orced PopuIuLIon TrunsIers

In EurIy OLLomun mperIuI SLruLegy:

u CompuruLIve ApproucI


A senIor LIesIs submILLed Lo LIe
DepurLmenL oI Neur EusLern SLudIes oI PrInceLon UnIversILy
In purLIuI IuIIIIImenL oI LIe requIremenLs
Ior LIe degree oI BucIeIor oI ArLs



PuuI oveII Hooper

Muy , zoo


II






To Ibby, PIII, ScoLL, JennIIer, und Jounnu































Acknowledgements

wouId IIke Lo LIunk my prImury udvIsor on LIIs projecL, MIcIueI Cook, us weII us HeuLI
owry, ErIku GIIson, und RoberL Inn. RuLI MIIIer, Kuren Buuer, PIII Hooper und
Jounnu Hooper guve vuIuubIe commenLs und encourugemenL on LIe druIL. InuIIy,
muny LIunks Lo LIose wIo preceded uII LIIs, CIrIs Huys, Durren MursIuII, und WIIIIum
GrIswoId.
III
Tuble oI Contents

IsL oI Mups Iv
TubIe: PopuIuLIon TrunsIers In LIe OLLomun EmpIre, c.16 - 16 v

nLroducLIon 1
sources
sLudIes

PurL . A SIorL HIsLory oI PopuIuLIon TrunsIers In LIe EurIy OLLomun EmpIre 1o
eurIy conquesLs und expunsIon - OrIun Lo MeImeL
LIe 1
LI
cenLury - Murud und MeImeL
LIe 16
LI
cenLury - BuyezIL Lo Murud
LIe drop-oII oI LIe poIIcy

PurL . ObjecLIves zq
A. UsIng Munpower WIseIy
proIILIng Irom dIsposubIe popuIuLIons
consLrucLIon oI u new order
IoyuILy LIrougI dIspIucemenL
B. SecurILy ObjecLIves qo
PUSHES: poIILIcuI und mIIILury reusons Lo move peopIe ouL
conLroI oI new LerrILorIes, purL 1: conquered popuIuLIons
conLroI oI new LerrILorIes, purL z: conquered eIILes
LIe Issue oI InLernuI eIILes
LIe Issue oI LIe LrIbes und LIeIr eIILes
PUS: poIILIcuI und mIIILury reusons Lo move peopIe In
IoIdIng new LerrILorIes
pIucemenL Ior InLernuI securILy
C. EconomIc ObjecLIves 61
PUSHES: economIc reusons Ior movIng peopIe ouL
uIIevIuLIon oI popuIuLIon pressure
economIc deprIvuLIon
PUS: economIc reusons Ior movIng peopIe In
revIvuI oI conquered Iunds
reconsLrucLIon und ruruI economIc deveIopmenL
reconsLrucLIon und urbun economIc deveIopmenL
IooLIng Iubor

PurL . MeLIods und PILIuIIs ;

PurL V. OuLcomes und ConcIusIon 8q

BIbIIogrupIy 88
GeneruI Mups q
Iv


Mups

1. TrunsIer oI MusIIms Lo Europe, 16-1qz1 11
z. TrunsIer oI CIrIsLIuns Lo Europe, 16-1qo1 1
. PopuIuLIon sources Ior LIe reconsLrucLIon oI sLunbuI, 1
LI
cenLury 1;
q. TrunsIers Lo SeIunIk und Trubzon, 1
LI
cenLury 1q
. TrunsIers ouLsIde SeIunIk, sLunbuI, und Trubzon, 1
LI
cenLury z1
6. Urbun popuIuLIon LrunsIers, eurIy 16
LI
cenLury z
;. TrunsIers ouLsIde SeIunIk, sLunbuI, und Trubzon, 16
LI
cenLury zq
8. TrunsIer oI lizilbc, 16
LI
cenLury z6

q. TIe OLLomun sLuLe und LIe AnuLoIIun elils, 1 q
1o. TIe BuIkun sLuLes, 1 q
11. TIe OLLomun sLuLe beIore LIe buLLIe oI Ankuru, 1qoz q6
1z. TIe OLLomun sLuLe beIore LIe conquesL oI sLunbuI, 1q q6
1. OLLomun Europe, 16;z-1q1 q;


LIe pIuce oI LIe LrunsIers represenLed In |bruckeLs| wILIIn LIe dynusLIc cIronoIogy Is uncIeur
v
1. PopuIuLIon TrunsIers In LIe OLLomun EmpIre, c.16 - 16
Osmun {1qq-16)
Orhun {16-16)
CIrIsLIun knIgILs Irom IorLresses In RumeII Lo KuresI (c.16)
NomudIc Kuru ArupIur Irom KuresI Lo RumeII (c.16)
Morud I {16-1Sq)
Muss seLLIemenL In LIe BuIkuns
CIrIsLIuns Irom LIe BuIkuns Lo AnuLoIIu und EdIrne
NomudIc ArupIur Irom SuruIun (neur MunIsu) Lo Serez (c.18)
Buyezit I {1Sq-1qo)
CrImeun TuLurs under AkLuv Lo IIIbe
EmpLyIng oI LIe sLunbuI vIIIuges
CIrIsLIuns Irom Tirnovu Lo AnuLoIIu (1q)
Greeks Irom Argos Lo AnuLoIIu (1q;)
Trkmen und TuLurs Irom AnuLoIIu Lo RumeII, neur Uskp und TesuIyu (1q;)
Trkmen und TuLurs under PuuyIgIL Bey Irom SuruIun Lo IIIbe (1qooJ1)
SeLLIemenL In ErzIncun (c.1qo1)
Mehmet I {1q1-1q1)
Trkmen Irom KusLumonu-Amusyu-TokuL-CunIk ureu Lo RumeII
TurkIsI knIgILs Irom SuruIun und eIsewIere ussIgned AIbunIu (1q1-o)
TuLurs under MInneL Bey Irom skIIIp Lo Koni HIsuri, neur IIIbe (1q18)
Morud II {1q1-1qg1)
TurkIsI seLLIemenL oI SuIonIcu Irom surroundIng vIIIuges (c.1qo)
MusIIms Irom YenIce Vurdur Lo SuIonIcu (c.1qz)
Urbun MusIIms Irom AnuLoIIu Lo SuIonIcu (1qo-;8)
Mehmet II {1qg1-1qS1)
GeneruI LrunsIer oI MusIIms, CIrIsLIuns, und Jews Lo sLunbuI (begInnIng 1q)
rom SIIIvrI und GuIuLu Lo sLunbuI (1q)
WeuILIy Irom Bursu Lo sLunbuI (c. 1q)
Jews Irom SuIonIcu Lo sLunbuI (1q-;8)
CIrIsLIuns Irom LIe Moreu und SerbIu Lo sLunbuI vIIIuges (1q-8)
CIrIsLIuns Irom ZunLe, CepIuIonIu, und Ayu Muuru Lo sLunbuI vIIIuges (1q;q)
PopuIuLIon oI Amusru Lo sLunbuI (c.1q8)
eurned und skIIIed Irom EdIrne, IIIbe, GeIIboIu, und Bursu Lo sLunbuI (c.1qq)
Greeks Irom LIe ous, mbros, TIusos, und SumoLIruce Lo sLunbuI (1q6o)
ResIdenLs, royuIs, noLubIes, und skIIIed Irom Trubzon Lo sLunbuI und RumeII (1q61)
MusIIms Irom norLI-cenLruI AnuLoIIu Lo Trubzon (begInnIng 1q61)
CIrIsLIun und MusIIm knIgILs Irom AIbunIu Lo Trubzon (1q61-86)
CIrIsLIuns Irom MILyIene und oLIer sILes on esbos Lo sLunbuI (1q6z)
PopuIuLIon oI Argos Lo sLunbuI (1q6)
SeLLIemenL oI u IorL In AIbunIu (c.1q66)
WeuILIy und skIIIed MusIIms und ArmenIuns Irom Kurumun regIon Lo sLunbuI (1q68-;q)
YrkJTrkmen Irom LIe Tuurus-Kurumun regIon Lo RumeII (1q68-;q)
Greeks Irom Euboeu Lo sLunbuI (1q;o)
PrIsoners Irom SIvus Lo sLunbuI (1q;)
Genoese und ArmenIun mercIunLs Irom KuIIu Lo sLunbuI (1q;)
SeLLIemenL oI prIsoners In vIIIuges neur Bursu und BIgu
Men Irom TIre Lo Buyburd
Buyezit II {1qS1-1g1)
CIrIsLIuns Irom Akkermun Lo OId BIgu (c.1q8q)
Kizilbc Irom wesLern AnuLoIIu Lo LIe Moreu (c.1oz)
CIrIsLIuns Irom RumeII Lo LIe YenIeIIr puss
AgrIcuILuruIIsLs Irom AnuLoIIu Lo SIIIsLre
|SeLLIemenL oI BuIgurIun coIonIes neur zmIr| |IuLe 1
LI
cen.|
|CIrIsLIuns Irom SIrem, Hungury Lo vIIIuges neur GeIIboIu| |eurIy 16
LI
cen.|
|MusIIms Irom AnuLoIIu Lo SerbIun und HungurIun cILIes| |eurIy 16
LI
cen.|
|CIrIsLIuns Lo LIe cusLIe oI ou In LIe lczc oI Menemen| |?|
|CIrIsLIun und MusIIm peusunLs Irom Trubzon Lo u timcr In RumeII| |?|
Selim I {1g1-1go)
MercIunLs, urLIsuns, scIoIurs Irom TubrIz Lo sLunbuI (11q)
MercIunLs, urLIsuns, cIerIcs Irom CuIro Lo sLunbuI (11;)
IsIIng communILIes Irom Trubzon Lo sLunbuI (1z-1qo)
SkIIIed Irom EusLern AnuLoIIu Lo Trubzon (1z-1qo)
Sleymun I {1go-1g66)
SeLLIemenL oI RIodes (sLurLIng c.1zz)
Kizilbc Irom AnuLoIIu Lo BudIn, Hungury (16-;)
Selim II {1g66-1g,q)
Greek CyprIoLs Lo AnLuIyu ureu (c.1;1)
SeLLIemenL oI Cyprus (sLurLIng c.1;1)
Morud III {1g,q-1gqg)
KiziIbu Lo Cyprus (1;;-8)
Mehmet III {1gqg-16o)
Ahmed I {16o-161,)
MostuIu I {161,-161S)
Osmun II {161S-16)
Morud IV {16-16qo)
TrIbes Irom AzerbuIjun Lo ErzIncun und PusIn (16-6)

1




nLroducLIon

SLurLIng wILI LIe eurIIesL conquesLs In TIruce In LIe 1os, LIe OLLomun sLuLe
empIoyed u poIIcy oI Iorced popuIuLIon LrunsIers LIuL over LIe nexL LIree cenLurIes
wouId LrunsporL LIousunds oI subjecLs Irom AsIu InLo Europe, Europe InLo AsIu und
Irom LIrougIouL LIe provInces InLo LIe greuL urbun cenLers oI LIe empIre. TIe OLLomuns
were noL uIone In uLIIIzIng sucI meuns; wILIIn LIe sume perIod mussIve LrunsIers were
underLuken by LIe Andeun empIre oI LIe ncu In SouLI AmerIcu und LIe MIng EmpIre In
CIInu, sIuIIIIng men Irom LIe IronLIers Lo LIe InLerIor, Irom ureus oI weuILI Lo ureus oI
poverLy, und concenLruLIng Iumun resources In LIe cenLers oI ImperIuI power. WIuL
were LIe gouIs oI LIese LrunsIers? How were LIey execuLed? How cun we undersLund
LIese moves wILIIn LIe Iurger Irumework oI ImperIuI sLruLegy?
orced popuIuLIon LrunsIers, Iur Irom beIng LIe InnovuLIon oI u sIngIe cIvIIIzuLIon,
Iuve been empIoyed uL muny poInLs LIrougIouL LIe IIsLory oI Iumun sLuLes. WIIIe LIese
moves ure someLIIng wIIcI muy sLrIke Loduy`s reuder muInIy us exercIses oI crueILy
underLuken wILI compIeLe dIsregurd Ior LIe IndIvIduuI, LIey consLILuLed u useIuI und
deIIberuLe LooI oI poIIcy wILIIn LIe conLexL oI buIIdIng und muInLuInIng u sLuLe. TIe
uLLempL oI LIIs essuy Is Lo undersLund LIe dynumIcs oI Iorced popuIuLIon movemenL In
LIe eurIy OLLomun EmpIre wILIIn LIIs Iurger process by exumInIng LIe objecLIves,
meLIods, und uILImuLe ouLcomes oI empIoyIng sucI u LooI.
TIe orIgInuI concepLIon oI LIIs projecL sLems Irom u desIre Lo undersLund LIe
meuns by wIIcI sLuLes Iuve IIsLorIcuIIy operuLed In securIng LIeIr pIuce In LIe worId.

z
denLIIyIng popuIuLIon LrunsIer us one oI LIe LooIs In u sLuLe`s ursenuI, Iuve seL ouL Lo
expIore ILs workIngs In u purLIcuIur cuse, LIe OLLomun, wILI reIerence Lo u number oI
oLIer exumpIes druwn Irom LIe Iurger IIeId oI worId IIsLory. TIe upproucI, us u resuIL, Is
expIIcILIy sLuLe-cenLrIc, u IucL wIIcI pIuces IL umong more LrudILIonuI modes oI
InLerucLIng wILI LIe IIsLorIcuI record. TIe exercIse, Iope, muy brIng some InsIgIL Lo
our undersLundIng oI u pusL In wIIcI sLuLes Iuve pIuyed u promInenL roIe In decIdIng LIe
IndIvIduuI und coIIecLIve IuLes oI LIe members oI our specIes.
TIe Lerm uppIIed Lo LIe pIenomenon oI popuIuLIon LrunsIer In TurkIsI Is surun,
derIvIng Irom LIe verb surmel, Lo drIve or udvunce, us In Lo udvunce u pIece on u gume
bourd or Lo drIve u IIock oI sIeep.
1
SucI u Lerm IILs very nuLuruIIy Lo LIe ucL oI reIocuLIng
u porLIon oI IumunILy Irom one pIuce Lo unoLIer. MucIIuveIII, Ior exumpIe, speuks oI
LrunsIerrIng InIubILunLs Irom one provInce Lo unoLIer, us sIepIerds move LIeIr IIocks
Irom pIuce Lo pIuce.
z
n LIe OLLomun empIre, LIe surun becume un InsLILuLIon oI
ImperIuI poIIcy, wILI LIe word uppIIed us u pIece oI udmInIsLruLIve LermInoIogy Lo
IndIvIduuIs und communILIes LIuL Iud been uprooLed und reseLLIed by LIe sLuLe.

n LIIs
essuy, Iuve used Lo LIe Lerm surun InLercIungeubIy wILI Iorced popuIuLIon LrunsIer.
q

TIe operuLIve deIInILIon oI 'popuIuLIon LrunsIer` empIoyed In LIIs essuy Is un
InsLunce In wIIcI u communILy or u pIece oI u communILy Ius been removed Irom one
IocuIe und reseLLIed In unoLIer uL LIe commund oI LIe cenLruI sLuLe uuLIorILy. An

1
RedIouse (1qzz), p.1o8q. Aikpuuzude uses LIe Lerm In vurIous Iorms, sucI us In LIe cuse oI LIe KuresI
nomuds: KurusI IIIne ger Arup evIerI eImILI. OnIuri srdIer. RumeII`ye geIrdIIer. Aikpuuzude
(1qqz), p.q8. or LIe use oI surun In ILs udmInIsLruLIve sense, see Tupu TuIrIr, no.;o In Burkun (1q-
q), p.zz.
z
MucIIuveIII (1qo). TIe OLLomun Lerm Ior LIe subjecL cIuss, re'cc, meunIng IIock In ArubIc, uIso IILs InLo
LIIs scIeme oI LIe sLuLe-subjecL reIuLIonsIIp.

n u generuI conLexL, surun cun uIso meun exIIe or bunIsImenL. A reIuLed Lerm, surucu, or one wIo
drIves, wus uppIIed Lo LIe oIIIcIuI ussIgned Lo LIe roundIng up oI CIrIsLIun youLIs Lo be puL InLo LIe runks
oI LIe sLuLe sIuve sysLem (LIe detirme).
q
TIe TurkIc subjecLs oI LIe Iurge-scuIe zo
LI
-cenLury SovIeL LrunsIers In IucL empIoy LIe sume Lerm Loduy.


uddILIonuI number oI LIemes beurIng cIose LIes Lo LIe concepL oI popuIuLIon LrunsIer-
voIunLury mIgruLIon und seLLIemenL, sLuLe encouruged movemenLs, Iorced expuIsIons,
mIIILury movemenLs, ensIuvemenL, Iorced sedenLurIzuLIon, und LIe seLLIemenL oI
reIugees, umong oLIers-uIso prove ImporLunL Lo LIe LreuLmenL oI LIe subjecL und some
Iuve been IncIuded uL vurIous poInLs In LIe presenLuLIon und unuIysIs oI LIe poIIcy.
TIIs essuy Iocuses on LIe cenLruI growLI perIod oI LIe OLLomun empIre Irom LIe
IounduLIon oI LIe dynusLy uL LIe duwn oI LIe 1q
LI
cenLury LIrougI LIe 16
LI
cenLury, wIuL
HuIII nuIcik Ius IubeIed LIe 'cIussIcuI uge` oI OLLomun IIsLory.

L Is LIese LIree
cenLurIes LIuL scIoIursIIp In OLLomun sLudIes Ius IdenLIIIed us LIe Ieyduy oI LIe use oI
Iorced popuIuLIon LrunsIer us u poIIcy LooI und Ior wIIcI LIe greuLesL umounL oI
InIormuLIon on LIe subjecL Is currenLIy uvuIIubIe. TIe body oI LrunsIers presenLed In LIe
course oI LIe IIrsL cIupLer und represenLed In LIe IIsLIng In LIe LubIe sIouId noL be
consIdered compreIensIve In regurd Lo uII moves wIIcI occurred LIrougIouL LIIs perIod
- LIe uppeurunce or ubsence oI uny purLIcuIur move Is dependenL on boLI LIe procIIvILIes
oI LIe prImury source muLerIuI und LIe upproucI oI LIe body oI secondury IILeruLure
wIIcI LreuLs IL. No doubL LIere were u greuL muny LrunsIers underLuken In LIe perIod
exumIned wIIcI Iuve IeIL IILLIe or no Lruce In LIe IIsLorIcuI record.
TIe upproucI oI LIIs essuy mukes use oI u number oI compuruLIve cuses In LIe
dIscussIon oI OLLomun use oI popuIuLIon LrunsIers. TIe pooI Irom wIIcI compurIsons
Iuve been druwn Is muInIy LIuL oI pre-modern und eurIy modern empIres or empIre-IIke
sLuLes. Some, sucI us LIe ncu und MIng, IuII IIrmIy wILIIn LIe LrudILIonuI cuLegorIzuLIon
oI 'empIre`; oLIers, sucI us LIe AIgIun sLuLe oI Abdur RuImun KIun (188o-1qo1) und
LIe 1q
LI
-cenLury OLLomun EmIruLe ILseII, comprIsed somewIuL smuIIer unILs wIIcI

nuIcik (1q;), The Dttomcn Empire: The clcssiccl ce, :oo-:oo, ondon.

