B. OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS IN QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE STUDIES I.

MAJOR PHASES OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process includes both scientific and technical steps (Swansburg & Swansburg, 1999). It is written in a problem-solving format. Unlike a scientific problem-solving method, which has only six steps (1. define the problem; 2. collect data; 3. formulate the hypothesis; 4. select a method to test the hypothesis; 5. test hypothesis; and 6. formulate a conclusion and evaluate the hypothesis), the true research process can have as much as 18 steps (Nieswiadomy, 2008, Polit & Beck, 2004). Inductive reasoning proceeds from the specific observations to the general, broader generalizations and theories. Theory development represents this type of reasoning in which different concepts are joined to make a whole.

The 18 Major Steps of Quantitative Research

STEP NO. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

NIESWIADOMY (2008) Identify the problem.

POLIT & BECK (2004) Phase I: The Conceptual Phase Formulating and delimiting the problem Reviewing the related literature Undertaking fieldwork Defining the framework and developing conceptual definitions Formulating the hypothesis Phase II: The Design and Planning Phase Selecting a research design Developing protocols

Determine the purpose of the study. Review the literature. Develop a theoretical/conceptual framework. Identify the study assumptions. Acknowledge the limitations of the study. Formulate the hypothesis or research questions.

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Define the study variables/terms. Select the research design. Identify the population. Select the sample. Conduct a pilot study. Collect data. Organize the data for analysis. Analyze the data. Interpret the findings. Communicate the findings. Utilize the findings.

Identifying the population to be studied Designing the sampling plan Specifying the method to measure the research variables Developing methods for safeguarding human/animal rights Finalizing and reviewing the research plan Phase III: The Empirical Phase Collecting data Preparing the data for analysis Phase IV: The Analytic Phase Analyzing the data Interpreting the results Phase V: The Dissemination Phase Communicating the findings Utilizing the findings in practice

For beginners, the huge number of steps can be overwhelming, but the detailing of the research process into 18 steps has a major advantage, that of specificity, which favor easy understanding of every step. II. Reviewing of the Related Literature

A written summary of the existing knowledge base on a research problem obtained from an in-depth search of the non-research references (conceptual literature) and research references (empirical studies); it considers both primary and secondary sources. The literature review is one of the most important steps in a research undertaking. It is organized around the study questions and should represent what is already known and how the new study proposes to add to the existing knowledge. A researcher has to acquaint himself first with the existing knowledge base on his topic before he embarks on his own study.

PURPOSE OF THE A LITERATURE A good literature review provides the researcher with a rich background on the subject and evidence-based information for a better understanding of current knowledge on his chosen problem, which paves the way to appreciating the significance of his study. Literature reviews serve important purposes, not only for the professional researchers themselves, but also for consumers and producers of research such as individuals, groups and institutions who need to review and synthesized available information. The proper utilization of relevant findings and information, leads to the acquisition of these rewards: new knowledge, improved performance, enhanced quality of services and higher satisfaction rating from the consumers of their services. The following are some of the important purposes of doing a literature review: Orientation to what is already known and what needs to be known about a phenomenon of interest Identification of any knowledge gaps or inconsistencies in the existing body of data Selection of a research problem or determination of the researchability of the chosen problem Refinement of the research questions, hypotheses and research design, having learned from the best practices of shortcomings of past studies Enrichment of conceptual definitions and refinement of operational definitions Development and/or refinement of a conceptual/theoretical framework for the problem under study Identification/development of a better-suited research instrument and/or procedure for data collection Identification/justification of a need to replicate a prior study but using a different population or setting Identification of more effective statistical methods for data treatment and analysis Acquiring knowledge in interpreting findings, writing implications and recommendations Assistance in writing a research report and research abstract Development of the skill of critiquing a research After the completion of the research, new findings can confirm or challenge the existing literature

Types and Sources of Literature There are two major types of references for literature review: Empirical references--which may be primary or secondary sources and Non-empirical references.

A. Empirical References Also referred to as research references. Include documents, articles and reports on studies based on actual experience or observation. The review of empirical references should include local and foreign studies. 1. PRIMARY SOURCE One which the researcher himself has written. Primary source research reports are published in professional research journals, scholarly books, and research grants indexes or on the World Wide Web (internet). According to Cooper (1989), the primary reports used in the literature may have been oral in form like in research forums, seminars, conferences and even competitions but in the majority of cases are written. Established theories and conceptual schemes are also primary sources. Unpublished graduate school theses and dissertations may also consider but only up to a certain extent. 2. SECONDARY SOURCE Descriptions of studies/researchers prepared and presented in written or oral form by someone other than the original research. Literature review summaries, reaction papers, thesis/dissertations review, research critiques and research abstracts are all secondary source. It may also be accessed in the research journals of their respective disciplines such as education research, nursing research journals and internet being the popular source of secondary research documents in the form of reviews, summaries and critiques. Library search is vital, as it yields both primary and secondary sources for empirical literature review. B. Non-empirical or Non-research references Also termed Conceptual Literature. These include case reports, anecdotal recordings, commentaries and opinion articles and clinical descriptions which may be found in journals, books and magazines. Non-empirical references have limited use in written research reviews.

