho, P., Wandiga, S., Yongo, E., Asila, A., J., Abila, R., Karanja,D., Ochola, P., Gichuki, N., Okidi, C., Opondo, M., Wamukoya, G. and Onganga, 0. 2003. GIWA Scaling and Scoping, Causal Chain Analysis and Policy Options Analysis Report, Sub-region 47, East African Rift Valley Lakes. GIWAProjectOffice, Kalmar,Sweden. 49. Knaap, van der M., Ntiba, M.J. and Cowx, I.G. 2002. Key elements of fisheries managementon Lake Victoria.Aquat.Ecosyst. Health Mgmt 5, 245-254 50. Okaronon, J.O. 1999. The fish stocks of Lake Victoria (Uganda). In: Tweddle, D. and Cowx, I.G. (eds). Lake Victoria Fisheries Research Project Phase II: Part 1 Report on Third FIDAWOGWorkshopheld at the Triangle Hotel, Jinja, 29 March to 1 April 1999. LVFRP/TECH/99/06,Technical Document No. 6, pp. 30-37. Okidi, C.O. 1980. Legal policy regime of Lake Victoria and Nile basins. Indian J Int. Law 20, 395-447. 51. We thank the GIWA Project Office in Kalmar, Sweden for facilitating the assessment of the East African Rift Valley Lakes and for providing guidance in the use of the GIWA methodology. We also thank the participants of the GIWA workshop on Causal Chain Analysis and Policy Options Analysis for their lively and inciseful inputs. We would also like to thankall the experts whom we consulted and who providedinvaluable informationfrom their own personalexperiences

Eric 0. Odada holds a PhD degree in geochemistry

from Imperial College, London University. He is a

Director the Pan AfricanSTART of Secretariat (PASS) and a Professor of Geology at the University of Nairobi.His research interests include sedimentary processes in large lakes and oceans and the derivationof palaeoclimaterecordsfromlake sediments. His address: Pan-African START Secretariat(PASS), Departmentof Geology, Universityof Nairobi,P. 0. Box 30197, Nairobi,Kenya. eodada@uonbi.ac.ke Daniel0. Olago is Programme Officerof Pan African STARTSecretariat and senior lecturer in geology, University of Nairobi, specialising in quaternary science and geolimnology. His research interests include palaeoenvironmentand palaeoclimate and their implications and relevance to the present and future; human impact on the environment;and the physical and chemical dynamics of lacustrine systems. Hisaddress: Pan-African START Secretariat (PASS), Department of Geology, University of Nairobi,P. 0. Box 30197, Nairobi,Kenya. dolago@uonbi.ac.ke KassimAthumani Ally Kulindwa a senior research is fellow and lecturer in economics at the Economic Research Bureau, Universityof Dares Salaam. His teaching and research interests include natural resources and environmentaleconomics as related to sustainable development issues. He is currently a board member of the Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy in Africa (CEEPA)at the University of Pretoria. His address: Economic Research Bureau, University of Dar es Salaam Campus, R 0. Box 35096, Dares Salaam,Tanzania. kulindwa@ud.co.tz Micheni Ntiba studied at the University of Nairobi where he graduatedwitha BSc in botanyand zoology in 1984, and a MSc in hydrobiology in 1987. He proceeded to the Universityof East Anglia, United Kingdom,to study for a PhD in fisheries science and graduated in 1990. He then taught marine and fisheries science in the Department of Zoology, Universityof Nairobiwhere he currentlyan associate professor of zoology. His research interests are in the changing states of aquatic ecosystems and the sustainability of the living naturalresources in them. His address: Department of Zoology, University of Nairobi, R 0. Box 30197, Nairobi, Kenya. mntiba@ uonbi.ac.ke Shem 0. Wandiga is professor of chemistry at the Departmentof Chemistry,Universityof Nairobi.His research interests lie in studying sources and sinks of biogenic gases; persistent organochlorinepesticides in the tropics; trace metals concentration in various environmental media; and complexes of Group VB metals with sulfur and oxygen binding ligands. He is the author of several papers in these areas. He has a PhDfromthe Case Western Reserve University, USA. His address: Department of Chemistry, University of Nairobi,P. 0. Box 30197, Nairobi,Kenya. sowandiga@uonbi.ac.ke

Ambio Vol. 33 No. 1-2, Feb. 2004

? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2004 http://www.ambio.kva.se

23