q
noneLIeIess were Iuced wILI LIe sume cenLruI quesLIons oI sLuLe IormuLIon LIuL
conIronLed LrudILIonuIIy deIIned empIres.
TIe modern perIod, despILe u weuILI oI evenLs wIIcI conIorm Lo LIe deIIned
pIenomenon-LIe purLILIonIng oI ndIu und PukIsLun, LIe Greek-TurkIsI excIunges
IoIIowIng LIe IrsL WorId Wur, und LIe mussIve reIocuLIon projecLs underLuken
LIrougIouL LIe SovIeL UnIon, umong oLIers-Ius, Ior LIe mosL purL, been seL usIde. TIIs
decIsIon wus mude purLIy Lo pIuce u IImIL on LIe uIreudy burgeonIng scope oI LIIs essuy
und purLIy Lo IImIL compIIcuLIng Issues sucI us LIe ImpucL oI new cupubIIILIes In
LrunsporL, communIcuLIon, und governmenL orgunIzuLIon on LIe muss movemenL oI
peopIes wILIIn und umongsL sLuLes In LIe modern uge.
PurL one oI LIIs essuy presenLs un ubrIdged IIsLory oI LIe use oI popuIuLIon
LrunsIers In LIe OLLomun EmpIre, u cIronoIogy meunL Lo InLroduce LIe reuder Lo LIe
subjecL und gIve IL pIuce wILIIn LIe Iurger IIow oI OLLomun IIsLory. PurL Lwo Iocuses on
LIe eIuboruLIon und InvesLIguLIon oI LIe objecLIves oI LIe OLLomun LrunsIers, mukIng use
oI compuruLIve muLerIuI wIere upproprIuLe. PurL LIree LreuLs LIe meLIods by wIIcI LIe
LrunsIers were enucLed und some oI LIe pILIuIIs encounLered In LIe process. PurL Iour
LIen uddresses LIe ouLcomes oI LIe use oI sucI LrunsIers us u LooI oI ImperIuI poIIcy.
sources
Our knowIedge oI OLLomun popuIuLIon LrunsIers Is reveuIed Lo us LIrougI u
vurIeLy oI source muLerIuIs. One oI LIe cenLruI IounduLIons oI our undersLundIng oI LIe
pIenomenon Is LIe body oI nurruLIve IIsLorIes produced by LIe TurkIsI und Greek
cIronIcIers oI LIe 1
LI
und 16
LI
cenLurIes. TIe wrILIng oI OLLomun IIsLorIcuI nurruLIves In
TurkIsI cume uL u sLrIkIngIy IuLe duLe In LIe deveIopmenL oI LIe empIre, u IuII cenLury


und u IuII uILer LIe IounduLIon oI LIe ruIIng Iouse; IL wus LIus onIy In LIe mId-1
LI

cenLury LIuL TurkIsI cIronIcIers uLLempLed Lo IIII LIIs gup, some reIyIng on oIder sources
now IosL Lo us. WIIIe LIese uccounLs cunnoL be upproucIed wILI un eye Ior precIse
cIronoIogy, LIey provIde us wILI u Iurge number oI exumpIes oI popuIuLIons LrunsIers
wIIcI Look pIuce LIrougIouL LIe eurIy pIuses oI LIe sLuLe`s exIsLence. Among LIe mosL
ImporLunL oI LIese wrILers Is Aikpuuzude (c.1qoo-1qqo), wIo Lenders u vurIeLy oI
unecdoLuI evIdence Ior LIe reIocuLIon oI popuIuLIon LIrougIouL LIe eurIy Europeun
conquesLs. TIe IIsLory oI Tursun Beg recounLs LIe sLeps Luken durIng LIe repopuIuLIon
oI sLunbuI compIemenLIng ByzunLIne uccounLs Irom LIe sume perIod. ScIoIurs sucI us
Omer uLII Burkun, smuII UzunuriIi, und HeuLI owry Iuve mude use oI uddILIonuI
TurkIsI nurruLIve IIsLorIes sucI us LIose oI NuImu (d. 1;16), bn KemuI (c.1q68-1q),
und Oru Bey (IuLe 1
LI
JeurIy 16
LI
cenLury), umong oLIers. Muny oI LIese cIronIcIes
(IncIudIng Aikpuuzude) IeuLure neurIy IdenLIcuI or sIIgILIy dIvergenL versIons oI LIe
sume evenLs.
ByzunLIne cIronIcIers, Loo, provIde us un exceIIenL wIndow onLo LIe movemenL oI
popuIuLIons LIrougIouL LIe 1
LI
cenLury. Concerned Ior LIe IuLe oI LIeIr cILIes und LIe IoL
oI LIeIr IeIIow Greek speukers, LIe wrILers KrILovouIos oI mbros, Doukus oI PIocueu,
uonIcus CIuIcocondyIes, und George SpIrunzes Iocus LIeIr uLLenLIon on LIe uprooLIng
und reseLLIemenL oI munpower LIuL uccompunIed LIe conquesLs und reconsLrucLIon
projecLs underLuken In LIe reIgn oI MeImeL (1q1-81).
ArcIIvuI sources Iorm LIe second broud cuLegory oI sources Irom wIIcI we druw
our knowIedge oI LIe OLLomun LrunsIers. TIe eurIIesL records wIIcI Iuve been used In
sLudIes oI LIe subjecL duLe Lo LIe eurIy 1
LI
cenLury. PopuIuLIon regIsLers (tchrir dejters)
oI cILIes und provInces oILen IndIcuLe communILIes reIocuLed Irom eIsewIere In LIe

6
empIre und, In cuses In wIIcI we possess u successIon oI sucI documenLs over LIe
course oI severuI yeurs, provIde u record oI LIe IuLe oI LIese groups LIrougI LIme.
Muhimme dejters (ouLgoIng correspondences oI LIe suILun) provIde us wILI InvuIuubIe
InsIgIL InLo LIe ucLuuI ImpIemenLuLIon oI moves In LIe Iorm oI LrunsIer orders,
exempLIons, und IoIIow-up correspondence.
sLudIes
TIere Iuve been u number oI scIoIurIy works LIuL, In uddILIon Lo provIdIng me
wILI u Iew soIId poInLs oI conLucL wILI LIe orIgInuI source muLerIuI, Iuve uddressed LIe
subjecL wILI cIose unuIysIs und InsIgIL. TIe deIInILIve sLudy oI LIe use oI surun In
OLLomun IIsLory remuIns LIe serIes oI urLIcIes pubIIsIed by Omer uLII Burkun beLween
LIe yeurs 1qqq und 1q under LIe LILIe PopuIuLIon TrunsIers us u MeLIod oI SeLLIemenL
und CoIonIzuLIon In LIe OLLomun EmpIre.
6
Burkun presenLs surun us un ImporLunL
eIemenL In LIe Iurge-scuIe demogrupIIc movemenL wIIcI underIuy LIe esLubIIsImenL
und growLI oI LIe empIre.
;
n LIe course oI LIe sLudy, Ie druws on LIe TurkIsI nurruLIve
IIsLorIes, popuIuLIon regIsLers (tchrir dejters), und LIe ImperIuI decrees deuIIng wILI LIe
execuLIon oI LIe moves (conLuIned In muhimme dejters). TIe scope oI LIe sLudy Is wIde,
wILI dIscussIon IocusIng on LIe coIonIzuLIon oI RIodes und Cyprus, TurkIsI seLLIemenL
In RumeII, LIe reIocuLIon oI nomuds, und LIe LrunsIer oI members oI LIe ruIIng cIuss,
boLI CIrIsLIun und MusIIm.

6
Omer uLII Burkun. OsmunIi mpuruLorIugundu bIr Iskun ve koIonIzusyon meLIodu oIuruk srgnIer.
stcnbul Unitersitesi ltisct Iclultesi Mecmucsi, 11 (1qqq-o) pp.zq-;o, 1 (1q1-z) pp.6-;8, 1
(1q-q) pp.zoq-z;. n uddILIon Lo reproducIng porLIons oI LIe urcIIvuI documenLs und nurruLIve sources
Ie cILes In LrunscrIpLIon, Burkun uIso IncIudes u IucsImIIe oI LIe surun hulmu Ior Cyprus oI 1;z und u
IoId-ouL mup sIowIng LIe dIsLrIbuLIon oI popuIuLIon In LIe OLLomun BuIkuns uL LIe sLurL oI LIe 16
LI

cenLury.
;
Burkun (1qqq-o), p..

;
HuIII nuIcik, one oI LIe mosL InIIuenLIuI scIoIurs oI LIe eurIy OLLomun perIod In
LIe pusL cenLury, Ius mude numerous conLrIbuLIons Lo LIe subjecL oI popuIuLIon
LrunsIer. HIs vuIuubIe urLIcIe OLLomun MeLIods oI ConquesL, pubIIsIed In 1qq,
uwurds sLuLe deporLuLIon und emIgruLIon u sIgnIIIcunL pIuce wILIIn LIe Iurger puLLern oI
OLLomun expunsIon.
8
OLIer sIgnIIIcunL conLrIbuLIons oI nuIcik IncIude un urLIcIe on LIe
LreuLmenL oI LIe Greek popuIuLIon und monumenLs oI sLunbuI IoIIowIng LIe conquesL
q

und un enLry on sLunbuI In LIe Encclopedic oj Islcm.
1o

HeuLI owry Ius mude u serIes oI ImporLunL conLrIbuLIons Lo LIe undersLundIng
oI LIe use oI surun In LIe deveIopmenL oI OLLomun urbun cenLers LIrougIouL LIe 1
LI

und 16
LI
cenLurIes, druwIng especIuIIy on duLu Irom tchrir dejters us weII us LIe record oI
Greek und TurkIsI cIronIcIes. TIese Iuve IncIuded IIs docLoruI dIsserLuLIon on LIe posL-
conquesL LrunsIormuLIon oI Trubzon
11
, un urLIcIe on LIe popuIuLIon oI 1
LI
-cenLury
SuIonIcu
1z
, und u work wIIcI uddresses LIe OLLomun reconsLrucLIon oI LIe cILIes oI
SuIonIcu, sLunbuI, und Trubzon under MeImeL .
1

SuruIyu uroqII, In Ier work on urbun IIIe In AnuLoIIu, LreuLs LIe seLLIemenL oI
Cyprus und LIe reseLLIemenL progrum oI LIe eurIy 1;
LI
cenLury wIIcI uLLempLed Lo repuIr

8
nuIcik (1qq). OLLomun MeLIods oI ConquesL. Studic Islcmicc II. PurIs. pp.1oq-zq. See In purLIcuIur
pp.1zz-q.
q
nuIcik (1q6qJ;o). TIe PoIIcy oI MeImed Towurd LIe Greek PopuIuLIon oI sLunbuI und LIe ByzunLIne
BuIIdIngs oI LIe CILy. Dumbcrton Dcls Pcpers z,z(. WusIIngLon D.C.
1o
nuIcik (1q;8). sLunbuI. Encclopedic oj Islcm, z
nd
ed. V, pp.zzq-q8.
11
HeuLI owry (1q;;). The Dttomcn Tchrir Dejters cs c Source jor Urbcn Demorcphic Histor: The
Ccse Stud oj Trcbzon (cc.:(8-:8). PI.D. LIesIs. UnIversILy oI CuIIIornIu, os AngeIes.; pubIIsIed In
1q81 In TurkIsI us Trcbzon ehrinin slcmlcmc te Turllemei: :(:-:8. BoguzII UnIversILesI
YuyinIuri, sLunbuI.
1z
owry (1q8o-1). PorLruIL oI u CILy: TIe PopuIuLIon und TopogrupIy oI OLLomun SeIunIk (TIessuIonIkI)
In LIe Yeur 1q;8.
1
owry (1q86). `rom esser Wurs Lo LIe MIgILIesL Wur`: TIe OLLomun ConquesL und TrunsIormuLIon oI
LIe EurIy ByzunLIne Urbun CenLers In LIe 1
LI
CenLury. In Bryer und owry ed. (1q86), pp.z-q.

8
LIe dumuge oI LIe CeIuII uprIsIngs.
1q
Her dIscussIon ImporLunLIy cuIIs InLo quesLIon LIe
overuII eIIecLIveness oI sucI sLuLe-dIrecLed meusures.
TIe works oI AImeL ReIIk und CengIz OrIonIu Iuve uddressed LIe munIpuIuLIon
oI LrIbes wILIIn LIe empIre bused on u Iurge body oI urcIIvuI duLu, IncIudIng muny
InsLunces oI Iorced LrunsIer und seLLIemenL.
1
RudI Indner, umong oLIers, Ius uIso
LreuLed LIe ImporLunL Issue oI nomud-sLuLe reIuLIons In LIe empIre wILIouL specIIIc
reIerence Lo LIe LrunsIer poIIcIes.
16

urLIer menLIon oI surun oILen uppeurs In generuI or InLroducLory IIsLorIes oI
LIe eurIy OLLomun EmpIre. TIe work oI smuII Hukki UzunuriIi, IIrsL pubIIsIed In
1qq;, devoLes some puges und numerous reIerences Lo popuIuLIon LrunsIers.
1;

UzunuriIi druws on mucI oI LIe sume body oI TurkIsI nurruLIve muLerIuI us Is
expIored by Burkun und provIdes u number oI InsLunces noL IncIuded by oLIer uuLIors.
TIe generuI IIsLorIes oI SLunIord SIuw und, mosL recenLIy, CoIIn mber uIIord
occusIonuI menLIons oI popuIuLIon LrunsIers us weII.
18


Iuve Ior LIe mosL purL represenLed numes und pIuces Irom OLLomun IIsLory In
LIeIr modern TurkIsI Iorms (MeImeL InsLeud oI MuIummud, Trubzon InsLeud oI
TIrubuzon). TIe TurkIsI '` Is pronounced us 'sI`, LIe '` us 'cI`, LIe 'c` us LIe 'j` us In 'jog`,

1q
SuruIyu uroqII (1q8q). Touns cnd Tounsmen oj Dttomcn Anctolic. CumbrIdge UnIversILy Press. See
pp.z8z-6.
1
AImeL ReIIk (1qo). Ancdolu'dc Turl Airetleri (p-:zoo). DevIeL MuLbuusi, sLunbuI; CengIz OrIonIu
(1q8;), Dsmcnli mpcrctorluundc Airetlerin slcni. Eren YuyinciIik ve KILupiIik, sLunbuI. OrIonIu
Iocuses specIIIcuIIy on LIe seLLIemenL projecLs oI 16q1-16q6. See uIso M. TuyyIb GkbIIgIn (1q;).
Rumeli'de Yuruller, Tctcrlcr te Etlcd-i Ictihcn. Osmun YuIin MuLbuusi, sLunbuI.
16
RudI Indner (1q8). Nomcds cnd Dttomcns in Medietcl Anctolic. ReseurcI nsLILuLe Ior nner AsIun
SLudIes, BIoomIngLon.
1;
smuII Hukki UzunuriIi (1qq;). Dsmcnli Tcrihi. voIume 1,Trk TurII Kurumu, sLunbuI. See especIuIIy
pp.1;o-81.
18
SLunIord SIuw (1q;6). Histor oj the Dttomcn Empire cnd Modern Turle. CumbrIdge UnIversILy
Press, CumbrIdge; und CoIIn mber (zooz). The Dttomcn Empire, :oo-:o: The Structure oj Pouer.
PuIgruve MucmIIIun, New York.

q
LIe 'g` us u sIIenL consonunL wIIcI serves Lo IengLIen LIe precedIng voweI, LIe 'i` us LIe 'I`
In 'bIrd`, und LIe '` und '` rougIIy us In Germun. or oLIer Iunguuges, Iuve reIIed on
LIe speIIIngs conLuIned In LIe secondury source muLerIuI Irom wIIcI Iuve druwn.

1o
PurL . A SIorL HIsLory oI PopuIuLIon TrunsIers
In LIe EurIy OLLomun EmpIre

EurIy ConquesLs und ExpunsIon - OrIun Lo MeImeL
Our knowIedge oI LIe use oI popuIuLIon LrunsIers In OLLomun IIsLory begIns In
LIe reIgn oI OrIun (1zq-1q), LIe son und successor oI LIe dynusLy`s Iounder, Osmun.
TIe IIrsL Lwo decudes oI OrIun`s reIgn suw LIe cupLure oI Bursu In 1z1, znIk (NIcueu) In
11, zmIL (NIcomedIu) In 1;, und LIe consoIIduLIon oI conLroI over LIe souLIern
cousL oI LIe Seu oI Murmuru. OLLomun InvoIvemenL In Europe occurred noL Iong uILer In
1q, und conquesLs under OrIun`s son SIeymun brougIL LIe OLLomun Iorces deep InLo
TIruce by LIe end oI LIe 1os.
1q
L wus In LIe conLexL oI LIese conquesLs LIuL IuLer
IIsLorIuns begIn Lo wrILe oI LIe sImuILuneous ImmIgruLIon oI nomuds InLo und LIe Iorced
movemenL oI conquered peopIes ouL oI RumeII-LIe prIncIpuIILy`s IoIdIngs In LIe
souLIern BuIkuns und Greece-wIIcI wouId conLInue In some voIume over LIe nexL
cenLury.
TIe 1q
LI
cenLury suw LIe voIunLury, encouruged, und Iorced movemenLs oI
Trkmen und TuLur LrIbesmen ouL oI AnuLoIIu InLo LIe newIy conquered Iunds oI
Europe. n uddILIon Lo LIose druwn by LIe muLerIuI beneIILs oI LIe IronLIer, muny were
specIIIcuIIy uLIIIzed by LIe sLuLe In expundIng LerrILory, IoIdIng Iund or IorLresses, or
deveIopIng LIe pusLoruI economIc poLenLIuI oI LIe newIy ucquIred Iunds. Two cIronIcIers
Irom LIe 1
LI
cenLury reIuLe LIe LrunsIer uround 16-; oI u group oI lcrc oer crcp
etleri-durk-skInned nomudIc 'Arub` IouseIoIds
zo
-Lo RumeII by SuILun OrIun In
response Lo u requesL by IIs son SIeymun Ior comrudes Lo ussIsL In IoIdIng u IorLress

1q
mber (zooz), pp.q-1.
zo
nuIcik (1q8), pp.zq;-o.

11
1. Transfer of Muslims to Europe, 1356-1421
cupLured In TIruce und conLInuIng LIe conquesLs. TIe nomuds were moved ucross LIe
sLruILs Irom LIe LerrILory oI KuresI, u Iormer rIvuI TurkIsI prIncIpuIILy IyIng In LIe Iur
norLIwesLern corner oI AnuLoIIu LIuL Iud been unnexed In LIe prevIous decude.
z1

MIgruLIon und seLLIemenL conLInued under boLI oI OrIun`s successors, Murud
(16o-18q) und BuyezIL (18q-1qoz). L wus under Murud LIuL dIrecL conLroI wus
esLubIIsIed over EdIrne, LIe greuLer purL oI TIruce, MucedonIu (IncIudIng Serez und
SuIonIcu), und LIuL BuIgurIu, under Tsur SIIsImun, wus reduced Lo vussuIuge. We know
specIIIcuIIy oI u move uround 18 oI u group oI nomuds (oer Arcplcr) Irom LIe
AnuLoIIun dIsLrIcL oI SuruIun-sLIII ILseII u semI-IndependenL LerrILory-Lo Serez, wIIcI
Iud been cupLured In LIe prevIous decude und consLILuLed un ImporLunL IocuIe Ior
expunsIon uguInsL InLo SerbIu und BuIgurIu.
zz

TIe Lsurdom oI BuIgurIu wus IInuIIy desLroyed by BuyezIL In 1q. n LIe perIod oI
consoIIduLIon oI conLroI over LIe cenLruI BuIkuns wIIcI IoIIowed, IIIbe (PIovdIv,

z1
Aikpuuzude (1qqz), p.q8; Burkun (1q1-z), p.q, cILes LIe IIsLory oI NerI.
zz
Burkun (1q1-z), p.6;.

1z
PIIIIppopoIIs), IyIng on LIe regIon`s sLruLegIc souLIern upproucI, becume LIe
desLInuLIon Ior Lwo mujor LrIbuI LrunsIers. n LIe IIrsL, LIe CrImeun TuLur cIIeILuIn
AkLuv, drIven InLo LIe BuIkuns by TImur`s cumpuIgns norLI oI LIe BIuck Seu, wus
ussIgned LIe ureu surroundIng IIIbe uIong wILI IIs IeIIow LrIbesmen, muny oI wIom
Lurned Lo seLLIed ugrIcuILuruI IIIe. AkLuv IImseII, IL seems, wus IuLer execuLed by LIe
suILun, wIo Ieured IIs growIng mIIILury power on LIe wesLern IronLIer.
z
TIe second
LrunsIer InvoIved u group oI nomuds wIo Iud come InLo conIIIcL wILI u sLuLe suIL
monopoIy In LIe LerrILory oI SuruIun-now IormuIIy under dIrecL OLLomun conLroI-und
were LrunsIerred Lo IIIbe us u resuIL. ReIocuLIon dId noL uIwuys speII IsoIuLIon Irom
poIILIcuI ImporLunce - LIe Ieuder oI LIIs IuLLer group, PuuyIgIL Bey, cume Lo be un
sIgnIIIcunL IIgure In LIe expunsIon oI LIe OLLomun IronLIer In LIe BuIkuns.
zq

BuyezIL uIso InILIuLed LIe seLLIemenL oI Trkmen In LIe ureus surroundIng LIe new
cupILuI cILy oI EdIrne
z
, un ucLIon wIIcI unLIcIpuLed LIe grund urbun deveIopmenL
projecLs wIIcI wouId underLuken In SuIonIcu, sLunbuI, und Trubzon under IIs grundson
und greuL grundson Murud und MeImeL .

AccompunyIng OLLomun expunsIon und ruIdIng In Europe wus u sImuILuneous
IIow oI conquered peopIes ucross LIe sLruILs InLo AnuLoIIu. Muny oI LIose urrIvIng In AsIu
dId so us booLy. urge numbers oI CIrIsLIuns were senL Lo LIe sIuve murkeLs, eILIer
endIng up In LIe servIce oI LIe sLuLe or dIspersed us personuI properLy. TIe detirme

z
Burkun (1q-q), pp.z11-z.
zq
Aikpuuzude (1qqz), pp.6-6; Burkun (1q1-z), pp.6q-;6. TIere seems Lo be some conIusIon umong
vurIous uccounLs concernIng PuuyIgIL`s urrIvuI In LIe BuIkuns. Burkun pIuces LIe LrunsIer descrIbed by
Aikpuuzude, wIIcI seems Lo IncIude PuuyIgIL Bey IImseII (Pcc Yeit e o lctmin ulusidi. Dl
zcmcndc onlcrun ile bile elmi idi.), In 8oJ1qoo-1. UzunuriIi (1qq;), pp.z6o-1, Iowever, pIuces IIm
uL LIe BuLLIe oI Kosovo In 18q und SIuw (1q;6), p.zq mukes menLIon oI IIs cumpuIgns In AIbunIu Irom
1q Lo 1q.
z
SIuw (1q;6), pzq.