Research Literature

Empirical/Research References

Non-Empirical References/ Conceptual Literature

Primary Sources: Written by Researchers

Secondary Sources: Written by Others

Non-research Articles: In Journals, Books, Magazines

Research Reports in Professional Research Journals Scholarly books Research Grant Indexes Internet Sites

Literature Review Summaries Case Reports

Research/Reaction Papers & Reviews

Anecdotal Recordings

Research Abstracts (prepared by the researcher)

Thesis/ Dissertation Reviews Commentaries & Opinion Articles

Theories from Theoretical System & Conceptual Schemes

Research Critiques

Research Papers for Oral Presentation

Research Abstracts (If Prepared by a Reviewer)

III.

Defining the Framework, Developing Conceptual and Theoretical

Development of a Theoretical/Conceptual Framework Before a researcher can develop a sound theoretical or conceptual framework, he must first understand some basic terms used in research, such as fact, concept, proposition, theory and framework. Only then can he appreciate the meaning of conceptual framework, theoretical framework and conceptual paradigm. Fact Fact is the most basic, irreducible term in research to refer to a phenomenon that is known to be true. Facts are building blocks of concept. To interpret the meanings of concept, one must analyze the facts on which they are build. Concept Concept refers to the things (both living and inanimate) and their properties, a mental idea, or a verbal description of phenomenon that exist in reality. The idea may be concrete (e.g., patient, man and drug) or abstract (e.g., health, pain, grief and coping). Research focuses on abstract rather than tangible phenomena. Concepts are building blocks of a theory. At least two concepts that are related may constitute a theory (Polit & Beck, 2004) In quantitative studies, concepts represent phenomena that vary in some manner (Dubin, 19978; Burr, 1973) and rate referred to as variables (something that varies in value) (Polit & Beck, 2004). In qualitative studies, concepts are referred to as phenomena. Ideas about people, situations and events that are particularly interest to the discipline of nursing are referred to as nursing concepts; those that are particular interest to the practice of medicine are referred to as medical concepts, and those that are particular interest to the discipline of midwifery are termed midwifery concepts. Ideas about people, situations and events may vary depending on the particular discipline. For example, for a physician, important concrete concepts would include stethoscope and drugs; and important abstract concepts would include treatment and healing. For example, valued concepts would be nursing care plan and patient (concrete concepts), and care and empathy (abstract concepts). Conceptualization is the process of using a fact or facts to form basic ideas, plans, designs, or strategies. The grouping of related ideas, concepts, or statements forms a conceptual framework, a term used interchangeably with conceptual model.

A conceptual framework utilizes specific and well-defined concepts and constructs that describe ideas about individuals, groups, situations and events of a particular interest to a discipline (Craven & Hirnle, 2003). It is also viewed as a set of concepts and the propositions that integrate them into a meaningful configuration. Construct A construct is a highly abstract and complex phenomena. While a concept can be concrete or abstract, a construct is always abstract, and is referred to as a more complex abstraction than a concept. The two terms are often used interchangeably. In psychological science, researcher refers to concepts as constructs, and one way that which a scientist gives meaning to a construct is by defining it operationally. An operational definition explains a concept solely in terms of the observable procedures used to produce and measure it (Shaughnessy, 2009). Like a concept, a construct refers to a mental representation inferred from situations of behaviors, but unlike a concept, a construct is an abstraction that is deliberately and systematically invented or constructed by researchers for a specific purpose (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000). Examples of construct s: high-level wellness in Dunns Model, self-care in Orems model, and health belief in Backers and Rosenstocks model. Proposition The term proposition refers to a statement or an assertion of the relationship between concepts derived from theories or generalizations based on empirical data. A proposition is composed of conceptual models. Theory Nature of Theory. A theory is a statement or set of statements that attempts to explain or define the relationships between certain group of concepts and propositions. It is a construct or the way to put together th parts of something, that accounts for or organizes some phenomenon (Barnum, 1998). It provides a description and an explanation of phenomena, which may be revised, further developed, or discarded if not supported by empirical findings (Nieswiadomy, 1993).