1
sysLem wus InsLILuLed Lo provIde u sLeudy sLreum oI CIrIsLIun youLIs, uL IIrsL druwn Irom
LIe body oI wur cupLIves und IuLer coIIecLed us u sorL oI Iumun LuxuLIon, In order Lo IIII
LIe runks oI LIe sLuLe sIuve IIerurcIy (LIe lcpi lullcri) und LIe suILun`s personuI
InIunLry, LIe JunIssurIes.
WIoIe communILIes, Loo, were LrunsporLed Irom LIeIr Iomes In Europe InLo oLIer
LerrILorIes IeId by LIe OLLomuns In AnuLoIIu und TIruce. Our knowIedge oI sucI
LrunsIers, unIorLunuLeIy, Is Iess specIIIc LIun Ior mIgruLIon In LIe reverse dIrecLIon: LIe
cIronIcIers oILen Ieuve us guessIng us Lo LIe uILImuLe IuLe oI LIese communILIes-
wIeLIer group seLLIemenL or dIspersIon-und oILen provIde us wILI no more LIun
'AnuLoIIu` us LIeIr desLInuLIon. We Iuve LIe exumpIe Irom LIe eurIy conquesLs oI LIe
1os oI u group oI CIrIsLIun knIgILs evucuuLed Irom Lwo IorLresses In TIruce wIo were
LrunsporLed Lo LIe LerrILory oI KuresI, un ucLIon wIIcI wus IoIIowed by LIe LrunsIer In LIe
reverse dIrecLIon oI LIe KuresI nomuds menLIoned ubove.
z6
Doukus, Loo, reIuLes LIe

z6
Aikpuuzude (1qqz), p.q;; Burkun (1q1-z), p.6z; Burkun uIso cILes LIe LexLs oI NerI und HuyruIIuI
EIendI.
2. Transfer of Christians to Anatolia, 1356-1401

1q
LrunsporL oI communILIes Lo AnuLoIIu In LIe course oI Murud `s (16o-8q) cumpuIgns
uguInsL LIe Serbs.
z;
TIIs LreuLmenL wus repeuLed Ior LIe popuIuLIons oI Tirnovu In
BuIgurIu und Argos In LIe Moreu IoIIowIng LIeIr conquesL In LIe reIgn oI BuyezIL (18q-
1qo1).
z8
TIe sume suILun, In un ucL oI economIc wurIure, evucuuLed LIe popuIuLIons oI
LIe vIIIuges IyIng ouLsIde ByzunLIne ConsLunLInopIe, u move wIIcI wouId be reversed by
MeImeL In LIe course oI ILs reconsLrucLIon us LIe ImperIuI cupILuI.
zq


WIIIe LIe mujorILy oI sLuLe-dIrecLed demogrupIIc movemenL occurred on LIe
OLLomun IronL wILI CIrIsLendom, LIe sLuLemenL by Doukus LIuL TImur, upon cupLurIng
ErzIncun In 1qoz, sIuugILered by LIe sword uII LIose wIo Iud been seLLIed LIere by
BuyezId, IInLs uL some degree oI coIonIzIng munpower empIoyed In conLroI LIe eusLern
IronL us weII.
o
TIougI we ure gIven no IndIcuLIon oI LIe nuLure oI LIe seLLIemenL or LIe
degree Lo wIIcI IL wus emuIuLed eIsewIere, LIe Ideu oI surun In EusLern AnuLoIIu In LIe
1q
LI
cenLury Is InLrIguIng. TIe onIy puruIIeI we muy cILe Is LIe seLLIemenL oI some ,ooo
men Irom wesLern AnuLoIIu In BuyburL IuII u cenLury IuLer under MeImeL .
1


L wus In 1qoz LIuL TImur IInuIIy brougIL LIe Iorce oI IIs mIIILury Lo beur uguInsL
LIe OLLomun prIncIpuIILy uL LIe buLLIe oI Ankuru, resuILIng In LIe OLLomun urmy`s deIeuL
und BuyezIL `s cupLure IoIIowIng LIe ununImous deserLIon oI LIe TurkIsI und TuLur
Iorces oI AnuLoIIu. TIe buLLIe wus IoIIowed by Lwo decudes oI poIILIcuI IrugmenLuLIon In

z;
Doukus (1q;), p.6o.
z8
Burkun (1q1-z), p.6. Burkun cILes H.A. GIbbon Ior LIe conquesL oI Tirnovu In 1q und JosepI von
Hummer Ior LIe LrunsIer Irom Argos In 1q;, wIIcI supposedIy InvoIved o,ooo Greeks. Burkun, cILIng
LIe IIsLory oI MneccIm Bui, sLuLes LIuL LIe popuIuLIon oI AyusIonu, Loo, sIured LIIs IuLe, LIougI Iuve
Iud LroubIe pInnIng down wIere LIIs Is or wIen IL occurred.
zq
Doukus (1q;), p8; Ior IuLer seLLIemenL, see nuIcik (1qqq), pp.16;-8.
o
Doukus (1q;), p.8q. BuyezIL Iud cupLured ErzIncun In LIe prevIous yeur, mber (zooz), p.16.
1
Burkun (1q1-z), p.6q.

1
wIIcI power devoIved onLo compeLIng prInces und IocuI ucLors unLII LIe evenLuuI
reconsLILuLIon oI u unILury sLuLe under MeImeL (1q1-z1).
DurIng SuILun MeImeL `s reconsoIIduLIon oI OLLomun conLroI In AnuLoIIu, IIIbe
once uguIn becume u desLInuLIon Ior LrIbuI reIocuLIon. TIe suILun, reLurnIng Irom
cumpuIgns In norLIern AnuLoIIu In 1q18, ordered LIe reIocuLIon oI u Iurge group oI
TuLurs Irom skIIIp Lo Koni HIsuri neur IIIbe on LIe preLexL, us LIe cIronIcIers reIuLe, oI
LIeIr noL IuvIng supporLed SuILun BuyezIL uguInsL TImur. TIeIr cIIeI, MInneL Bey, und
IIs descendenLs subsequenLIy becume ImporLunL noLubIes In LIe ureu und purLIcIpuLed In
LIe wurIure oI LIe wesLern IronLIer.
z
AIso In LIe conLexL oI LIe resLoruLIon oI conLroI, u
Iurge number oI nomudIc Trkmen, some In ouLrIgIL rebeIIIon, were deporLed Lo RumeII
under MeImeL Irom LIe KusLumonu-Amusyu-TokuL-CunIk regIon, un ureu wIIcI
sIIpped Irom conLroI severuI LImes durIng LIuL perIod.

TIe esLubIIsImenL oI munpower In conquered ureus In LIIs perIod wus uIso
ImpIemenLed LIrougI LIe uIIocuLIon oI LerrILorIuI unILs Lo soIdIers und members oI LIe
OLLomun mIIILury (csleri) cIuss. Trkmen IIgILIng under LIe desIgnuLIon oI cc were
grunLed Iurm pIoLs (ijtlils) In LIe conquered LerrILorIes, u poIIcy wIIcI remuIned
IuncLIonuI unLII LIe eIIecLIve murgInuIIzuLIon oI LIe group by LIe 1
LI
cenLury.
q
A sImIIur
InserLIon occurred uL LIe eIILe IeveI wILI LIe uppIIcuLIon oI LIe OLLomun udmInIsLruLIve
sysLem. TIe ussIgnmenL und subsequenL LrunsIer oI u Iurge number oI TurkIsI knIgILs
(sipchi) Lo IoIdIngs In AIbunIu In LIe IIrsL decudes oI LIe 1
LI
cenLury served boLI Lo

z
Aikpuuzude (1qqz), pp.;;-8; Burkun (1q-q), pp.zoq-11; Burkun uIso cILes Oru bey, NerI, und
EvIIyu eIebI.

nuIcik (1q86), p.q6; nuIcik (1qqq), p.q. TIe rebeIIIous epnI Trkmen oI LIe CunIk regIon were
specIIIcuIIy deporLed Lo AIbunIu.
q
nuIcik (1qqq), pp.qz-. nuIcik sLuLes LIuL despILe subsLunLIuI beneIILs In LIe 1q
LI
cenLury, LIe
repIucemenL oI LIe cc Iorces wILI LIe JunIssury corps resuILed In Ieuvy burdens on LIe ccs wIIcI In
Lurn cuused u breuk down In LIe sysLem.

16
deepen OLLomun conLroI over un ureu oI IncreusIng ImporLunce Lo LIe IronL wILI VenIce
us weII us Lo sIIIL members oI LIe unLrusLworLIy TurkIsI urIsLocrucIes uwuy Irom LIeIr
LrudILIonuI power buses.

We muy LIe LIese moves uguIn Lo LIe reconsLILuLIon und

exLensIon oI OLLomun power In AnuLoIIu. SuruIun, Ior exumpIe, LIe prIncIpuI source oI
LIose LrunsIerred, Iud been re-seIzed by MeImeL Irom IocuI TurkIsI ruIe In 1q1;, uILer
wIIcI u BuIgurIun noLubIe wus InsLuIIed us governor.
6

TIe 1
LI
CenLury - Murud und MeImeL
TIe reIgns oI Murud (1qz1-1q1) und MeImeL (1q1-1q81) consLILuLed LIe
perIod In OLLomun IIsLory In wIIcI popuIuLIon LrunsIers were used Lo LIeIr greuLesL
exLenL. As rupId LerrILorIuI expunsIon conLInued, u serIes oI urbun reconsLrucLIon
projecLs were InILIuLed uLIIIzIng LIe Iumun resources guIned by conquesLs on Lwo IronLs.
TIe ByzunLIne cILy oI SuIonIcu Iud IIrsL been guIned In 18;, buL wus IosL durIng
LIe InLerregnum IoIIowIng LIe deIeuL uL Ankuru.
;
Murud cupLured LIe cILy uguIn In
1qo, uILer wIIcI Ie InILIuLed u seLLIemenL progrum wIIcI brougIL TurkIsI IumIIIes
Irom LIe surroundIng vIIIuges und encouruged LIe reLurn oI runsomed Greeks.
8
Around
one LIousund MusIIms Irom LIe MucedonIun cILy oI YenIce Vurdur were LrunspIunLed Lo
LIe cILy
q
us were u Iurge number oI IouseIoIds Irom LIe Lowns oI wesLern und cenLruI
AnuLoIIu, possIbIy IuLer under LIe reIgn oI MeImeL .
qo

Burkun (1q-q), pp.z1-6, bused on u tchrir dejter Irom ArnuvId-III, 1q1Jz. CIose Lo one-LIIrd oI LIe
Iund IoIders In LIe scnccl were oI TurkIsI orIgIn, wILI mosL desIgnuLed us IuvIng been LrunsIerred.
6
mber (zooz), pp.zo, 18.
;
mber (zooz), p.1;.
8
Doukus (1q;), p.1;z.
q
owry (1q8o-1), pz86; Aikpuuzude (1qqz), p.q8; owry uIso cILes LIe IIsLory oI AgnosLes.
qo
owry (1q8o-1), pp.z86-;; owry (1q86b), p.zq.TIese new urrIvuIs uppeur In u mujcsscl tchrir dejter
oI 1q;8 regIsLered wILI sucI numes us AnudoIuIu, BergumuIi, GebzeII, KLuIyuIi, KurumunI. TIe
ussumpLIon Is LIuL some oI LIese muy Iuve been LrunsIerred In LIe course oI MeImeL `s cumpuIgns
uguInsL Kurumun In cenLruI AnuLoIIu.

1;
Upon MeImeL `s cupLure oI sLunbuI In 1q, LIe suILun emburked on u vusL
reconsLrucLIon projecL Lo reconsLILuLe LIe cILy us LIe cupILuI und IeudIng urbun cenLer oI
LIe empIre. Among muny oLIer meusures, popuIuLIon LrunsIers ImpIemenLed over LIe
remuInder oI LIe suILun`s reIgn wouId brIng Iurge communILIes oI Turks, Greeks,
ArmenIuns, und Jews Irom muny purLs oI Europe und AsIu Ior permunenL seLLIemenL In
cILy.
q1
TIe suILun`s porLIon oI LIe cupLIves wus reseLLIed und Greeks wIo Iud IIed or been
cupLured und runsomed were encouruged Lo reLurn.
qz
A generuI cuII Ior voIunLury
ImmIgruLIon Lo LIe cILy wus IoIIowed by LIe LrunsIer oI specIIIc IndIvIduuIs und
communILIes, purLIcuIurIy LIose wIo couId oIIer specIIIc conLrIbuLIons Lo LIe economIc

q1
owry provIdes u useIuI IIsL oI LIe poInLs oI orIgIn Ior LIe sLunbuI LrunsIers:
ARMENAN CHRSTANS Irom Aksuruy, Amusru, Bursu, EregII, ocu, Konyu, KuIIu, urendu, MerzIIon,
NIgde, SIvus, TokuL und Trubzon; GREEK CHRSTANS Irom Aksuruy, Amusru, Argos, EregII, Euboeu,
mbros, KuIIu, Kurucu, Konyu, urendu, LIe Moreu, MyLIIene, SumoLIruce, Trubzon, TIussos, und YenIce
ocu; JEWS Irom DemeLoku, EdIrne, Euboeu, IIIbe, voz, KusLumonu, KuruIereye, umIu, NIgboIu,
SeIunIk, SInob, SoIyu, SIroz, TirIuIu, und TIrnovu; ATN CHRSTANS Irom KuIIu; MUSMS Irom
Aksuruy, Ankuru, Bursu, EdIrne, EregII, znIk, Kurumun, Konyu, und urendu. owry (1q86b), p.z.
qz
nuIcik (1q;), p.zz.
3. Population sources for the reconstruction of stanbul, 15
th
century
source: Lowry (1986b)

18
reconsLrucLIon.
q
n LIe IIurry oI movemenLs wIIcI IoIIowed, LIree Lrends emerged: (1)
seLLIers were druwn Irom uII popuIuLIons oI LIe empIre; (z) specIuI empIusIs wus puL on
LIose possessIng weuILI, educuLIon, or Lrudes skIIIs; und () muny, LIougI noL uII, oI LIe
popuIuLIons were druwn Irom ureus In wIIcI LIere were ucLIve mIIILury cumpuIgns.
WeuILIy IumIIIes were brougIL Irom Bursu
qq
und LIe enLIre JewIsI popuIuLIon oI
SuIonIcu wus LrunsIerred Lo sLunbuI.
q
n LIe course oI u serIes oI mIIILury cumpuIgns
execuLed over LIe nexL LIree decudes, LIe IInLerIund oI LIe cILy wus reIurbIsIed us LIe
suILun senL Iurge numbers oI CIrIsLIuns Irom LIe Moreu, AIbunIu, und SerbIu Lo seLLIe In
LIe 18o some vIIIuges surroundIng sLunbuI.
q6
Doukus menLIons LIe LrunsIer oI LIe
nobIIILy und courL oIIIcIuIs oI LIe Moreu us weII;
q;
KrILovouIos udds LIuL LIe Lrudesmen
brougIL Irom LIe Moreu were specIuIIy seIecLed Lo be seLLIed wILIIn LIe cILy ILseII. He
uIso sLuLes LIuL LIe Iurger und more ubIe purL oI LIe popuIuLIon oI Amusru on LIe BIuck
Seu, u Iurge number oI weuILIy, skIIIed, und mercunLIIe ArmenIuns, und weuILIy und
educuLed Greeks resIdIng In EdIrne, PIIIIppopoIIs (IIIbe?), GeIIboIu, und Bursu were
LrunsporLed Lo LIe cILy.
q8
n 1q6o, uround IIve yeurs uILer LIeIr cupLure, LIe popuIuLIon oI
LIe predomInunLIy Greek Lowns oI New und OId ou und LIe Aegeun IsIunds oI mbros,
emnos, TIusos, und SumoLIruce were empLIed InLo sLunbuI us weII.
qq


q
KrILovouIos (1qq), pp.q, 1o; owry (1q86b), p.o; owry uIso cILes LIe IIsLory oI Tursun Beg.
qq
nuIcik (1q6q-;o), ,pz;, cILIng u regIsLer Irom LIe qcdi oI Bursu.
q
owry (1q8o-1), pp.z6z-q, bused on tchrir dejters Irom boLI sLunbuI und SeIunIk. TIe communILy
numbered uround o IumIIIes.
q6
nuIcik (1q6q-;o), p.zq; Burkun (1q1-z), p.6. CumpuIgns In SerbIu were IuuncIed In 1qq, und LIe
LrunsIer Is duLed In LIe IoIIowIng yeur; peopIe were deporLed Irom LIe Moreu In 1q und 1q8, und LIe
penInsuIu wus IuIIy conquered by 1q6o. Doukus descrIbes LIe deporLuLIon Lo LIese vIIIuges oI q,ooo
InIubILunLs Irom u IorLress neur Smederevo In SerbIu, Doukus (1q;), p.zq.
q;
Doukus (1q;), pp.z;-8.
q8
KrILovouIos (1qq), pp.1q-qo, 1q8-q
qq
nuIcik (1q6q-;o), p.z8; KrILovouIos (1qq), pp.1q8-q, 1;, 1q.

1q
TIe conquesL oI Trubzon occurred In 1q61. Ike LIe Greek dynusLs oI LIe Moreu,
LIe Emperor oI Trubzon, IIs reLInue, und LIe noLubIes oI LIe cILy Iound LIemseIves
ubourd u sIIp Lo sLunbuI.
o
Ike LIe cILIes oI SuIonIcu und sLunbuI beIore IL, Iowever,
LIe cILy becume LIe objecL oI u seLLIemenL und deveIopmenL projecL LIuL IncIuded LIe
reIocuLIon oI MusIIms Irom LIe Lowns oI cenLruI und wesLern AnuLoIIu, u group wIIcI
mude up ;8% oI LIe cILy`s MusIIm popuIuLIon In LIe 1q8os
1
. und ussIgnmenLs were
uIso grunLed Lo boLI CIrIsLIun und MusIIm knIgILs (sipchi) wIo Iud been LrunsIerred
Irom AIbunIu. Burkun uguIn seLs LIIs IusL LrunsIer wILIIn LIe conLexL oI concIIIuLIon wILI
LroubIesome eIemenLs oI LIe ruIIng cIuss wIIcI sImuILuneousIy dIsIocuLIng LIem Irom u
posILIon Irom wIIcI LIey posed u cIuIIenge Lo LIe cenLruIIzed uuLIorILy.
z


o
owry (1q;;), p.q; Aikpuuzude (1qqz), p.16 p.16; Doukus (1q;), p.zq; Burkun (1q-q), p.z18. TIe
emperor uppeurs Lo Iuve evenLuuIIy ended up In RumeII.
1
owry (1q;6), p.z; owry (1q86b), p.zq. TIe communILy Is IIsLed In LIe LuIrIr deILer oI 1q86 us
Cemcct-i Muslumcnlcr li bi-emr-i Hczret-i Sultcn-i Azcm surun cmed der Trcbzon, LIe communILy
oI MusIIms IorcIbIy seLLIed In Trubzon by order oI LIe suILun. AIso numed ure: NIksur, Sonusu, udIk,
Amusyu, BuIru, Osmuncik, skIIIp, orumIu, Gm, MerzIIon, TokuL, Sumsun, ToIuI, ZIIe, GIky,
SuLiImi CunIk, KuguIu, und Kudi Gudi.
4. Transfers to Selanik and Trabzon, 15
th
century
sources: Lowry (1977); Lowry (1980-1)

zo
sLunbuI`s repopuIuLIon-LIrougI-conquesL progrum conLInued LIrougI LIe 1q6os
und ;os. PorLIons oI LIe popuIuLIon oI MILyIene und oLIer Lowns on LIe IsIund oI esbos
und LIe enLIre popuIuLIon oI Argos were evucuuLed In 1q6z und 6.

rom LIe BIuck Seu

LIere were LrunsIers Lo sLunbuI oI Greeks Irom Euboeu In 1q;o und Genoese und
ArmenIun mercIunLs Irom KuIIu upon ILs conquesL In 1q;;.
q
Two yeurs IuLer, LIe IsIunds
oI ZunLe, CepIuIonIu, und Ayu Muuru, IyIng beLween LIe Greek und LuIIun penInsuIus,
were secured under OLLomun conLroI und LIeIr popuIuLIons were seLLIed In LIe vIIIuges
ouLsIde sLunbuI.

On LIe eusLern IronL, durIng cumpuIgns uguInsL LIe emIruLe oI Kurumun In
CenLruI AnuLoIIu LIrougI LIe IuLe 1q6os und eurIy 1q;os, Iundreds oI cruILsmen und
weuILIy IndIvIduuIs, IncIudIng MusIIms, ArmenIuns, und Greeks, were brougIL Lo
sLunbuI Irom Konyu, urendu, Aksuruy, und EregII.
6
TrIbuI resIsLunce wIIcI Iud
Iormed uround LIe Kurumun Ieuder PIr AImeL wus meL wILI sIuugILer und wIde-scuIe
LrunsIers oI nomudIc Trkmen Lo RumeII.
;
Tursun Bey reIuLes LIuL In 1q; u Iurge
number oI cupLIves were brougIL Lo sLunbuI Irom neur SIvus In LIe course oI MeImeL
`s cumpuIgn uguInsL PIr AImeL`s uIIy, LIe AkkoyunIu Ieuder Uzun Husun.
8
L wus uIso
under MeImeL LIuL uround ,ooo men were moved Irom TIre, neur LIe Aegeun cousL,

z
Burkun (1q-q), pp.zz1-z.

KrILovouIos (1qq), pp.18-q; nuIcik (1q6q-;o), p.z8; LIe evenL Is uIso descrIbed by un LuIIun uccounL
IooLnoLed In LIe MugouIIus LrunsIuLIon oI Doukus (1q;), pp.zz-. Argos muy or muy noL Iuve recovered
Irom LIe sume evenL In 1q; IoIIowIng Evrenos Bey`s Lemporury occupuLIon oI LIe Lown, menLIoned ubove.
TIe Moreu Ius seen Iur more LIun ILs IuIr sIure oI popuIuLIon LrunsIers; see CIurunIs (1q61) Ior LIe
ByzunLIne perIod.
q
owry (1q86b), p.z; nuIcik (1q6q-;o), p.z8. TIese Genoese numbered z6; IouseIoIds In 1q;;.

nuIcik (1q6q-;o), p.zq.

6
nuIcik (1q6q-;o), p.z8.
;
nuIcik (1q86), p.q6; SIuw (1q;6), p.6q.
8
Tursun Beg (1q;8), p.61.

z1
Lo BuyburL, un eusLern AnuLoIIun Lown cupLured Irom Uzun Husun, unoLIer uppurenLIy
rure InsLunce oI LIe use oI reseLLIemenL Lo secure OLLomun IoIdIngs In LIe eusL.
q


We ure uwure oI u number oI oLIer LrunsIers Irom LIe perIod oI MeImeL .
AccordIng Lo KrILovouIos, u IorLress buIIL In AIbunIu In LIe mId-1q6os wus popuIuLed
druwIng on very muny coIonIsLs Irom LIe counLrysIde und Irom LIe surroundIng Lowns
und cILIes.
6o
n LIe sume sLyIe us LIe muny vIIIuges seLLIed uround sLunbuI, prIsoners oI
wur were used Lo esLubIIsI ruruI seLLIemenLs neur Bursu und BIgu dedIcuLed Lo LIe
ruIsIng oI IIvesLock Ior LIe sLuLe.
61
n one oI LIe Iew InsLunces wIIcI reveuIs LIe
desLInuLIon oI LIose CIrIsLIuns LrunsIerred ouL oI LIe BuIkuns us communILIes,
UzunuriIi wrILes LIuL u number oI BuIgurIun seLLIemenLs were esLubIIsIed neur zmIr
under LIe desIgnuLIon oI surun In LIe 1
LI
cenLury.
6z


q
Burkun (1q1-z), p.6q, bused on u commenL by EvIIyu eIebI.
6o
KrILovouIos (1qq), p.z1.
61
Burkun (1q1-z), p.6.
6z
UzunuriIi (1qq; ), v.1 p.181, wILI reIerence Lo LIe work oI LIe BuIgur scIoIur DorosIyeI.
5. Transfers outside Selanik, stanbul, and Trabzon, 15
th
century

zz

TIe 16
LI
CenLury - BuyezIL Lo Murud
TIe movemenL oI MusIIms InLo LIe BuIkuns wus conLInued under BuyezIL
(1q81-11z), wIose Iuvor oI LIe TurkIsI urIsLocrucy over LIe detirme cIuss resuILed In
un Increused roIe Ior LIe TurkIsI IronLIer ruIders on LIe wesLern border.
6
A group oI
MusIIm peusunLs, some 1oz IouseIoIds, were seLLIed us u dIsLIncL udmInIsLruLIve unIL
In LIe scnccl oI SIIIsLre, sILuuLed on LIe Dunube In norLIern BuIgurIu.
6q
TIe eurIy 1oos
uIso suw LIe LrunsIer oI MusIIms Irom AnuLoIIun und BuIkun Lowns InLo LerrILorIes In
SerbIu und Hungury.
6

oIIowIng LIe cupLure oI LIe norLIwesL BIuck Seu porL oI Akkermun In LIe eurIy
yeurs oI BuyezIL `s reIgn, u segmenL oI LIe CIrIsLIun InIubILunLs were removed und
reseLLIed In OId BIgu, neur LIe Seu oI Murmuru In AnuLoIIu.
66
AIso operuLIng In LIIs
dIrecLIon wus LIe LrunsIer Irom RumeII Lo LIe ureu oI YenIeIIr oI sIxLy CIrIsLIun
IouseIoIds ussIgned Lo guurd u dungerous puss, un InsLunce oI popuIuLIon pIuced In
order Lo brIng securILy Lo InLernuI LerrILorIes
6;
.


6
SIuw (1q6;), p;z.
6q
nuIcik (1qq), pp.1z-q; Burkun (1q-q), p.zz. TIe communILy wus pIuced In LIe lczc oI Pruvudu.
TIe survIvIng lcnunncme Ior LIIs group proves very InLeresLIng In regurds Lo LIe demurcuLIon und
udmInIsLruLIon oI u surun popuIuLIon: sLunbuI, BubukunIik ArIvI, TuIrIr deILerI no.z;o, vrk.zqz.
6
UzunuriIi (1qq;), v.1 p.181, cILIng Tcbclct-ul-Memclil, LIe IIsLory oI PeevI, und u muhimme dejter
Irom LIuL perIod.
66
Burkun (1q1-z), p.6, cILIng LIe IIsLory oI Hocu MeImeL SudeLLIn.
6;
Burkun (1q1-z), p6q, bused on u mujcsscl tchrir dejter: Ankuru, Tupu ve KudusLro Umum MdrIg
ArIvI, HduvendIgur mIussuIi no.;, vuruk zu.

z
TIe cILIes oI SuIonIcu und sLunbuI conLInued Lo grow by meuns oI Iorced und
voIunLury seLLIemenL. CIrIsLIuns Irom SerbIu und Hungury were reIocuLed Lo LIe cILIes
under BeyuzIL .
68
TIe encourugemenL oI LIe seLLIemenL oI SepIurdIc Jews IIeeIng
SpuIn sLurLIng In LIe 1qqos In AIbunIu, SuIonIcu, und sLunbuI deveIoped LIe empIre`s
AdrIuLIc cousLIIne und resuILed In LIe LrIpIIng oI LIe SuIonIcu`s popuIuLIon.
6q
TIe dIsLunL
conquesL oI LerrILorIes under SeIIm (11z-1zo) presenLed LIe opporLunILy Lo druw
educuLed, skIIIed, und weuILIy munpower InLo LIe empIre once uguIn. TIe Lemporury
occupuLIon oI LIe SuIuvId cupILuI oI TubrIz In 11q resuILed In LIe LrunsIer oI LIousunds
oI mercIunLs, urLIsuns, und scIoIurs Lo sLunbuI.
;o
TIe conquesL oI EgypL LIree yeurs
IuLer In 11; wus sImIIurIy IoIIowed by LIe LrunsporL oI u Iurge number oI mercIunLs,
urLIsuns, und scIoIurs uIong wILI LIe IIgureIeud oI LIe cuIIpI buck Lo LIe ImperIuI

68
UzunuriIi (1qq;), v.1 p.181.
6q
SIuw (1q6;), p6q; nuIcik (1qqq), p.1; owry (1q8o-1), pz6q.
;o
SIuw (1q;6), p.81.
6. Urban population transfers, early 16
th
century

zq
cupILuI. TIe oIIIcers und urLIsuns oI LIe MumIuk Red Seu IIeeL were reIocuLed Lo sLunbuI
In LIe IoIIowIng yeur Ior LIe enIuncemenL oI LIe ImperIuI IIeeL Lo muLcI LIe new
OLLomun Iegemony In LIe EusLern MedILerruneun.
;1

TIe resIuIIIIng oI skIIIed Iubor umongsL LIe empIre`s urbun cenLers conLInued
under SIeymun (1zo-166). BeLween LIe yeurs 1z und 1qo, uround z8o CIrIsLIun
IumIIIes Irom Trubzon, predomInunLIy IIsIermen, were reseLLIed In sLunbuI, wIIIe In
LIe sume perIod severuI Iundred MusIIms possessIng specIIIc Lrude skIIIs were moved
InLo Trubzon Irom LerrILorIes In eusLern AnuLoIIu.
;z
WILI conLInued cumpuIgnIng on LIe
eusLern IronL, LIese Loo muy Iuve been druwn Irom ureus subjecLed Lo mIIILury
occupuLIon. nLeresLIngIy, u decree wus reIeused In SIeymun`s reIgn decIurIng LIuL
urLIsuns und scIoIurs reIocuLed Irom TubrIz, EgypL, und AzerbuIjun were Iree Lo reLurn

;1
SIuw (1q;6), pp.8-;.
;z
owry (1q;6), pp.1qq-1; owry (1q86b), p.1.
7. Transfers outside Selanik, stanbul, and Trabzon, 16
th
century

z
Iome us LIey wIsIed, someLIIng wIIcI we muy see us u concessIon Lo LIose unIuppy
wILI LIeIr new seLLIng.
;

RIodes, counLIng umong LIe IIrsL oI SIeymun`s Iong IIsL oI conquesLs, becume
LIe subjecL oI u LIgILIy dIrecLed coIonIzuLIon projecL IoIIowIng ILs cupLure Irom LIe
KnIgILs oI SL. JoIn In 1zz.
;q
A generuI cuII Ior munpower wus Issued Lo LerrILorIes
LIrougIouL LIe empIre, requesLIng u number oI IouseIoIds Irom eucI communILy be
provIded Ior LrunsIer Lo LIe IsIund. A neurIy IdenLIcuI poIIcy wus uppIIed Lo LIe IsIund oI
Cyprus under SeIIm (166-1;q), wIIcI wus IuIIy removed Irom VeneLIun conLroI by
1;.
;
A number oI Greek CyprIoLs were uIso reseLLIed neur LIe AnuLoIIun porL oI
AnLuIyu Lo serve us IosLuges uguInsL IurLIer resIsLunce, oI wIIcI LIere wus IILLIe.
;6

TIe 16
LI
cenLury uIso wus IosL Lo u number oI LrunsIers underLuken us LIe
OLLomuns uLLempLed Lo puL down u serIes oI InsurgencIes by LIe empIre`s dIsuIIecLed
LrIbuIIsL Trkmen popuIuLIon. RespondIng Lo LIe pro-pusLoruIIsL shi'i propugundu oI LIe
new OLLomun rIvuI Lo LIe eusL, LIe SuIuvIds, LIese LrIbesmen-cuIIed lizilbc, or red-
Ieuds-were subjecL Lo IursI cruck-downs sLurLIng In LIe reIgn oI BuyezIL . n response
Lo growIng SuIuvId supporL wILIIn LIe empIre, In 1oz LIe suILun ordered LIe
deporLuLIon oI lizilbc Irom Teke, HumId, und eIsewIere In AnuLoIIu Lo Coron und
Modon In LIe Moreu.
;;
A decude IuLer, sucI Ieurs were conIIrmed wILI LIe ouLbreuk oI u
mujor pro-SuIuvId rebeIIIon In Teke In 111. SucI revoILs, predomInunLIy umong LIe
Trkmen, conLInued perIodIcuIIy LIrougI LIe mId-16
LI
cenLury, noLubIy uguIn In 11q

;
SIuw (1q;6), p.8;.
;q
Burkun (1qqq-o), pp.q-8. He IncIudes un exempLIon order reIuLed Lo LIe projecL: sLunbuI,
BubukunIik ArIvI, TuIrIr deILerI no.z8.
;
Burkun (1qqq-o), pp.q;-8. He reprInLs u serIes oI communds regurdIng LIe Cyprus surun: sLunbuI,
BubukunIik ArIvI, MIImme deILerI, no.1q, pp.6q, q, ;; AkIum deILerI, yp.1o;
;6
SIuw (1q;6), p1;8.
;;
Indner (1q8), p1oq; mber (zooz), pqz.

z6
und 1z6-8, us dId meusures Luken Lo curb LIeIr dIsrupLIve power.
;8
We possess un
ImperIuI decree Irom LIe mId-16os orderIng LIe LrunsIer oI LIe descendenLs und
reIuLIves oI IIve lizilbc Ieuders Irom cenLruI AnuLoIIu Lo BudIn, In Hungury.
;q
A
commund wus Issued In 1;;-8 under Murud Lo LIe governor-generuI oI LIe provInce
oI Rum In CenLruI AnuLoIIu decIurIng LIuL, II necessury, ruLIer LIun beIng execuLed,
IereLIcuI lizilbc sIouId be punIsIed by deporLuLIon Lo Cyprus.
8o
InuIIy, unoLIer move
Luken uguInsL LIe empIre`s nomudIc IucLIons, sLuLe-pressured sedenLurIzuLIon, duLes buck
uL IeusL Lo LIe reIgn oI SIeymun (1zo-166).
81



;8
SIuw (1q;6), pp. 86, qz.
;q
Burkun (1q-q), p.zzq. Burkun cILes u hulum duLed MuIurrem q;: sLunbuI BubukunIik ArIvI,
MIImme deILerI, no. 6, p.;.
8o
Burkun (1q-q), p.zzq; sLunbuI, BubukunIik ArIvI, MIImme deILerI, no., p.zo6. Sunni mezheb
olmcub mulhid te rcjizi olcn lizilbc etleri te bcrllcri ile clclclcrin lct edip hiscr erlerine loub
Kibris'c surun eleub hclije ncminc olcnlcrin hcllcrindcn elduresin.
81
Indner (1q8), p.; nuIcik (1qqq), p.1q.
8. Transfer of kzlba, 16
th
century

z;
TIe Drop-oII oI LIe PoIIcy
rom our currenL undersLundIng oI LIe pIenomenon, IL uppeurs LIuL by LIe IuLe
1;
LI
cenLury LIe popuIuLIon LrunsIer Iud IuIIen Irom ILs prevIous posILIon us u sLundurdIy
ImpIemenLed LooI oI OLLomun poIIcy. TIIs suId, LIe conLInued movemenL oI
communILIes by LIe sLuLe uL some IeveI Is cerLuInIy probubIe - IncIdenLuI moves muy weII
Iuve conLInued LIrougI LIe end oI empIre. Burkun, Ior exumpIe, cILes un InsLunce Irom
16-6 oI LIe LrunsIer oI LrIbes In AzerbuIjun Lo ErzIncun und PusIn under Murud V
(16z-16qo), In order Lo reIurbIsI LIe ureu us evIdence Ior LIe IongevILy oI LIe
pIenomenon.
8z
AIso reIevunL Lo our subjecL ure LIose reseLLIemenL projecLs underLuken
In 161o und 16 uLLempLIng Lo move ugrIcuILuruIIsLs wIo Iud IIed Lo LIe Lowns und
cILIes In LIe course oI LIe CeIuII uprIsIngs buck onLo LIeIr Iormer pIoLs-noL, IL seems, Lo
new Iunds.
8

TIe conquesL oI CreLe In 166q, LIe IusL oI LIe OLLomun udvunces In LIe
MedILerruneun, wus noL IoIIowed by u sLuLe coIonIzuLIon projecL IIke LIose ImpIemenLed
In RIodes und Cyprus.
8q
WIy LIIs Is LIe cuse Is noL reudIIy uppurenL - one mIgIL cILe u
Iuck oI need Ior sucI u projecL Ior conLroI oI LIe IsIund, us weII us LIe ubsence oI u
coIesIve poIIcy-mukIng body us Iud exIsLed In LIe precedIng eru.
8
n uny cuse, conquesL
Iud ILs demogrupIIc eIIecL even wILIouL Iorced cIvIIIun LrunsIer; by LIe eurIy 18
LI
cenLury
MusIIms muy Iuve consLILuLed one-LIIrd Lo one-IuII oI LIe LoLuI popuIuLIon.
86
WILI LIe
excepLIon oI CreLe, IL wus durIng LIIs mIddIe perIod LIuL we see un end brougIL Lo LIe

8z
Burkun (1q1-z), p.;; NuImu (1q68), v. p.11z.
8
uroqII (1q8q), pp.z8-q.
8q
Greene (zooo), p.8;.
8
Greene uddresses LIe Issue oI LIe 'dIIuLIon` oI power In LIe courL In LIIs perIod, Green (zooo), pp.zo-1.
On specIIIc probIems In LIe cupILuI see mber (zooz), pp.8-q.
86
Greene (zooo), pp.z-.

z8
IungIng LerrILorIuI expunsIon und deIIberuLe ImperIuI consLrucLIon wIIcI Iud
cIurucLerIzed LIe IIrsL LIree decudes oI LIe empIre`s exIsLence.
AIso ImporLunL Lo our nurruLIve wus LIe end oI LIe Europeun IronLIer us regIon oI
new opporLunILy. WILI LIe IronLIer no Ionger IuncLIonIng us u 'suIeLy-vuIve` Ior nomudIc
resLIessness-Lo borrow Turner`s concepL Irom AmerIcun IIsLory-LIe sLuLe Lurned
IncreusIngIy Lo sedenLurIzuLIon us LIe cenLruI sLruLegy oI LrIbuI poIIcy, especIuIIy In LIe
IuLe 1;
LI
cenLury, wILI onIy murgInuI success, LIen uguIn In LIe 1q
LI
cenLury wILI greuLer
eIIecLIveness.
8;

OLIer ucLIvILIes wILI cIose sembIunce Lo LIe pIenomenon oI surun conLInued Lo
Luke pIuce pusL LIe 1;
LI
cenLury. Trkmen und KurdIsI LrIbes were pressured by LIe
OLLomun governmenL Lo move onLo LIe IrInges oI LIe SyrIun deserL In LIe IIrsL IuII oI LIe
18
LI
cenLury In u mIsdIrecLed uLLempL Lo IImIL LIe IuwIessness oI BedouIn groups movIng
InLo LIe sume ureu.
88
ExIIe, boLI poIILIcuI und crImInuI, wus u common LooI oI
governmenL LIrougIouL LIe IuLer OLLomun perIod; courL oIIIcIuIs und eunucIs were
commonIy exIIed Lo EgypL In LIe 18
LI
cenLury
8q
. BunIsImenL oI IndIvIduuIs und LIeIr
IumIIIes Lo oLIer purLs oI LIe empIre, sucI us LIe IsIunds oI LIe Aegeun, wus u commonIy
uppIIed senLence In 1q
LI
cenLury OLLomun courL sysLem.
qo



8;
uroqII (1qqq), p.qq6; see uIso CengIz OrIunIu 1q8;, Dsmcnli mpcrctorluu'ndc Airetlerin slcni.
88
McGowun (1qqq), p.6q;.
8q
June HuLIuwuy, IecLure uL PrInceLon UnIversILy. MurcI, zoo.
qo
RuLI MIIIer, IecLure uL PrInceLon UnIversILy. AprII 16, zoo.

zq
PurL . ObjecLIves
TIe InLenLIon oI LIIs cIupLer Is Lo Iuy ouL LIe objecLIves wIIcI underIuy LIe
OLLomun popuIuLIon LrunsIers und dIscuss LIeIr roIe wILIIn LIe Iurger Irumework oI
ImperIuI sLruLegy. TIe orgunIzuLIon oI LIIs dIscussIon Ius uLIIIzed LIe dIsLIncLIon
beLween securILy-orIenLed gouIs-LIose sLrIvIng Ior u purLIcuIur IeveI oI poIILIcuI or
mIIILury conLroI-und economIc gouIs-LIose operuLIng Lo eIIecL cIunges In LIe reuIm oI
producLIon, revenue, und Lrude. TIe uILImuLe precIsIon oI LIese Lerms Is noL
unprobIemuLIc; condILIons In LIe poIILIcuIJmIIILury spIere were crucIuI Lo LIe economIc
IIIe oI LIe empIre wIIIe LIe economy consLILuLed LIe prImury busIs oI LIe sLuLe`s ubIIILy
Lo projecL poIILIcuI und mIIILury power. TIey ure, Iowever, useIuI enougI Ior LIe
purposes oI LIIs unuIysIs.
TIe IIrsL secLIon oI purL Lwo uddresses u number oI cenLruI LIemes ImporLunL Lo
LIe concepL oI LrunsIer wILIIn LIe conLexL oI LIe munIpuIuLIon oI munpower wILIIn LIe
empIre. TIe second und LIIrd secLIons LIen uddress LIe IndIvIduuI objecLIves wIIcI
drove LIe LrunsIers; LIe second wIII deuI wILI LIose objecLIves reIuLed Lo LIe securILy oI
LIe reuIm wIIIe LIe LIIrd wIII deuI wILI LIe economIc objecLIves, LukIng InLo uccounL
boLI LIe pushes drIvIng LIe removuI oI popuIuLIons Irom one ureu und LIe pulls IeudIng
Lo LIeIr pIucemenL In unoLIer.
A. Using Monpouer Wiselg
TIe popuIuLIon LrunsIer wus un ucL oI dIrecL munIpuIuLIon oI LIe Iumun resources
oI LIe empIre. HumunILy wus u resource. PeopIe were power. TIey were cupILuI Lo be
InvesLed und Irom wIIcI Lo beneIIL. BuL LIey were u pecuIIur kInd oI resource, one LIuL

o
Iud wIII und IoIIowed InLeresLs, InLeresLs oILen In conIIIcL wILI LIose oI LIe sLuLe. L wus
In LIe sLuLe`s InLeresLs Lo see LIuL LIese Iumun resources were In u posILIon oI greuLesL
beneIIL und IeusL deLrImenL Lo LIe sysLem.
TIe uIms oI LIe LrunsIers were vurIed, und eucI LrunsIer oILen IuIIIIIed u
muILIpIIcILy oI gouIs. Some moLIves were bused prImurIIy on LIe desIre Lo remove u
popuIuLIon Irom u purLIcuIur LerrILory due Lo ILs posILIon us u IIndrunce or LIreuL Lo sLuLe
InLeresLs-wIuL we muy IubeI 'pusIes`; oLIer moLIves were bused on LIe desIre Lo InserL u
popuIuLIon InLo u LerrILory due Lo LIe udvunLuges Lo ImperIuI sLruLegy ILs presence LIere
wouId provIde-wIuL we muy cuII 'puIIs`. WILIIn u conLexL oI muxImIzIng LIe eIIIcucy oI
munpower wILIIn LIe empIre, LIe Lrend oI 'doubIIng up` LIe gouIs oI u sIngIe LrunsIer-
LIe esLubIIsImenL oI IronLIer coIonIes uLIIIzIng dIsrupLIve InLernuI popuIuLIons or LIe use
oI conquered popuIuLIons In LIe process oI resLorIng commercIuI cenLers, Ior exumpIe-
wus LIe sLundurd ruLIer LIun LIe excepLIon. NoL onIy couId popuIuLIons beIng 'pusIed`
ouL oI one LerrILory be uLIIIzed Lo IuIIIII LIe 'puIIs` oI unoLIer, buL LrunsIers oILen worked
Lowurds economIc, mIIILury, und Iong-Lerm demogrupIIc gouIs sImuILuneousIy.
TIeme 1. ProIILIng Irom dIsposubIe popuIuLIons
WIen Iuced wILI LIe quesLIon oI LIe mobIIIzuLIon oI munpower, LIe sLuLe Iud
vuryIng degrees oI munduLe over LIe Iumun resources oI LIe empIre. SuId dIIIerenLIy,
popuIuLIons exIsLed uL vuryIng degrees oI dIsposuI Lo LIe ruIIng uuLIorILy.
PerIups LIe cIeuresL munduLe, Ior exumpIe, wus IeId over LIose wIo Iuy under
LIe sLuLe`s dIrecL proIessIonuI conLroI - LIe cenLruI mIIILury body, sLuLe sIuves, und Lo u
Iesser degree, members oI LIe greuLer mIIILury (csleri) cIuss. WILIIn bounds, LIe sLuLe
IeId und communded LIe movemenLs und ucLIvILIes oI LIese groups wILI compIeLe