THEORY Concept Fact Fact Concept Fact Fact Fact

Fact

Concept
Fact Fact Fact

Fact

FIGURE 5. conceptual Paradigm Depicting Fact, Concept and Theory and Their Relationship The term theory comes from the Greek word Theoria, which means beholding spectacles or speculation. This makes the nature of theories as one being speculative, and never considered as true or proven. This implies that a theory may always be challenged. Polit and Hungler (1987) consider a theory as a statement that is broader and more complex than fact and which serves as the basis of policies and practices in a particular discipline. It also gives specific direction to the researchers solution oof his research problem. To scientist, the traditional, classical definition of theory is an abstact generalization that offers a systematic explanation about how phenomena are interrelated. No specific theory is purely objective. An empirically testable theory is composed of concepts that are narrowly bound, specific and explicitly interrelated. Examples of a theory include the following: Hans Selyes General Adaptation Theory; Abraham Maslows Hierarchy of Needs; and Florence Nightingales Environmental Theory. Characteristics of a Theory: A theory has important characteristics, such as:

A theory is composed of a set of concepts. A theory consists of propositions which indicate the relationships between concepts. A theory is not merely discovered but is created or invented. A theory is not proven true; it is speculative and tentative subject to challenge and revision.

Types of theories. A grand theory articulates a broad range of the significant relationships among the concepts of a discipline. A midlevel theory focuses on the exploration of concepts such as pain, learning, and self-esteem. Nursing research is more often informed by midlevel theories than by grand theories. A critical theory elucidates how social structures affects a wide variety of human experiences. This is commonly used in the academe. A scientific theory is a logically organized set of propositions (claims, statements, assertions) that serves to define events (concepts), describe relationships among these events, and explain the occurrence of these events (Shaughnessy et al., 2009). Purpose of theories. With the abundance of existing knowledge accumulated from past investigations and studies, there is a need for theories to summarize and logically organize knowledge and identify relationships. An organized body of knowledge stimulates concerted effort to discover new knowledge, further adding to the existing knowledge base. Theories interpret observed phenomena and explain the what and the why factors to their occurrence, significantlyfavoring control, prediction and forecast of outcomes when circumstances and environments are changed. Importance of theories. To the healthcare professions, particularly the caring profession nursing - theories are very important to the disciplines advancement and more so to the well- being of the practitioners clients. Theories not only serve as a basis for professional practice, but they also validate, enhance, and improve the practice. Theories promote better explanation and understanding of phenomena, and enriches bodies of knowledge in their respective. Backed by a sound knowledge base, and inspired by higher level of autonomy and professional visibility and identity, healthcare professionals provide better quality performance, resulting in improved outcomes of care. Theoretical framework. The overall conceptual underpinning of a study is called a framework. In a study based on a theory, the framework is referred to as a theoretical framework ( Polit & Beck, 2004). Theoretical frameworks are board, general explanations of the relationships between concepts of interest in a research study ( Nieswiadomy , 2008).

A theoretical framework (also termed logical structure) is the set of terms and relationships that clarifies the problem of the research and within which the problem is formulated and solved. It presents a perspective through which the researcher views the problem. In a study based on a specified conceptual model, the framework is referred to as conceptual framework. The terms conceptual framework and theoretical framework are frequently used interchangeably (Polit & Beck, 2004). Conceptual Paradigm In its broadest sense, the term paradigm refers to a shared understanding and assumptions about reality and the world. In is simplest meaning, it is a visual pattern. A paradigm is somewhat akin to a model, since both are types of representation. Some authors may call a schematic drawing a model, while others may call a conceptual diagram a paradigm. In a research, a paradigm is a diagram that presents the underlying theory, with all its structures and parts, principles, and concepts, of a particular study. It is also referred to as the visual grammatical picture of the study variables and their relationships and interrelations, as formed in the mind of the researcher before an actual empirical investigation is done to prove their relationship. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (Figure 6), as depicted in the diagram of a pyramid is an example of a conceptual paradigm. Abraham Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (1970) states that all human beings are born with instinctive needs which are grouped into five categories- physiologic needs, safety needs, love needs, esteem needs and self- actualization needs. These needs are arranged in order of importance, from the very basic physiologic needs essential to survival, to selfactualization needs necessary to develop a persons potential top the fullest. The hierarchy is presented in the form of a pyramid (Figure 6), as shown below

FIGURE 6. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (Adapted from: Maslow,A.H. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row.)

At the base are placed the basic lower-level physiologic needs, while at the apex are the higher-level self-actualization needs. This pyramidal diagram clearly depicts that the lower-level needs have to be met to some satisfactory degree first before the person can move on to higher-level needs. The goal, or ideal, is to reach the apex of existence, which is self-actualization. IV. V. Definition of Terms Formulating Hypothesis

References Salustiano, R.P. RN, RM, MAN, PhD (2009). Introduction to Research in the Health Sciences, First Edition, C&E Publishing, Inc. pp. 49-45 Salustiano, R.P. (2009). Introduction to Research in the Health Sciences, First Edition, C&E Publishing, Inc. pp. 52-57. Dr. RPS (2009). Introduction to Research in Health Sciences; p.27, 28