1
dIscreLIon. OuLsIde oI LIIs groupIng oI 'sLuLe` munpower, Iuy LIe Iurger porLIon oI LIe
popuIuLIon, cIvIIIun und semI-cIvIIIun groups IncIudIng peusunLs, cILy-dweIIers, und
pusLoruIIsLs. TIe sLuLe, oI course, cIuImed un ubsoIuLe munduLe over LIese us weII. On
LIe oLIer Iund, LIere were cerLuIn condILIons LIuL mude LIe prucLIcuI exercIse oI LIIs
munduLe eusIer Ior LIe sLuLe, cerLuIn groups LIuL Ior one reuson or unoLIer were more
eusIIy or more eIIIcIenLIy munIpuIuLed. TIese consLILuLe wIuL we muy Lerm purLIcuIurIy
'dIsposubIe` popuIuLIons - popuIuLIons LIuL, due Lo LIeIr purLIcuIur cIurucLer or sLuLus,
exIsLed uL u IIgI degree oI dIsposuI Lo LIe sLuLe.
ExumpIes oI sucI sources IncIuded LIose wIo exIsLed uL LIe edges oI socIeLy und
LIe economy - LIe IundIess, mIgrunLs, LIe unempIoyed - or LIose wIo by LIeIr ucLIons
were puL uL LIe mercy oI LIe sLuLe - crImInuIs, dIssIdenLs, or oLIerwIse dIsrupLIve
groups. TIe IIsLIng oI LIose Lo be rounded up Ior LIe coIonIzuLIon oI Cyprus, Ior
exumpIe, expIIcILIy empIusIzed LIIs IIrsL group, wIose removuI, uL IeusL In LIeory, Iud
IILLIe neguLIve eIIecL on sLuLe revenues, beneIILed LIe IeuILI oI LIe source communILy,
und provIded LIe opporLunILy oI guIn Ior LIose wIo were moved.
q1
MIng repopuIuLIon
projecLs In LIe 1q
LI
cenLury sImIIurIy LurgeLed IundIess popuIuLIons.
qz
TIey consLILuLed u
seL oI resources wIose dIspIucemenL couId be execuLed wILI greuLer ImpunILy und wIose
dIsrupLIon Iud IILLIe neguLIve ImpucL on LIe sLuLe or ILs IoIdIngs.
Conquered popuIuLIons presenL unoLIer exumpIe oI sucI u 'dIsposubIe` group. We
Iuve seen, Ior exumpIe, LIuL Iuge numbers oI cupLIves Irom MeImeL `s conquesLs In
Greece were LrunsporLed Lo sLunbuI In LIe course oI LIe cILy`s repopuIuLIon. Some were
seLLIed ouLsIde LIe wuIIs us ugrIcuILuruI Iuborers und some, purLIcuIurIy urLIsuns und

q1
Burkun (1qqq-o), pp.o-1; MIImme DeILerI, no.1q p.q. uroqII, uLIIIzIng LIe sume source
muLerIuI In Ier dIscussIon oI popuIuLIon LrunsIers, uses LIe Lerm 'murgInuI men`. uroqII (1qqq), p.z8z.
qz
MoLe und TwILcIeLL, pp.1z-q.

z
cruILsmen, were seIecLed Lo seLLIe InsIde LIe cILy. WIuL drove sucI usuge? SureIy noL uII
oI LIese popuIuLIons consLILuLed mujor LIreuLs Lo OLLomun conLroI oI LIe Moreu. TIe
expIunuLIon comes wILI LIe IucL LIuL LIey represenLed un especIuIIy cccessible source oI
munpower. TIe evenL oI conquesL, oI suddenIy beIng gIven LIe sLuLus oI u 'conquered
peopIe,` pIuced LIeIr IuLe In LIe Iunds oI LIe sLuLe. As u course oI wurIure, LIey were
subjecL Lo deuLI, ensIuvemenL, or reIocuLIon - LIe sLuLe Iud every rIgIL Lo do wIuL IL
wunLed. As u resuIL, conquesL wus un exceIIenL opporLunILy Lo grub munpower -
ugrurIun, skIIIed, weuILIy, or oLIerwIse. TIIs wus especIuIIy Lrue In LIe cuse oI LIe
OLLomuns, wIo were conquerIng purLIcuIurIy skIIIed urbunILe popuIuLIons. urLIermore,
In deuIIng wILI LIese popuIuLIons uL conquesL, IL wusn`L uprooLIng uny oI ILs esLubIIsIed
resource buse. n LIe course oI IncorporuLIng LIese resources InLo LIe empIre, LIere wus
IILLIe dIsudvunLuge Lo reIocuLIng LIem Lo LIe ureus provIdes muxImum beneIIL Lo LIe
sLuLe. TIeIr uLIIIzuLIon In sucI projecLs LIus cume very cIeupIy Lo LIe sLuLe.
q

We muy conLrusL LIIs Lo LIe sILuuLIon oI u seLLIed peusunL popuIuLIon sILLIng
IIrmIy wILIIn LIe empIre - consLILuLIng u mucI Iess 'dIsposubIe` popuIuLIon, LIey were u
group over wIIcI LIe sLuLe Iud compuruLIveIy IILLIe munduLe Lo LreuL wILI ImpunILy und
wIose dIsrupLIon proved mucI more cosLIy Lo sLuLe economIc InLeresLs. SIouId LIuL
popuIuLIon rebeI, Iowever, LIe LubIes ure Lurned und LIe sLuLe cun do wIuL IL wunLs -
sucI un ucL renders IL u mucI more dIsposubIe popuIuLIon.
TIe empIre`s nomudIc popuIuLIons, Loo, IeId u purLIcuIurIy 'dIsposubIe` posILIon
wILIIn LIe LoLuI scIeme oI Iubor uvuIIubIe Lo LIe sLuLe. Murked by LIeIr nuLuruI mobIIILy,
LIese groups couId be moved wILI IILLIe dIsrupLIon Lo LIe sLuLe`s economIc buse; LIeIr

q
One IurLIer IucLor LIuL uIded und encouruged LIe reIocuLIon oI conquered peopIes wus LIe IucL LIuL LIe
mIIILury Iorces uppIIed Lo LIe conquesL couId LIen be used Lo execuLe sucI moves.


murLIuI cIurucLer und dIsrupLIve LendencIes, moreover, guve LIe sLuLe u Iree Iund In
reIocuLIng LIem.
TIe sLuLe wus oI course noL IImILed Lo sucI groups - LIere ure u bevy oI InsLunces
In wIIcI LIe sLuLe uLLempLed Lo und succeeded In LIe reIocuLIon oI groups IyIng uL LIe
cenLer oI LIe socIeLy esLubIIsImenL. SucI LrunsIers we IInd In cuses oI mussIve projecLs
beurIng LIe IuII weIgIL oI ImperIuI uuLIorILy-sucI us LIe consLrucLIon oI sLunbuI under
MeImeL ; InsLunces oI moves execuLed wILI sucI Iuck oI munduLe oILen requIred
greuLer compensuLIon by LIe sLuLe, und oILen guve rIse Lo greuLer compIuInL LIun wouId
LIe mobIIIzuLIon oI u IrInge communILy. TIe wILIdruwuI oI LIe Hun dynusLy Irom LIe
prucLIce oI reIocuLIng members oI LIe urIsLocrucy Lo LIe ureus surroundIng LIe royuI
Lombs In LIe z
nd
und 1
sL
cenLury B.C. presenLs un exumpIe oI u LIe sLuLe IuvIng Lo desIsL
Irom LIe prucLIce due Lo u Iuck oI IegILImucy.
qq
TIe 'repeuI` oI LIe LrunsIer oI weuILIy,
skIIIed, und Ieurned peopIe Irom AzerbuIjun, TubrIz, und EgypL under SIeymun muy
Iuve been respondIng Lo sImIIur pressure.
q


TIeme z. ConsLrucLIon oI u new order LIrougI dIspIucemenL
TIe reconIIguruLIon oI power sLrucLures wus u cenLruI process underIyIng u greuL
muny oI LIe popuIuLIon LrunsIers wIIcI we exumIne In LIIs essuy. TIIs process wus
prImurIIy u poIILIcuI one, crucIuI Lo LIe consLrucLIon oI un ImperIuI sLuLe, buL wIIcI oILen
Iud ImporLunL economIc und socIuI eIemenLs. We IInd u guIde Ior LIIs upproucI ouLIIned
by MucIIuveIII:

qq
TwILcIeLL und oewe (1q86), pp.zoq-z1o, .
q
SIuw (1q;6), p.8;.

q
WIoever becomes prInce oI u cILy or sLuLe... wIII IInd LIe besL meuns Ior
IoIdIng LIuL prIncIpuIILy Lo orgunIze LIe governmenL enLIreIy unew... LIuL
Is, Ie sIouId uppoInL new governors wILI new LILIes, new power, und new
men, und Ie sIouId muke LIe poor rIcI... BesIdes LIIs, Ie sIouId desLroy
LIe oId cILIes und buIId new ones, und LrunsIer LIe InIubILunLs Irom one
pIuce Lo unoLIer; In sIorL, Ie sIouId Ieuve noLIIng uncIunged In LIuL
provInce, so LIuL LIere sIouId be neILIer runk, nor grude, nor Ionor, nor
weuILI, LIuL sIouId noL be recognIzed us comIng Irom IIm. He sIouId Luke
PIIIIp oI Mucedon, IuLIer oI AIexunder Ior IIs modeI, wIo by proceedIng
In LIuL munner becume, Irom u peLLy kIng, musLer oI uII Greece. And IIs
IIsLorIun LeIIs us LIuL Ie LrunsIerred LIe InIubILunLs Irom one provInce Lo
unoLIer, us sIepIerds move LIeIr IIocks Irom pIuce Lo pIuce.
q6

WIIIe MucIIuveIII`s proLocoI proves somewIuL more IursI LIun LIe cIurucLerIzuLIon oI
OLLomun expunsIon und conquesL gIven by LIose scIoIurs wIo poInL Lo u Lendency
Lowurds udupLuLIon und concIIIuLIon over IursI mIIILury ruIe us u mujor IucLor In LIe
success oI LIe eurIy prIncIpuIILy
q;
, IL muy neverLIeIess serve In undersLundIng LIe pIuce
oI muny oI LIe popuIuLIon LrunsIers wILIIn greuLer ImperIuI desIgns.
TIe OLLomun EmpIre Irom LIe 1q
LI
LIrougI LIe 16
LI
cenLury wus u sLuLe enguged
In neurIy conLInuous LerrILorIuI expunsIon und seII-consLrucLIon us un ImperIuI power.
OLLomun poIIcy LIrougIouL LIIs perIod wus pIuyIng very ucLIve poIILIcuI gumes
LIrougIouL ILs IoIdIngs In Europe und AnuLoIIu, boLI umong popuIuLIons wIIcI mIgIL
be cuLegorIzed us 'subjecLs`-conquered CIrIsLIuns-und LIose wIIcI mIgIL be

q6
MucIIuveIII (1qo).
q;
see, Ior exumpIe, nuIcik (1qq), pp.1zz-zz; nuIcik (1q6q), p.; owry (zoo).


consIdered ILs 'consLILuenLs`-LIe MusIIm Turks oI AnuLoIIu. HuIII nuIcik`s concepL oI
LIe busIc puLLern oI OLLomun expunsIon us LIe esLubIIsImenL oI progressIve sLuges oI
conLroI
q8
mIgIL weII be exLended Lo LIe process oI consoIIduLIng sLuLe power, noL In LIe
conquered LerrILorIes uIone buL LIrougIouL LIe empIre us u wIoIe. TIus, we muy
conceIve LIe consoIIduLIon oI conLroI us u process LIuL wus occurrIng uL vuryIng sLuges
sImuILuneousIy In boLI LIe IeurLIunds und LIe IronLIers oI LIe sLuLe.
TIe reuIIgnmenL oI power sLrucLures-LIuL Is, LIe wuy In wIIcI one derIved
uuLIorILy und deIIned one`s posILIon In LIe worId-wus un ImporLunL eIemenL In LIIs
expunsIon und consoIIduLIon oI power. L wus wILIIn LIIs eIIorL LIuL popuIuLIon LrunsIers
were uLIIIzed In LIe dIsmunLIemenL oI conquered und InLernuI eIILes, In LIe
esLubIIsImenL oI domInIon over new LerrILorIes, eIImInuLIng LIreuLs Lo sLuLe conLroI, und
reuIIgnIng LIe InLeresLs oI oLIerwIse beIIIgerenL LrIbuI groups.
On u sImIIur noLe, LIe use oI LrunsIers In LIe orgunIzuLIon oI LIe ncu EmpIre
presenLs u cIeur uppIIcuLIon oI sucI un upproucI, one wIIcI wenL beyond even LIe
OLLomun In uppIIcuLIon. TIe mitimce sysLem-by wIIcI Iurge porLIons oI conquered
communILIes were swupped wILI groups oI IoyuI seLLIers-wus InsLILuLIonuIIzed, deepIy
IILLIng, und uppIIed ucross LIe empIre`s IoIdIngs. As Bernube Cobo, wrILIng In LIe 1;
LI

cenLury, expresses, By meuns oI LIIs resoIuLIon Lo muke LIe mujorILy oI LIeIr peopIe re-
esLubIIsI LIemseIves by sIIILIng some Lo LIe pIuces oI oLIer, LIe kIng kepL IIs sLuLes
secure Irom rebeIIIon.
qq
TIe ncu used LIe LrunsIers us u LooI In LIe dIsmunLIemenL oI
pre-exIsLIng poIILIcuI, socIuI, und even reIIgIous sLrucLures und In ensurIng LIe
ImpIemenLuLIon oI LIeIr own. NIgeI DuvIes wrILes: As u Iorm oI socIuI engIneerIng, LIe

q8
nuIcik (1qq), p.1o.
qq
Cobo (1q;q), p.18q.

6
mitimce sysLem wus used on sucI u scuIe LIuL IL Is Iurd Lo IInd u puruIIeI eIsewIere In
LIe worId. L pIuyed u vILuI roIe In LIe process oI conquesL us u meuns oI pucIIyIng newIy
ucquIred Iunds by removIng LIe more unreIIubIe eIemenLs und repIucIng LIem wILI IoyuI
seLLIers.
1oo

TIe sume sLruLegy wus underLuken In LIe consLrucLIon oI u unIIIed AIgIun sLuLe
under Abdur RuImun In LIe second IuII oI LIe 1q
LI
cenLury, IocuLIng Iurge numbers oI
eLInIc PusILuns InLo LIe mujorILy TujIk norLIern ureus und TujIks InLo LIe PusILun
domInuLed souLI. n LIe words oI H. MorLImer Durund, LIe BrILIsI IoreIgn secreLury Lo
LIe governmenL oI ndIu, TrIbe uILer LrIbe wIIcI Iud muInLuIned some sorL oI
Independence wus reduced Lo order, und scuLLered In coIonIes uII over LIe counLry.
1o1

TIe IIsLorIun VurLun GregorIun conLInues: By 1qo1, wIen Ie dIed, Abdur RuImun Iud
munuged Lo unIIy AIgIunIsLun poIILIcuIIy und Lo esLubIIsI LIe IIrsL LIorougIIy cenLruIIzed
regIme In LIe counLry.
1oz

A meLupIor LIuL muy uId our LIInkIng oI LIIs process-LIe reuIIgnmenL oI power
sLrucLures In LIe consLILuLIon oI un ImperIuI body-Is un endoLIermIc cIemIcuI reucLIon,
one In wIIcI LIe bonds IoIdIng LogeLIer un exIsLIng seL oI moIecuIes ure broken upurL Lo
uIIow LIe IormuLIon oI u new moIecuIur urrungemenL bound by u new seL oI more sLubIe,
IusLIng bonds. Becuuse LIe reucLIon Is endoLIermIc, LIe LrunsIormuLIon Is reIIunL on LIe
uppIIcuLIon oI energy. TIe popuIuLIon movemenLs, LIe resIuIIIIng oI peusunLs,
pusLoruIIsLs, und urIsLocrucIes, serve us LIe cuLuIyLIc uppIIcuLIon oI energy LIuL uIds und
encouruges LIIs LrunsIormuLIon. One muy LIen uppIy LIuL energy wILI vuryIng degrees oI
InLensILy dependIng on LIe exLenL oI resLrucLurIng necessury Lo ucIIeve u IusLIng IeveI oI

1oo
DuvIes (1qq), pp.1z-.
1o1
H. MorILmer Durund, quoLed In GregorIun (1q6q), p.1q.
1oz
GregorIun (1q6q), p.1.

;
conLroI over LIe ureu. TIe OLLomun surun, LIe movemenL oI peopIes LIrougIouL LIe
empIre us sIepIerds move LIeIr IIocks Irom pIuce Lo pIuce, served us u Iorce oI cIunge
In LIe IormuLIon oI u new poIILIcuI order.
TIIs uppIIed Lo u degree wILIIn LIe economIc spIere us weII. TIe ncu, wIo
exIIbILed u very LIgILIy conLroIIed economy, sLrengLIened LIe sLuLe-conLroIIed secLor oI
LIe economy LIrougI LIe reIocuLIon oI Iubor.
1o
TIe IurmIng und runcIIng communILIes
seLLIed by LrunsIerees neur sLunbuI-perIups numberIng In LIe Lens oI LIousunds-und
In norLIwesLern AnuLoIIu were sImIIurIy pIuced under LIe dIrecL conLroI oI LIe suILun`s
courL.
1oq

TIeme . oyuILy LIrougI dIspIucemenL
AnoLIer ImporLunL dynumIc uL work In muny oI LIese cuses Is LIuL oI LIe
muxImIzuLIon oI IoyuILy LIrougI dIspIucemenL. TIe Issue oI u popuIuLIon`s IoyuILy Lo LIe
sLuLe und ILs udIerence Lo sLuLe InLeresLs wus u key IucLor In LIe esLubIIsIIng udded
sLrengLI Lo LIe bonds beLween sLuLe und peopIe.
UsIng LrunsIer us u meuns by wIIcI popuIuLIons LIuL ure dungerous In LIeIr
orIgInuI IocuLIon ure rendered dependubIe by seLLIIng LIem In u new IocuLIon wus boLI u
cenLruI drIve oI muny LrunsIers us weII us u IucLor wIIcI udded exLru proIILubIIILy Lo LIe
process oI consoIIduLIng conLroI und projecLIng InIIuence - dungerous popuIuLIons,
InsLeud oI sImpIy beIng eIImInuLed, couId be neuLruIIzed or even redIrecLed Lowurds
sLuLe InLeresLs LIrougI dIspIucemenL. PIuced umong IosLIIe, unsympuLIeLIc, or sImpIy
IInguIsLIcuIIy or cuILuruIIy uIIen popuIuLIons, IoyuILy wouId IuII buck on LIe sLuLe wIIcI

1o
Conrud und DemuresL (1q8q), p.1.
1oq
Burkun (1q1-z), p.6; nuIcik (1q6q-;o), p.zq. nuIcik cILes un urLIcIe by Burkun wIIcI Iuve been
unubIe Lo uccess: XV ve XVinci usirIurdu OsmunIi mpuruLorIugundu Lopruk IIIIgInIn orgunIzusyon
ekIIIerI. stcnbul Unitersit ltisct Iclultesi Mecmucsi, 1 (1qqo)

8
Iud seL LIem LIere und wIIcI bucked LIeIr InLeresLs. Key exumpIes oI LIIs In LIe
OLLomun cuse IncIude oI LIe movemenL oI TurkIsI und TuLur LrIbes Irom AnuLoIIu InLo
LIe BuIkuns, LIe reussIgnmenL oI nuLIve urIsLocrucIes Lo posILIons eIsewIere wILIIn LIe
empIre, und LIe LrunsporL oI conquered peopIes ouL oI LIeIr nuLIve Iunds Lo be seLLIed In
LIe Lowns und counLrysIde oI AnuLoIIu. As CoIIn mber expresses concernIng LIe
deporLuLIon oI TurkIsI knIgILs Lo AIbunIu In LIe eurIy 1
LI
cenLury: WIuL MeImeL
cIeurIy dId wus Lo remove LIe IIeI IoIders Irom SuruIun, wIere LIey Iud IocuI
connecLIons, und LrunsIerred LIem Lo AIbunIu, wIere LIey Iud none. TIeIr onIy source oI
puLronuge und proLecLIon wus LIe OLLomun SuILun, wIose InLeresLs LIey wouId LIereIore
deIend Irom IocuI cIuIIenges.
1o
TIe dIsorIenLIngJreorIenLIng eIIecLs oI sucI
reIocuLIons, Iowever, were noL necessurIIy endurIng; LIe sLrungeness Ieveruged Iere no
doubL dImInIsIed us LIe IoreIgners und LIeIr new envIronmenL becume uccusLomed Lo
one unoLIer.
n some cuses, wIuL wus produced wus noL necessurIIy IoyuILy In LIe sense oI
IeurLs und mInds, buL ruLIer u convergence oI InLeresLs. TIe LrunsIormuLIon oI Trkmen
LrIbesmen Irom unLI-sLuLe ucLors Lo IoyuI supporLers oI LIe new regIme muy seem
ImpIuusIbIe. n muny cuses, Iowever, sucI u sIIIL In IoyuILIes wus noL engendered
LIrougI uny cIunge In regurd Ior uuLIorILy buL ruLIer LIrougI movIng LIem InLo u
posILIon wIere, In ucLIng In LIeIr own InLeresLs, LIey were ucLIng In LIe InLeresLs oI LIe
sLuLe us weII.
CIezu de eon presenLs LIe ncun mitimce sLruLegy us u seII-reguIuLory sysLem oI
provIncIuI securILy: And LIese mILImues were ordered by LIe ncus Lo be uIwuys
obedIenL... so LIuL II LIe nuLIves sIouId rebeI, und LIey supporLed LIe governor, LIe

1o
mber (zooz), p.18.

q
nuLIves wouId be punIsIed und reduced Lo LIe servIce oI LIe ncus. IkewIse, II LIe
mILImues sLIrred up dIsorder, LIey were puL down by LIe nuLIves... n LIIs wuy, uII wus
quIeL, und LIe mILImues Ieured LIe nuLIves, und LIe nuLIves Ieured LIe mILImues, und uII
occupIed LIemseIves onIy In obeyIng und servIng.
1o6
A popuIuce occupIed onIy In
obeyIng, servIng, und producIng revenue wus Indeed u worLIwIIIe gouI Ior LIe muny
sLuLe ucLors exumIned In LIIs essuy.


1o6
CIezu (1qq), pp.;, 6o.

qo
B. Securitg Ohjectioes
PUSHES: poIILIcuI und mIIILury reusons beIInd movIng peopIe ouL
TIe removuI oI u popuIuLIon wus oILen sLImuIuLed by LIe LIreuL or obsLucIe wIIcI
IL comprIsed Lo LIe sLuLe`s conLroI over LIe LerrILory LIuL IL InIubILed. n some InsLunces
LIese popuIuLIons were druwn Irom newIy ucquIred ureus wILIIn LIe conLexL oI
consoIIduLIng conLroI over conquered LerrILory; In oLIers LIey were druwn Irom InLernuI
LerrILorIes In un uLLempL Lo desLroy or cIunneI LIe poLenLIuI or munIIesL dunger wIIcI
LIey posed Lo sLuLe conLroI.
control oI new territories, purt 1: the conqoered popolutions
TIe removuI oI popuIuLIons wILIIn LIe process oI conquesL uccompIIsIed u
number oI securILy objecLIves. TIIs removuI oILen Look LIe Iorm oI ensIuvemenL, wIIcI
neuLruIIzed LIe ubIIILy oI groups Lo resIsL occupuLIon wIIIe sImuILuneousIy provIdIng LIe
conquerors wILI u commodILy Lo be soId, puL InLo dIrecL servIce, or used Lo rewurd
Lroops.
1o;
DeporLuLIon uL LIe communILy IeveI wus unoLIer sucI meLIod by wIIcI Lo
esLubIIsI IIrm conLroI over LIe LerrILory.
CIezu de eon provIdes us u descrIpLIon oI LIe upproucI oI LIe ncu Lo LIe
quesLIon oI conLroIIIng LerrILory:
n us mucI us uII LIIs IengLI oI LerrILory wus InIubILed by burburous
peopIes, some oI wIom were very wurIIke, In order more eusIIy Lo Insure

1o;
EnsIuvemenL sIures muny oI LIe IeuLures oI popuIuLIon LrunsIers. EnsIuvemenL, Loo, ensured LIe
neuLruIIzuLIon oI LIe conquered communILy und In LIe cuse oI LIose cupLured wILIIn LIe course oI wurIure,
served Lo eIImInuLe LIe greuLer purL oI LIe IIgILIng men Irom LIe scene. ndeed LIe IIow oI sIuves Irom LIe
BuIkuns InLo AnuLoIIu In LIe 1q
LI
und 1
LI
cenLurIes cun be consIdered u demogrupIIc movemenL oI
sIgnIIIcunL proporLIons wIIcI, LIougI IuIIIng ouLsIde LIe scope oI LIIs sLudy, Is u pIenomenon LIuL sIures
muny oI LIe dynumIcs oI group LrunsIers.

q1
und keep LIeIr power und LrunquIIILy, LIe IoIIowIng poIIcy Iud been puL
InLo Iorce Irom LIe LIme oI ncu PucIucuLI |d.1q;1|... As soon us one oI
LIese Iurge provInces wus conquered, Len or LweIve LIousund oI LIe men
und LIeIr wIves, or sIx LIousund, or LIe number decIded upon, were
ordered Lo Ieuve und remove LIemseIves Irom IL. TIese were LrunsIerred Lo
unoLIer Lown or provInce oI LIe sume cIImuLe und nuLure us LIuL wIIcI
LIey IeIL...
1o8

SucI ucLIons served Lo neuLruIIze LIe obsLucIe posed by nuLIve popuIuLIons Lo LIe
consoIIduLIon oI sLuLe conLroI over LIe ureu. n LIe OLLomun EmpIre, LIIs cume prImurIIy
In LIe Iorm oI LIe removuI und reseLLIemenL oI Iurge numbers oI Greek und SIuvIc
speukers Irom Europe InLo AnuLoIIu.
SucI reIocuLIons uIIowed LIe esLubIIsImenL oI conLroI over sLruLegIc sILes-
IorLIIIcuLIons or InuccessIbIe ureus-wIIcI couId eILIer Lo be occupIed or desLroyed. TIe
ncu InsLILuLed IocuIIzed reIocuLIons Lo LIIs eIIecL by movIng communILIes oII oI IIIILops
und ouL oI IorLIIIed ureus InLo Iower vuIIeys wIere LIey mIgIL more eusIIy be
conLroIIed.
1oq
TIIs sLuLe objecLIve Iud promInence umong LIe OLLomun LrunsIers us weII.
TIe eurIIesL LrunsIer presenLed by LIe cIronIcIer Aikpuuzude descrIbes sucI u move
underLuken In LIe IIrsL yeurs oI conquesL In TIruce by SIeymun Puu, wIo orders IIs
men Lo remove LIe unbeIIevers wIo ure sipchis |knIgILs| Irom LIese cusLIes. Send LIem
wILI LIeIr IumIIIes Lo KuresI so LIuL LIey won`L evenLuuIIy brIng some Iurm Lo us. He
LIen popuIuLed LIe IorLress wILI nomuds brougIL over Irom LIe sume provInce In

1o8
CIezu (1qq), pp.6-;
1oq
Cobo (1q;q), p1qq. TIe OLLomuns ordered sImIIur IocuIIzed movemenLs ouLsIde LIe conLexL oI conquesL
IuLer In LIe 1;
LI
cenLury IoIIowIng LIe movemenL oI peusunLs InLo IorLIIIed encIuves durIng u perIod oI
uprIsIngs. TIe concenLruLIon oI ruruI popuIuLIons In IorLIIIed ureus wus undesIrubIe In Lerms oI boLI
securILy und LIe economy - sucI u sILuuLIon kepL peusunLry uwuy Irom LIeIr IIeIds und provIded LIe
IuwIess wILI IorLresses Irom wIIcI Lo deIy sLuLe uuLIorILy. See uroqII (1q8q), pp.z;-.

qz
AnuLoIIu.
11o
TIe nurruLIve oI LIe ByzunLIne cIronIcIer Doukus reveuIs LIe conLInued
uppIIcuLIon oI sucI removuIs LIrougI LIe IoIIowIng cenLury.
111

TIe ByzunLInes, IucIng LIe IdenLIcuI geogrupIIcuI Iundscupe cenLurIes eurIIer,
LrunsIerred Iurge bodIes oI SIuvs cupLured In LIe BuIkuns InLo AnuLoIIu In un uLLempL Lo
breuk LIe LIreuL LIey posed Lo LIe empIre`s Europeun presence. SyrIuns, ArmenIuns, und
oLIers presenLIng probIems IurLIer eusL were LIen moved InLo deIensIve posILIons uIong
LIe wesLern IronLIer.
11z
TIIs presenLs u neurIy perIecL puruIIeI wILI LIe OLLomun
soIuLIons Lo conLroI over boLI ILs conquered LerrILorIes und dIIIIcuIL LrIbuI popuIuLIons.
L sIouId be noLed LIuL us LIe conquered were poLenLIuIIy u very vuIuubIe source
oI new munpower Lo LIe sLuLe, IL wus very oILen more LIun LIe obsLucIe LIey posed Lo
sLuLe conLroI LIuL underIuy LIeIr removuI. As we sIuII expIore IuLer, In u Iurge porLIon oI
sucI InsLunces LIe objecLIve wus IurgeIy economIc - LIe conquered groups wouId be
LrunspIunLed InLo cILIes or reseLLIed us ugrIcuILuruI workers. n oLIer InsLunces, Iowever,
LIey couId uIso be uLIIIzed Lo meeL securILy objecLIves. TIe reIocuLIon Lo RumeII, Ior
exumpIe, oI LIe Trkmen LrIbes supporLIng LIe emIr oI Kurumun subdued LIrougI LIe
1q6os und ;os wouId Iuve worked Lowurds OLLomun securILy objecLIves In Europe In

11o
Sulemcn Pcc: `u hiscrlcrdcn sipchi olcn lcjirleri ilcrin. Etlerile Kcrcsi iline ilertin li
bunlcrdcn sonundc bize bir lotulul elmee' dedi. le cptilcr. Aikpuuzude (1qqz), cI.q p.q;.
111
DurIng Murud `s cumpuIgns uguInsL LIe Serbs, Ie desLroyed muny oI LIeIr IorLresses und Lowns und
Look LIeIr InIubILunLs cupLIve; Ie LIen LrunsporLed LIem Lo LIe AsIuLIc sIore over LIe sLruILs oI LIe
CIersonese. Doukus (1q;), p.6o. MeImeL , uILer cupLurIng u IorLress neur Smederovo, Look uII LIe
InIubILunLs cupLIve... AILer cIuImIng IuII oI LIe cupLIves Ior IImseII, Ie senL LIem Lo popuIuLe LIe vIIIuges
ouLsIde ConsLunLInopIe. Doukus (1q;), p.zq.
11z
Ine (1q8), p.6. A mucI more LIorougI LreuLmenL oI LIe rouLes by wIIcI LIe ByzunLInes und
OLLomuns deuIL wILI LIeIr geogrupIIcuI und demogrupIIcuI sILuuLIons Is un excILIng prospecL, one wIIcI
wouId prove exLremeIy InLeresLIng IookIng uL LIe Issue oI popuIuLIon LrunsIers uIone. See, Ior exumpIe,
CIurunIs (1q61).

q
uddILIon Lo eIImInuLIng u serIous source oI resIsLunce Lo OLLomun expunsIon In
AnuLoIIu.
11

control oI new territories, purt : the politicul elites
AnoLIer key quesLIon IucIng LIe expundIng sLuLe wus wIuL Lo do wILI LIose LIuL
sLood uL LIe Lop oI LIe pre-exIsLIng power sLrucLures In newIy ucquIred LerrILorIes -
members oI LIe ruIIng cIuss or nuLIve urIsLocrucIes. TIe cenLruI power Iuced LIe dIIemmu
oI uLLempLIng Lo mInImIze LIe ubIIILy oI sucI eIILes Lo cIuIIenge ILs own uuLIorILy, buL yeL
uL LIe sume LIme uLIIIze groups wIose educuLIon, skIIIs In governmenL, und weuILI IeId
udvunLuges Ior u growIng empIre.
11q

TIere were severuI opLIons Lo IoIIow In deuIIng wILI LIIs Issue, dependIng on LIe
necessILIes oI LIe sILuuLIon und LIe upproucI oI LIe ImperIuI power. TIey mIgIL be
enLIreIy desLroyed, sucI us In LIe cuse oI LIe deIeuL oI LIe Bey oI Aydin In LIe 1qzos, wIo
wus execuLed uIong wILI uII IIs IumIIy.
11
n oLIer InsLunces, LIe sLuLe couId ensure LIeIr
compIeLe IsoIuLIon Irom LIe poIILIcuI reuIm, oILen by meuns oI LrunsIer. WIIIe LIe cenLruI
uIm Iuy In LIe reIocuLIon oI specIIIc IndIvIduuIs, LIIs someLImes couId InvoIve sIgnIIIcunL
numbers, noL jusL LIe removuI oI LIe royuI IumIIy. AILernuLIveIy, LIey mIgIL be gIven u
pIuce wILIIn LIe new sysLem. n some cuses LIey wouId be IeIL In LIe sume posILIons us

11
nuIcik (1q86), p.q6. TIe Ideu oI LIe converse - usIng newIy conquered CIrIsLIun popuIuLIons In
securIng LerrILory In AnuLoIIu - LIougI InLrIguIng, Iucks evIdence: mosL InsLunces oI CIrIsLIun
communILIes moved eusLwurd oIIer no desLInuLIon oLIer LIun 'AnuLoIIu`. L does noL seem IIkeIy LIuL LIe
6o CIrIsLIun IumIIIes pIuced us guurds uL LIe puss neur YenIeIIr under BuyezIL were newIy conquered
subjecLs, Burkun (1q1-z), p.6q. CIezu`s descrIpLIon oI LIe ncu mitimce sysLem IncIudes u roIe Ior LIe
conquered In conLrIbuLIng Lo LIe securILy oI LIe ureu Lo wIIcI LIey were LrunspIunLed, CIezu (1qq), p.;,
LIougI Cobo IncIudes LIuL LIey were generuIIy LrunsIerred Lo LIe quIeL und peuceIuI provInces. Cobo
(1q;q), p.18q. TIe MIng uLIIIzed LIe Iurge number oI MongoIs surrenderIng LIemseIves uIong LIe norLIern
IronLIer In LIe mId-1
LI
cenLury Lo sIore up LIeIr deIenses In KwungLung und ukIen, Serruys (1q68),
pp.zq-o; LIe cuse, Iowever, Is noL quILe unuIogous us LIere wus u degree oI wIIIIngness umong LIe
MongoIs wIIcI wouId be unexpecLed umong mosL we wouId IubeI us 'conquered` peopIes In LIe OLLomun
EmpIre.
11q
owry (zoo), pp.11-o.
11
mber (zooz), p.z.

qq
beIore; wILI LIgILer conLroI, LIey wouId be ussIgned posILIons eIsewIere wILIIn LIe
empIre, sLIII exIsLIng wILIIn u new poIILIcuI order buL IsoIuLed Irom LIeIr prevIous buses
oI power.
TIIs IusL upproucI proved u purLIcuIurIy eIIecLIve meuns Ior LIe encroucIIng
ImperIuI power Lo Induce LIose wIo wouId oLIerwIse oppose ILs uuLIorILy Lo ucL InsLeud
Lowurd ILs own gouIs. TIe pIenomenon LIrougI LIe 1q
LI
und eurIy 1
LI
cenLurIes wIIcI
owry Ius IubeIed LIe LIe subsumpLIon oI members oI LIe ByzunLo-BuIkun urIsLocrucy
InLo LIe OLLomun ruIIng eIILe
116
, wIereby members oI LIe CIrIsLIun ruIIng cIusses und
LIeIr descendenLs were grunLed posLs wILIIn LIe cenLruI und provIncIuI sLuLe IIerurcIy,
wouId IuII wILIIn LIIs cuLegory. TIe execuLIon oI Tsur SIIsImun In 1q, Ior exumpIe,
wus IoIIowed by LIe 'exIIe` oI LIe remuInIng members oI LIe BuIgurIun dynusLy Lo
governorsIIps In AsIu.
11;
TIe prucLIce oI grunLIng governorsIIps und timcrs Lo LIose
TurkIsI wurIords wIo surrendered LIeIr cIuIms over LerrILorIes In AnuLoIIu Is u puruIIeI
on LIe eusLern IronL.
118

SeveruI cuses Irom LIe mId-1
LI
cenLury demonsLruLe LIe sImuILuneous IsoIuLIon
oI conquered eIILes Irom LIeIr nuLIve Iunds und reLenLIon oI LIe body oI weuILIy und
educuLed munpower wIIcI LIey consLILuLed. Doukus reporLs LIuL IoIIowIng LIe cupLure
oI LerrILorIes In Greece, Ior exumpIe, MeImeL Look wILI IIm DemeLrIos und IIs enLIre
IouseIoId, LIe puIuce oIIIcIuIs und weuILIy nobIes Irom AcIuIu und ukeduImonIu und
LIe remuInIng provInces...
11q
. TIIs ucLIon wus repeuLed In LIe IoIIowIng decude wILI LIe
removuI oI LIe ruIIng cIuss oI Trubzon-LIe emperor, IIs Iords, und oLIer useIuI men

116
owry (zoo), pp.11-o; see uIso nuIcik (1qq), pp.11z-zz.
11;
mber (zooz), pp.1q-1.
118
mber (zooz), p.18.
11q
Doukus (1q;), pp.z;-8.

q
uccordIng Lo Aikpuuzude
1zo
; LIe emperor, IIs enLIre IumIIy, uncIes und nepIews,
puIuce oIIIcIuIs und nobIes uccordIng Lo Doukus
1z1
-Lo sLunbuI und RumeII IoIIowIng ILs
conquesL In 1q61; LIus In LIe process oI desLroyIng LIe remnunLs ByzunLIne power In
Trubzon, LIe suILun wus IncreusIng LIe pooI oI cuILured und weuILIy IndIvIduuIs ucLIve In
LIe consLrucLIon oI LIe ImperIuI cupILuI.
n some cuses, removuI oI u porLIon oI LIe conquered couId provIde IosLuge
communILIes wIIcI mIgIL LIen uIIord uddILIonuI Ieveruge In deuIIng wILI LIose wIo
remuIned; IL seems IIkeIy LIuL sucI meusures wouId Iuve been dIrecLIy muInIy uL conLroI
oI LIe ruIIng cIusses. SIuw uLLrIbuLes LIIs gouI Lo LIe eurIy reIocuLIon oI CIrIsLIuns under
Murud (16o-8q). A number oI Greek CyprIoLs were uIso uppurenLIy reIocuLed Lo LIe
envIrons oI AnLuIyu Ior LIe sume purpose IoIIowIng LIe IsIund`s conquesL In 1;1.
1zz

the issoe oI internul elites
Muny oI LIe concerns over conquered urIsLocrucIes were uppIIcubIe Lo poIILIcuI
eIILes wIIcI exIsLed wILIIn LIe empIre us weII. TIose wIo suL wILIIn LIe conIInes oI LIe
empIre buL remuIned 'ouLsIders` Lo LIe cenLruIIzed ImperIuI order oILen IeId posILIons
Irom wIIcI LIey couId cIuIIenge LIuL order. SLuLes oILen mude un uLLempL Lo eILIer
sIdeIIne or redIrecL LIese noLubIes.
SucI LrunsIer In ILs sImpIesL Iorm wus exIIe. DurIng LIe course oI RussIun
eusLwurd expunsIon LIrougI LIe 16
LI
und 1;
LI
cenLurIes, Ior exumpIe, SIberIu served us u
common desLInuLIon Ior poIILIcuI und reIIgIous IIgures IoIdIng un undesIrubIe IeveI oI

1zo
Aikpuuzude (1qqz), p.16.
1z1
Doukus (1q;), p.1q.
1zz
SIuw (1q;6), pp.1q, 1;8. TIe IoIdIng oI IndIvIduuI IosLuges-oILen LIe IumIIy members oI LIose In
power-In order Lo guurunLee vussuI IoyuILy wus u common medIevuI prucLIce, one cerLuInIy empIoyed by
LIe OLLomuns.

q6
InIIuence uL LIe empIre`s cenLer.
1z
n muny cuses, Iowever, LIe munIpuIuLIon oI eIILes
wus roIIed InLo oLIer ucLIons, sucI us LIe reussIgnmenL oI Iunds und posILIons wILIIn LIe
empIre. TIe Hun dynusLy In LIe z
nd
und 1
sL
cenLurIes B.C. used LIe ussIgnmenL oI
noLubIes Lo LIe upkeep oI ImperIuI Iunerury sLrucLures us u meuns by wIIcI Lo dIspIuce
Iunded urIsLocrucIes Irom LIeIr esLubIIsIed buses oI power.
1zq
We cun see LIIs drIve uL
work In muny oI LIe OLLomun LrunsIers. n LIe LrunsIer oI CIrIsLIun und MusIIm knIgILs
Irom AIbunIu Lo Trubzon, Ior exumpIe, ussIgnmenL oI Iund In LIe newIy opened LerrILory
wus uLIIIzed Lo uppeuse LIose LIreuLenIng LIe sysLem us weII us reIocuLe LIem Iur uwuy
Irom LIeIr buses oI power.
1z

SucI worrIsome eIILes were someLImes dIrecL curry-overs Irom LIe pre-conquesL
ruIIng cIuss-u sILuuLIon purLIcuIurIy common In u reIuLIveIy new, expunsIon-orIenLed
sLuLe sucI us LIe OLLomuns` In LIe eurIy perIod. TIIs wus LIe cuse Ior u Iurge body oI LIe
Iunded TurkIsI urIsLocrucy oI AnuLoIIu. WIen LIe dIsLrIcL oI SuruIun In norLIwesL
AnuLoIIu-brougIL under OLLomun conLroI In LIe 1qos buL IosL Lo IocuI powers In LIe
sIuke-up IoIIowIng LIe buLLIe oI Ankuru-wus IormuIIy unnexed by MeImeL In 1q1;, u
Iurge body oI TurkIsI knIgILs (sipchi) Irom LIuL ureu were reussIgned Iunds In AIbunIu
wIIIe u son oI u BuIgurIun nobIe wus grunLed ILs governorsIIp.
1z6
We cun ussume LIuL

1z
HuLLenbucI (1q88), p.qq.
1zq
TwILcIeLL und oewe (1q86), pp.zoq-z1o, . uLer emperors were pressured Lo drop LIIs prucLIce; us
wus brIeIIy menLIoned In un eurIIer secLIon, LIIs presenLs us wILI u good exumpIe oI uLLempLIng Lo
munIpuIuLe u IuIrIy non-'dIsposubIe` popuIuLIon - LIe sLuLe Iucked LIe IIgI IeveI oI munduLe over LIese
groups needed Lo conLInue Lo pusI LIrougI sucI urbILrury moves. n conLrusL Lo suy, u group oI cupLIves,
LIe IucL LIuL urIsLocrucIes generuIIy possess some IeveI oI InIIuence wILI wIIcI LIe sLuLe musL negoLIuLe
Iessens ILs ubIIILy Lo ucL wILI ImpunILy, Irom wIIcI sLems LIe need Lo (u) IegILImIze LIeIr LrunsIer on oLIer
grounds und (b) Lo provIde LIem some degree oI compensuLIon mukIng IL 'worLI LIeIr wIIIe`.
1z
Burkun (1q-q), pp.zz1-zz; nuIcik (1qq), p.1zq.
1z6
Burkun (1q-q), pp.z1-6; mber (zooz), p.18q-. TIe tchrir dejter cILed by Burkun uIso IIsLs sipchis
druwn Irom YenIeIIr, Kocu-II, VIze, EngrI, CunIk, ncgIz, TurukborIu (BoIu), KusLumonu, MIIuII, und
EIIunI.

q;
sImIIur prIncIpIes muy Iuve been ucLIve LIrougIouL mucI oI LIe process oI LIe
ussIgnmenL oI new Iunds Lo members oI LIe OLLomun ruIIng cIuss.
TIougI LIe prImury und expIIcIL uIms oI LrunsIers execuLed In LIe course oI urbun
reconsLrucLIon were undoubLedIy economIc, MeImeL `s cuIIIng oI noLubIe persons by
nume Irom uII over LIe empIre,
1z;
mIgIL uIso Iuve presenLed LIe suILun wILI LIe
opporLunILy oI dIsIodgIng poLenLIuIIy LroubIesome members oI LIe provIncIuI eIILe, u
very reuI possIbIIILy In consIderuLIon oI LIe sLrong cenLruIIzIng drIve cIurucLerIsLIc oI IIs
reIgn.
1z8
SImIIur moves Iud been InsLILuLed In MIng CIInu In LIe precedIng cenLury. n
LIe Iurge-scuIe movemenLs oI popuIuLIon underLuken by LIe emperor T`uI-Lsu-mosL oI
wIIcI were economIcuIIy drIven-Iurge numbers oI Iunded genLry und weuILIy
IouseIoIds were reIocuLed Irom LIe cousLuI provInces Lo NunjIng wILI LIe uIms oI
reducIng LIeIr InIIuence und brIngIng LIem under LIgILer cenLruI conLroI.
1zq
Edwurd
urmer dIscusses LIe peopIIng oI BeIjIng severuI yeurs IuLer In u sImIIur regurd, noLIng
LIuL LIe cuIIIng oI weuILIy IumIIIes served boLI Lo seLLIe peopIe oI subsLunce In LIe cILy,
buL muy uIso Iuve provIded un opporLunILy Lo rooL ouL some oI LIe IeudersIIp oI LIe
souLIern provInces.
1o
SucI exumpIes uLLesL Lo LIe use oI LrunsIer us u powerIuI LooI In
LIe sLuLe`s deuIIngs wILI ILs InLernuI poIILIcuI eIILes.
the issoe oI the tribes und their elites
TIe obsLucIe LIuL LIe nomudIc LrIbes oI AnuLoIIu posed Lo OLLomun power wus u
mujor IncenLIve Ior u Iurge number oI LIe LrunsIers underLuken In LIe eurIy cenLurIes oI
LIe dynusLy. SomeLImes sucI LrunsIers were execuLed In LIe course oI expunsIon In

1z;
Tursun Beg, quoLed In owry (1q86b), p.zq,
1z8
SucI cenLruIIzIng LendencIes were LypIIIed by LIe repIucemenL oI IocuI governIng eIILes wILI members
oI LIe detirme cIuss. See mber (zooz).
1zq
Ho (1qq), pp.16-q.
1o
urmer (1q;6), p.1qq.

q8
AnuLoIIu, servIng Lo eIImInuLe LIreuLs Lo OLLomun domInunce over u purLIcuIur LerrILory;
uL oLIer LImes, LrunsIers were uImed uL removIng sources oI dIsLurbunce IyIng deeper
wILIIn LIe prIncIpuIILy`s borders.
BoLI LIe LrIbes und LIeIr cIIeILuIns consLILuLed specIIIc sources oI worry Lo LIe
cenLruI sLuLe body. DespILe LIe orIgIns oI LIe OLLomun dynusLy In LIe nomudIc wurIure oI
LIe IronLIer, LIe deveIopmenL oI LIe OLLomun sLuLe us u cenLruIIzed governIng body
dependenL on u sedenLury ugrIcuILuruI Lux buse Iud gIven rIse Lo u IundumenLuI
dIvergence oI InLeresLs beLween LIe sLuLe und nomud. SucI u sILuuLIon Induced u cIunge
oI LrIbesmen oI AnuLoIIu, In LIe words oI RudI Indner, Irom wIIIIng comrudes Lo
unLrusLworLIy subjecLs.
11
TIeIr preduLory LendencIes dIsrupLed Lrude und eroded
ugrIcuILuruI revenues und wILI growIng esLrungemenL Irom LIe cenLruI governmenL, LIe
Yrk und Trkmen oI AnuLoIIu were prone Lo IrequenL revoIL und coIIuboruLIon uguInsL
LIe sLuLe order;
1z
LIey ruIIIed beIInd TImur uL LIe duwn oI LIe 1
LI
cenLury und wouId
ruIIy beIInd LIe SuIuvId SIuI smuII u cenLury IuLer.
TIe poIILIcuI eIILes oI LIese groups represenLed IurLIer probIems Ior LIe
esLubIIsImenL oI OLLomun conLroI In AnuLoIIu. WIIIe muny oI LIe TurkIsI urIsLocrucy oI
AnuLoIIu consLILuLed members oI u Iunded ruIIng cIuss, muny remuIned busIcuIIy LrIbuI
Ieuders In commund oI nomudIc pusLoruIIsL popuIuLIons. As u resuIL, eIIorLs uL
eIImInuLIng LIe LIreuL LIey posed us IoIders oI power ouLsIde LIe cenLruI sLuLe body
cume Lo be uppIIed Lo LIe communILIes uLLucIed Lo LIem us weII.
1


11
Indner (1q8).
1z
See nuIcik (1qqq), p.q1.
1
TIree IucLors IncIIned eIIorLs uL eIImInuLIng LIe cIuIIenge posed by LrIbuI eIILes LIrougI dIspIucemenL
Lo InvoIve sIgnIIIcunL numbers oI peopIe. IrsL, unIIke sedenLury urIsLocrucIes, wIose uLLucImenL Is Lo
LerrILorIuI IoIdIngs, LIe uLLucImenL oI nomudIc eIILes Is Lo u purLIcuIur communILy, regurdIess oI wIere IL
IIes, und u communILy, moreover, wIIcI by deIInILIon consLILuLes u mobIIe unIL. Second, us LIese LrIbuI
Ieuders were oILen IndIvIduuIs sILLIng IIrmIy wILIIn LIe empIre, LIe sLuLe dId noL possess, excepL In cuses oI

qq
A Iurge number oI LrunsIers were uImed uL redIrecLIng LIe poIILIcuI und muLerIuI
umbILIons oI LrIbuI Ieuders und LIeIr consLILuencIes Lowurds IronLIer wurIure, especIuIIy
LIrougI LIe eurIIer yeurs oI expunsIon. TIe OLLomuns uLIIIzed LIe LrIbes us ugenLs wILIIn
LIe ImperIuI sLruLegy oI LerrILorIuI expunsIon und ubsorpLIon. NomudIc groups were
ussIgned Lo LIe IronLIer us u purumIIILury Iorce In resIdence-IIgILIng boLI In IormuI
cumpuIgns und conducLIng ruIds InLo IoreIgn LerrILory-und us LIe guurdIuns oI sLruLegIc
sILes, sucI us IorLs, rouds, or pusses.
1q
TIe sLuLe wus LIus ubIe Lo proIIL by uLIIIzIng un
oLIerwIse LroubIesome source oI munpower In LIe execuLIon oI poIILIcuI und mIIILury
gouIs eIsewIere In LIe empIre.
1
TIIs wus unuIogous Lo LIe pIun underLuken by LIe
AIgIun Abdur RuImun KIun, wIo ordered some 1o,ooo GIIIzuI IumIIIes LrunsIerred
Irom LIe GIuznI ureu Lo LIe regIon beLween LIe Oxus und LIe HIndu KusI, IopIng
LIereby noL onIy Lo sLrengLIen LIe AIgIun eIemenL In LIIs regIon, buL uL LIe sume LIme Lo
weuken LIe powerIuI GIIIzuI LrIbe.
16

TIe OLLomun sLruLegy oI dIrecLIng ILs LroubIesome LrIbesmen InLo souLIeusLern
Europe wus noL wILIouL ILs pILIuIIs - LIe wesLern IronLIer cume Lo be u dIIIIcuIL regIon Lo
conLroI us weII. TIe OLLomuns Iuced severuI uprIsIngs umong LIe LrIbuI groups
esLubIIsIed In Europe; IuLer, us expunsIon sIowed und LIe IronLIer ceused Lo provIde LIe

open rebeIIIon, LIe IeveI oI IegILImucy In IsoIuLIng LIem Irom poIILIcuI IIIe LIuL IL wouId, Ior exumpIe, In
deuIIng wILI conquered eIILes - ILs upproucI, LIereIore, wus by necessILy more concIIIuLory. InuIIy, In
keepIng sucI LrIbuI Ieuders uLLucIed Lo LIeIr consLILuencIes, LIe sLuLe guve ILseII LIe beneIIL oI beIng ubIe Lo
InLerucL wILI u sIngIe IIgure In deuIIng wILI u poLenLIuIIy LroubIesome demogrupIIc group, u IIgure cupubIe
oI respondIng Lo InducemenLs, LIereby sImpIIIyIng LIe eIIorL oI reorIenLIng LIuL group Lowurds u more
uccepLubIe posILIon.
1q
nuIcik (1qqq), p.q1.
1
A sImIIur sLruLegy wus underLuken In LIe MongoI EmpIre In LIe 1
LI
cenLury. TIomus AIIsen wrILes oI
LIe KIun Mngke: By combInIng InLernuI reIorm wILI exLernuI expunsIon, Mngke kepL LIe conservuLIve
nomudIc IucLIon, wIo LrudILIonuIIy opposed poIILIcuI cenLruIIzuLIon und reIorm, busIIy IIgILIng on LIe
IronLIers, LIereby IeuvIng LIe purLIsuns oI udmInIsLruLIve reguIurIzuLIon und u sLrong cenLruI governmenL u
reIuLIveIy Iree Iund Lo pursue LIeIr objecLIves. AIIsen (1q8;), p.zzo.
16
GregorIun (1q6q), p.1

o
suIeLy vuIve IL once dId, LIe LrIbuI Lendency Lowurd preduLIon once uguIn LroubIed LIe
regIon`s economIc buse und uggruvuLed reIuLIons wILI neIgIborIng powers.
1;

We IInd u sImIIur sLruLegy oI dIIIusIng u poLenLIuI menuce Lo securILy underLuken
by LIe MIng In IundIIng LIe Iurge number oI dIsrupLIve MongoI LrIbesmun occupyIng ILs
norLIern LerrILorIes In LIe eurIy und mId-1
LI
cenLury. A MIng oIIIcIuI In 1qo submILLed
LIe proposuI LIuL LIe besL oI LIem be seIecLed Ior mIIILury servIce... In KwungLung und
ukIen wIere IuLeIy u serIes oI uprIsIngs Iud occurred, und Lo send LIeIr IumIIIes Lo joIn
LIem us soon us peuce wus resLored. I LIey seLLIed down permunenLIy In LIose souLIern
provInces, scuLLered over u Iurge ureu und servIng In IocuI gurrIsons, LIeIr power wouId
be eIIecLIveIy IrugmenLed wIIIe uL LIe sume LIme LIey wouId render u greuL servIce Lo LIe
counLry.
18
TIe OLLomun LrunsIer oI Trkmen und TuLur LrIbesmen InLo RumeII sougIL
Lo uccompIIsI LIe sume.
1q

AL LImes, LIe LIreuL posed by LIe nomudIc eIemenLs oI LIe empIre becume
expressed more overLIy In LIe Iorm oI revoILs und coIIusIon wILI ouLsIde powers, mosL
noLubIy LIe SuIuvIds, buL uIso LIe KurumunIds und AkkoyunIu. As unLugonIsm beLween
nomud und sLuLe mude ILseII IncreusIngIy cIeur over LIe course oI LIe 1
LI
und 16
LI

cenLurIes, In uddILIon Lo InsLunces oI dIrecL cruckdown und mussucre we see u number oI
preempLIve und punILIve ucLs oI reIocuLIon, sucI us LIe removuI oI SuIuvId sympuLIIzers
Lo LIe Moreu In 1oz und LIe LrunsIer oI lizilbc Lo Cyprus In LIe 1;os.
1qo
TIe MIng In

1;
SeusonuI mIgruLIon und cross-border ruIdIng, Ior exumpIe, wus u source oI LensIon In OLLomun-PoIIsI
reIuLIons In LIe 16
LI
cenLury. nuIcik (1qqq), pp.zq-q.
18
Surruys (1q8;), pp.zq-.
1q
A very InLeresLIng InsLunce oI mIIILury InsLILuLIons beIng esLubIIsIed Ior LIe purpose oI 'deuIIng` wILI un
InLernuI probIem Is LIe deveIopmenL oI LIe CIInese 'IIeId-Iurm` sysLem. TIe cenLruI governmenL,
overburdened by u Iurge mIIILury body reIIunL on sLuLe revenues buL IeurIng LIe consequences oI reIeusIng
Iurge body oI unempIoyed soIdIery onLo LIe Iund, suw LIe esLubIIsImenL oI joInL mIIILury-ugrIcuILuruI
coIonIes us u meuns oI brIngIng ubouL boLI empIoymenL und seII-suIIIcIency. A dIIIerenL sILuuLIon Irom
LIe OLLomun cuse, cerLuInIy, buL one wIIcI IILs u sImIIur puLLern In regurd Lo poIIcy-mukIng.
1qo
Indner (1q8), p.1oq; Burkun (1q-q), p.zzq.

1
LIe 1
LI
cenLury Iuced u compurubIe sILuuLIon wILI LIe semI-nomudIc JurcIens resIdIng
uIong LIe norLIeusLern border, wIo, IIke LIe lizilbc, were Ieured oI coIIuboruLIng wILI
IeIIow-LrIbuIIsL Iorces InvudIng Irom LIe norLI, LIe OIruL MongoIs. TIe governmenL In
BeIjIng Lurned Lo reIocuLIon once uguIn, uLIIIzIng LIe empIre`s InLernuI LerrILorIes us u
deposILory Ior poLenLIuIIy LruILorous purumIIILury groups uIong u voIuLIIe IronLIer.
1q1

TIe sLuLe LIus sougIL Lo Ieveruge LIe udvunLuges oI dIspIucemenL Lo Iessen or
cIunneI LIe dIsrupLIve ubIIILy oI LIe nomuds, LIereby weukenIng LIe resIsLunce oI LrIbuI
eIILes und consoIIduLIng sLuLe conLroI.
1qz

PUS: poIILIcuI und mIIILury reusons beIInd movIng peopIe In
HuvIng dIscussed LIe Iorces drIvIng LIe removuI oI popuIuLIons In LIe pursuIL oI
poIILIcuI und mIIILury objecLIves, IeL us Lurn Lo LIe Iorces underIyIng LIe InserLIon oI
popuIuLIons Ior LIe sume purposes. PopuIuLIons were pIuced In LerrILorIes wILI LIe gouI
oI esLubIIsIIng u greuLer degree oI conLroI boLI In LIe course oI expunsIon und In
muInLuInIng securILy wILIIn LIe empIre.
holding new territories
n order Lo undersLund LIe objecLIves oI IorcIbIy LrunsIerrIng popuIuLIons InLo un
ureu wILIIn LIe process oI LerrILorIuI expunsIon, we musL necessurIIy Iook uL LIe greuLer
pIenomenon oI coIonIzuLIon us u meuns by wIIcI ImperIuI conLroI muy be exLended
over conquered Iunds, sLeppIng buck Ior u momenL Lo undersLund LIe busIc roIe oI

1q1
RossubI, (1q8z), p.q1.
1qz
SedenLurIzuLIon-u sIIIL Irom mIgruLory nomudIc Lo seLLIed ugrurIun IIIe-wus un uddILIonuI poIIcy
unswer Lo muny oI LIe probIems posed by LIe LrIbes oI LIe empIre, one wIIcI sIures muny oI LIe cenLruI
IeuLures oI surun. n uddILIon Lux poIIcIes encourugIng permunenL seLLIemenL, sLuLe-Induced
sedenLurIzuLIon occurred us eurIy us LIe reIgn oI SuIeymun , Inder (1q8), pp.-q, wILI sysLemuLIc
uLLempLs underLuken In AnuLoIIu und SyrIu by LIe IuLe 1;
LI
cenLury. See OrIonIu (1q8;).

z
coIonIzuLIon In empIre buIIdIng. We muy dIscern LIIs roIe wILIIn u common puLLern oI
LerrILorIuI conLroI umong pre-modern ImperIuI projecLs.
uced wILI LIe Lusk oI conLroIIIng u LerrILory, LIe degree und mobIIIzuLIon oI
munpower by LIe sLuLe vurIed. Some LerrILorIes exIsLed us vussuIJLrIbuLury sLuLes wIIcI,
LIougI IuIIIng under LIe ImperIuI domInIon, InvoIved IILLIe Lo no InserLIon oI sLuLe
munpower. ExumpIes oI sucI LerrILorIes IncIuded LIose wILIIn wIuL nuIcik descrIbes us
LIe 'IIrsL sLuge` oI OLLomun conquesL sucI us LIe kIngdom oI SerbIu or LIe emIruLe oI
Kurumun uL LIe end 1q
LI
cenLury
1q
, or LIe KurdIsI LerrILorIes oI LIe eusLern IronLIer
begInnIng In LIe eurIy 16
LI
cenLury.
1qq

OLIer cuses demunded LIe InserLIon oI munpower InLo u LerrILory. As wus
InLroduced eurIIer In LIIs essuy, LIe IIrsL munpower reserve generuIIy uvuIIubIe Lo LIe
sLuLe Ior sucI u purpose wus LIuL wIIcI Iuy under ILs dIrecL proIessIonuI conLroI, 'sLuLe`
munpower - LIe cenLruI mIIILury uppuruLus, LIe greuLer mIIILury urIsLocrucy, und oLIer
men oI sLuLe. TIe empIre wouId mobIIIze sucI munpower Lo posILIons oI 'ucLIve` conLroI,
sucI us LIe sLuLIonIng oI mIIILury Iorces In IorLs und gurrIsons or LIe uppIIcuLIon oI LIe
ImperIuI udmInIsLruLIve sysLem. EurIy 16
LI
cenLury RomunIu, Ior exumpIe, reLuIned un
udmInIsLruLIon under IocuI urIsLocrucy wIIcI guve LrIbuLe Lo LIe cenLruI governmenL
wIIIe JunIssurIes munned IorLs und gurrIsons wILIIn ILs borders.
1q
OLIer LerrILorIes-
IncIudIng InsLunces In wIIcI some porLIon oI LIe IocuI urIsLocrucy wus IeIL In pIuce-
experIenced more peneLruLIng ImperIuI conLroI wILI LIe ussIgnmenL oI LerrILorIuI unILs

1q
nuIcik (1qq), pp.1o-q.
1qq
SIuw (1q;6), p.8z.
1q
upIdus (zooz), p.zq.


(timcrs) Lo members oI LIe mIIILury (csleri) cIuss Irom eIsewIere In LIe empIre; LIe
wIde-scuIe ImpIemenLuLIon oI LIIs prucLIce ucceIeruLed In LIe eurIy 1
LI
cenLury.
1q6

AL LImes LIe sLuLe wouId uIso muke use oI munpower ouLsIde LIe sLuLe reuIm -
peusunLs, nomuds, und urbun communILIes. TIese popuIuLIons IIIIed boLI 'ucLIve` roIes,
sucI us purLIcIpuLIng In expunsIon or munnIng deIensIves, or LIe 'pussIve` roIe oI
provIdIng u popuIuLIon buse IoyuI Lo LIe sLuLe LIuL wouId IeIp Lo cemenL Iong-Lerm
conLroI over LIe LerrILory wIIIe uL LIe sume LIme conLrIbuLIng Lo ILs economIc
deveIopmenL.
1q;
TIIs IncIuded LIe esLubIIsImenL oI vIIIuges, LIe mIgruLIon oI pusLoruIIsLs
onLo open Iund, LIe pIunLIng oI suII telles, und seLLIemenL In Lowns und cILIes, uII
underLuken wILI u sense oI permunence und un InLenLIon oI IrreversIbIIILy.

CoIonIzuLIon proved un eIIecLIve, und mosL ImporLunLIy, eIIIcIenL LooI In ucIIevIng
Iong-Lerm conLroI over Iund. MIIILury occupuLIon uIone proved u rouLe wIIcI wus
prucLIcuI In muny sILuuLIons, especIuIIy In LIe sIorL-Lerm, buL wIIcI IeId dIsudvunLuges
In regurd Lo deveIopIng permunenL uuLIorILy over un ureu; IurLIermore, LIe sLuLIonIng oI
eIemenLs oI LIe cenLruI mIIILury body LIed up vuIuubIe Iumun resources und drew
dIrecLIy on LIe muLerIuI resources oI LIe sLuLe. TIe seLLIemenL oI communILIes In
permunenL resIdence, Iowever, proved u seII-susLuInIng meuns oI conLroI LIuL, wIere

1q6
mber (zooz), p.186. TIe mobIIIzuLIon oI munpower In LIIs Iorm couId oILen be u IuIrIy sIgnIIIcunL
demogrupIIc evenL. TIe Normun coIonIzuLIon oI EngIund LIrougI LIe second IuII oI LIe 11
LI
cenLury Look
u sImIIur Iorm, CIIbnuI (zooo), pp.q-;z.
1q;
SLepIun Horuk provIdes u good descrIpLIon oI LIe roIe oI cIvIIIun ucLors: TIe muss mIgruLIon oI
RussIuns InLo UkruIne, IIrsL by Iundowners, mercIunLs, udmInIsLruLors und LIen by peusunLs und workers,
creuLed popuIuLIon cenLers IoyuI Lo LIe RussIun sLuLe In newIy IncorporuLed ureus. TIe seLLIers becume noL
onIy ugenLs oI RussIu`s InLeresL, buL wuLcIdogs over LIe unreIIubIe UkruInIun nuLIves. Horuk (1q88),
p.1o.

q
successIuI, uIIowed u mucI smuIIer overuII IooLprInL by LIe cenLruI sLuLe uppuruLus, yeL
oILen more endurIng.
1q8

We see un exumpIe oI sucI u use oI coIonIsLs In ncu cuse us descrIbed by LIe 16
LI

cenLury SpunIsI wrILer Bernube Cobo:
TIe ncu IeIL LIuL Ie couId noL muInLuIn peuce und obedIence In uny oLIer
wuy, und . LIe ncu ordered LIuL LIe mujorILy oI LIe mitimces wIo ure
mude Lo go Lo recenLIy subjecLed Lowns seLLIe In LIe provIncIuI cupILuIs so
LIuL LIey couId serve us u gurrIson und presIdIo - noL Ior u suIury or Ior u
IImILed LIme; ruLIer LIe mitimces und LIeIr descendunLs wouId remuIn
perpeLuuIIy.
1qq

L wus In sucI u wuy LIuL LIe ncus couId muInLuIn IorLs wILIouL LIe presence oI u
conLIngenL oI IuII-LIme soIdIers becuuse oI LIe specIuI IeuLures oI LIe mitimce sysLem...
SucI IoyuI mitimces wouId Iuve oIIered noL onIy susLenunce buL uIso securILy, ubIe boLI
Lo cuILIvuLe LIeIr new Iunds und Lo guurd LIem In LImes oI emergency.
1o

CoIonIzuLIon served Lo decreuse LIe euse by wIIcI conquered LerrILorIes couId
undergo u poIILIcuI 'roIIbuck` resuILIng In LIe reLurn oI ruIe Lo nuLIve uuLIorILIes. TIe
conLrusL beLween LIe proLrucLed rencI reLreuL Irom AIgerIu und LIe compuruLIveIy
cIeun BrILIsI wILIdruwuI Irom EgypL demonsLruLes LIe degree oI enLrencImenL wIIcI

1q8
TIIs sume Issue Is uddressed by MucIIuveIII: TIe oLIer und beLLer course Is Lo send coIonIes Lo one or
Lwo pIuces, wIIcI muy be us keys Lo LIuL sLuLe, Ior IL necessury eILIer Lo do LIIs or eIse Lo keep LIere u greuL
number oI cuvuIry und InIunLry....BuL In muInLuInIng urmed men LIere In pIuce oI coIonIes one spends
mucI more, IuvIng Lo consume on LIe gurrIson uII Income Irom LIe sLuLe, so LIuL LIe ucquIsILIon Lurns
InLo u Ioss, und muny more ure exusperuLed, becuuse LIe wIoIe sLuLe Is Injured; LIrougI LIe sIIILIng oI LIe
gurrIson up und down uII become ucquuInLed wILI IurdsIIp, und uII become IosLIIe, und LIey ure enemIes
wIo, wIIIsL beuLen on LIeIr own ground, ure yeL ubIe Lo do IurL. or every reuson, LIereIore, sucI guurds
ure us useIess us u coIony Is useIuI. MucIIuveIII (1qo).
1qq
DuvIes (1qq), pp.zoq-z1o, quoLIng Cobo.
1o
DuvIes (1qq), pp.1q8-q.


becomes possIbIe In cuses wIere projecLIons oI ImperIuI power ure uccompunIed by
sIgnIIIcunL demogrupIIc InserLIon.
SeLLIemenL oI LerrILory Irom LIe ouLsIde IurLIermore oILen worked Lowurd Iong-
Lerm demogrupIIc cIunge, InducIng u LrunsIormuLIon In LIe cIurucLer und uILImuLe
IdenLILy oI LIose wIo mude up LIe InIubILunLs oI u LerrILory. TIIs wus u resuIL ucIIevubIe
boLI LIrougI LIe InIIux oI new demogrupIIc eIemenLs us weII us LIrougI LIe
InducemenL oI cIunge In LIe nuLIve popuIuLIon, usuuIIy In LIe Iorm oI reIIgIous
conversIon or IInguIsLIc und cuILuruI ussImIIuLIon. TIIs Indeed proved u crucIuI Iorce In
LIe IIsLory oI TurkIsI domInunce In AnuLoIIu und, Lo Iesser exLenL, purLs oI LIe
BuIkuns.
11
TIIs wus LIe process beIInd LIe InevILubIe domInuLIon oI LIe AmerIcun WesL
by Europeun seLLIers und currenL CIInese poIIcy Lowurds LIe provInces oI XInjIung und
TIbeL.

UndersLundIng 'non-sLuLe` coIonIzuLIon In LIIs regurd, we muy see u specIIIc pIuce
Ior sucI u poIIcy wIen consIderIng LIe needs oI LIe eurIy OLLomun sLuLe. HeuLI owry
Ius urgued LIuL In LIe course oI LIe IIrsL Lwo cenLurIes oI LIeIr exIsLence, LIe OLLomuns
Iuced u deurLI oI munpower In LIe Lusk oI IoIdIng und udmInIsLerIng LIe vusL LerrILorIes
LIuL were comIng under LIeIr conLroI. orLresses were oILen desLroyed ruLIer LIun IIIIed
wILI IoyuI Lroops.
1z
TIey Iucked LIe busIc Iumun resources Lo ruIe wILI un Iron IIsL und
LIus Lurned Lo u poIIcy oI istimclet, or uccommoduLIon, wIIcI munIIesLed ILseII In LIe
IncIusIon oI members oI LIe conquered urIsLocrucIes und udmInIsLruLIve uccommoduLIon

11
Burkun, Ior exumpIe, opens IIs serIes oI urLIcIes on popuIuLIon LrunsIers by posIng LIe quesLIon oI Iow
we cun undersLund LIe processes oI Iong-Lerm demogrupIIc cIunge In LIe LerrILorIes conquered by LIe
OLLomuns, presenLIng surun us one oI LIe unswers. Burkun (1qqq-o) pp.zq-zq.
1z
owry (zoo), pp.1q-.

6
Lowurds LIe conquered popuIuLIons LIemseIves, owry`s cenLruI poInL.
1
wouId urgue
LIuL LIe OLLomun uLIIIzuLIon oI cIvIIIun und semI-cIvIIIun munpower buses muy be
undersLood wILIIn LIIs sume conLexL. DespILe LIe uppurenL dIsjuncLure beLween
istimclet (wIuL we wouId LIInk oI us 'soIL ruIe`) und coIonIzuLIon (more oppressIve ruIe),
boLI consLILuLed prucLIcuI poIIcy unswers Ior un empIre Iuced wILI IImILed Iumun
resources.
the militury, the civiliun, und the purumilitury in colonizution
TIe dIsLIncLIon beLween mIIILury und cIvIIIun munpower, oI course, wus noL sLuLIc.
MIIILury esLubIIsImenLs, Loo, couId serve In LIe cupucILy oI InsLILuLIng Iong-Lerm conLroI
und LerrILorIuI LrunsIormuLIon. TIe mobIIIzuLIon oI sLuLe munpower In LIe esLubIIsImenL
oI gurrIsons or In LIe uppIIcuLIon oI ruIe over u LerrILory by u mIIILury cIuss couId
consLILuLe 'coIonIzuLIon Irom ubove`, us wus LIe Iorm Luken by LIe Normun coIonIzuLIon
oI EngIund LIrougI LIe IuLer IuII oI LIe 11
LI
cenLury.
1q
MIIILury coIonIes couId uL LImes
emerge us IuIIy-rounded communILIes LIemseIves, us soIdIers und udmInIsLruLors-
members oI LIe sLuLe munpower reserve-cume uccompunIed by IumIIIes, Iuborers,
mercIunLs, und urLIsuns.
1
ExumpIes sucI us CIInese ugrIcuILuruI gurrIsons-LIe 'IIeId-
IorL sysLem`-consLILuLe 'mIxed` coIonIzuLIon progrum.
16
NeILIer, us we Iuve uIreudy
menLIoned, wus LIe roIe oI 'ucLIve` conLroI oI LIe LerrILory IImILed Lo LIe proIessIonuI

1
owry (zoo), p1q.
1q
CIIbnuII (zooo), pp.q-;z.
1
Romun mIIILury coIonIes Ior exumpIe. orLs or gurrIsons oILen provIded u brIdgeIeud Ior more
endurIng seLLIemenL, In LIe cuse oI rencI coIonIzuLIon oI wesLern Cunudu. n LIe MuscovILe coIonIzuLIon
oI SIberIu In LIe 16
LI
cenLury, LIe mIIILury-udmInIsLruLIve sLuII, esLubIIsIed sovereIgnLy over LIe nuLIves
und ImpIemenLed LuxuLIon und were IuLer joIned by IumIIIes, servunLs, mercIunLs; IInuIIy, peusunLs were
encouruged und Iorced on LIe Iund. HuLLenbucI 1q88, p.q1. Some scIoIurs Iuve even suggesLed LIe
consIderuLIon oI mIIILury movemenLs wILIIn LIe Irumework oI mIgruLIon. SucI un upproucI Ius vuIIdILy
wIen consIderIng, Ior exumpIe, LIuL z-o% oI uII mIIILury unILs (perIups zo,ooo men) were moved InLo
PekIng wIen IL wus mude LIe cupILuI, muny uccompunIed by IumIIIes. MoLe und TwILcIeL, p.zq;.
16
urmer (1q;6), p.6.

;
mIIILury cIusses; peusunL popuIuLIons Iuve oILen been uLIIIzed In mIIILury cupucILIes.
PerIups demonsLruLIng LIe desIre Lo druw on oLIer sources oI munpower In IuIIIIImenL
oI securILy gouIs, LIe governmenL mude young men Irom LIe cIvIIIunJpeusunL (recc)
cIuss eIIgIbIe Ior mIIILury posLs In course oI LIe seLLIemenL oI Cyprus, un oIIer LIuL
presumubIy wouId uIso Iuve been IurLIer encourugemenL Ior mIgruLIon Lo LIe IsIund.
1;

AnoLIer 'ucLIve` munpower buse, IyIng beLween LIe mIIILury und cIvIIIun, wus LIe
purumIIILury - urmed popuIuLIons exIsLIng ouLsIde LIe cenLruIIy conLroIIed mIIILury cIuss.
TIese groups couId, IIke LIe sLuLe mIIILury, IoId conLroI over LIe Iund, deIend uguInsL
ouLsIde LIreuL, und purLIcIpuLe In expunsIon oI LIe reuIms wIIIe uL LIe sume LIme noL
pIucIng u druIn on sLuLe resources. n regurd Lo IeveIs oI sLuLe munduLe, LIe mIIILury
poLenLIuI oI sucI groups oILen pIuced LIem uL u IIgIer IeveI oI dIsposuI Lo LIe sLuLe, ubIe
Lo be ordered uround und wIuL noL. A dIsLInguIsIIng IucLor wus LIuL LIese were wIoIe
communILIes, noL sImpIy u proIessIonuI body.
n LIe OLLomun cuse, us wILI ILs TurkIsI und MongoI predecessor sLuLes, LIe
purumIIILury popuIuLIon pcr exellence wus LIe semI-nomudIc pusLoruIIsLs, LIe Trkmen
und TuLur LrIbes wIIcI Iuve uIreudy been u cenLruI Iocus oI dIscussIon. UnIIke sedenLury
popuIuLIons, wIIcI oILen requIred u cerLuIn degree oI LruInIng und urmumenL Lo
consLILuLe un eIIecLIve IIgILIng Iorce, LIere wus, In u sense, 'no ussembIy requIred` In LIe
cuse oI pusLoruIIsLs, u IucL wIIcI couId uIso be oI some concern Ior governIng uuLIorILIes.
WIIIe muny oI LIe prevIousIy nomudIc ImmIgrunLs Lo LIe BuIkuns LIrougI LIe 1q
LI
und
1
LI
cenLurIes esLubIIsIed sedenLury communILIes upon LIeIr urrIvuI In Europe,
18
oLIers
reLuIned LIeIr semI-nomudIc purumIIILury cIurucLer us clincis, or IronLIer ruIders, u

1;
uroqII (1q8q), p.z8, druwIng Irom u muhimme dejteri In LIe BubukunIik ArIvI.
18
nuIcik (1qqq), p.1q

8
Iorce wIIcI uIso IncIuded voIunLeers und udvenLurers. n uddILIon Lo LIeIr cupubIIILy us
IIgILers, sucI LrIbuI segmenLs were uIso dIsLInguIsIed by LIeIr mobIIILy In compurIson Lo
sedenLury ugrIcuILuruI popuIuLIons. AILogeLIer LIere were u number oI IucLors workIng
Lo Insure LIe roIe oI LrIbesmen In wIuLever uppIIcuLIon oI non-sLuLe munpower LIuL wus
underLuken In LIe conLroI oI LIe Europeun IronLIer: us u purumIIILury group, LIey were
suILed Lo roIes oI ucLIveIy conLroIIIng LerrILory; us nomuds LIey consLILuLed u nuLuruIIy
mobIIe Iorce wIose movemenL cuused IILLIe dIsrupLIon; LIey were u segmenL oI LIe
popuIuLIon wIIcI couId dIrecLIy beneIIL Irom LIe opporLunILIes oI LIe IronLIer; und
IInuIIy, und ImporLunLIy, LIere were sLrong drIves Lo remove LIese groups Irom LIeIr
posILIons In AnuLoIIu, us dIscussed eurIIer.
We Iuve uIreudy seen InsLunces In wIIcI LIe MongoIs oI LIe MIng EmpIre were
puL Lo use In u very sImIIur wuy. IkewIse, We muy ussIgn LIe Cossucks u sImIIur roIe In
LIe IIsLory oI MuscovILe expunsIon.

TIey comprIsed 'nuLuruIIy` mIIILury popuIuLIons.
levels oI control
PerIups noL surprIsIngIy, LIe cIurucLer oI LIe occupuLIon or coIonIzuLIon wus
oILen cIoseIy LIed Lo LIe desIred degree oI conLroI In LIuL LerrILory. We IInd LIuL LIe
ImpIemenLuLIon oI u coIonIzuLIon eIIorL, LIe number und Lype oI peopIe InjecLed InLo LIe
LerrILory, wus oILen LIed Lo LIe degree oI conLroI needed Ior u purLIcuIur ureu. SomeLImes
LIe degree oI conLroI depended on LIe sLruLegIc ImporLunce oI un ureu. BuIgurIu, Ior
exumpIe, wus crucIuI Lo LIe empIre`s wesLern IronL und Ior LIe deIense oI LIe IeurL oI LIe
sLuLe - LIere were very Iurge numbers oI peopIe LrunsIerred LIere. TIgIL conLroI over
AIbunIu, u LerrILory vILuI Lo LIe empIre`s coId und IoL wurs wILI VenIce, muy uIso be seen
In LIIs IIgIL.

q
ocuLIon und dIsLunces muy uIso Iuve deLermIned IeveIs oI conLroI. RIodes wus
IuIrIy Iur Irom LIe ImperIuI cenLer, und Cyprus wus even IurLIer; ucLIve coIonIzuLIon
poIIcIes were ImpIemenLed uILer LIe conquesL oI boLI LIese IsIunds. Imnos, on LIe
oLIer Iund, wus IIrmIy wILIIn reucI oI LIe cupILuI; IL Ius u smuII, unworrysome
popuIuLIon und economIc resources LIuL couId be expIoILed wILIouL mujor resLrucLurIng.
A sIngIe gurrIson oI Greek-speukIng junIssurIes wus suIIIcIenL Lo ImpIemenL LIe sLuLe` s
InLeresLs LIere.
1q

TIe ncu cuse Loo Is un IIIusLruLIon oI LIIs. Cobo dIscusses LIe LrunsIer oI cIvIIIuns
Lo newIy conquered ureus In Lerms oI pIucIng u popuIuLIon In permunenL resIdence
wIIcI wouId ensure securILy In LIe LerrILorIes IurLIesL Irom LIe ImperIuI cenLer.
TIe cILy oI Cuzco, cupILuI oI LIe kIngdom wIere LIe ncu Iud IIs courL und
resIdence, ucs jcr cuc jrom the most remote protinces In wIIcI LIere
were muny nuLIons oI burburIc und wurIIke peopIe; LIereIore, LIe ncu IeIL
LIuL Ie couId noL muInLuIn peuce und obedIence In uny oLIer wuy, und
sInce LIIs wus LIe muIn reuson wIy LIIs meusure wus Luken, LIe ncu
ordered LIuL LIe mujorILy oI LIe mitimces wIo were mude Lo go Lo recenLIy
subjuguLed Lowns seLLIe In LIe provIncIuI cupILuIs so LIuL LIey couId serve
us gurrIson und presIdIo-noL Ior u suIury or Ior u IImILed LIme; ruLIer, LIe
mitimces und LIeIr descendunLs wouId remuIn perpeLuuIIy.
16o
(my
empIusIs)
Cobo expresses LIuL IL`s LIe dIsLunce oI LIe LerrILorIes Irom LIe cenLer LIuL necessILuLe
coIonIzuLIon.

1q
owry (1q86u).
16o
Cobo (1q;q), p.1qo.

6o
holding internul territories
TrunsIers uIso occurred wIIcI uImed, IIke coIonIzuLIon In conquered LerrILorIes or
uIong LIe IronLIer, uL LIe esLubIIsImenL oI greuLer securILy, buL wIIcI LurgeLed InLernuI
LerrILorIes. OuLsIde LIe process oI expunsIon, LIere wus u need Lo Iuve popuIuLIons
IoIdIng cerLuIn posILIons IncreusIng securILy. Two sucI exumpIes ure LIe ussIgnmenL oI
u CIrIsLIun communILy In RumeII Lo LIe guurdIunsIIp oI u puss neur YenIeIIr und LIe
LrunspIunLuLIon oI CIrIsLIuns Lo LIe IorLress oI ou In SuruIun, boLI In wesLern
AnuLoIIu.
161
A mucI greuLer number oI moves InvoIved LIe empIre`s nomudIc
popuIuLIons, wIose reIocuLIon Ior LIe IuIIIIImenL oI servIces Lo LIe sLuLe, guurd duLy
prImurIIy umong LIem, occurred wILI sucI reguIurILy LIuL LIey oILen IuII beIow LIe rudur
oI LIose seurcIIng ouL more drumuLIc moves.
16z

TIe pIucemenL oI munpower Ior LIe securILy oI InLernuI LerrILorIes remuIns u
more obscure use oI LrunsIer: LIe communILIes moved were oILen IuIrIy smuII, und,
becuuse LIey Iucked ussocIuLIon wILI sIgnIIIcunL poIILIcuI evenLs, were oI IILLIe concern Lo
eILIer Greek or TurkIsI cIronIcIers. WILIouL LIe use oI urcIIvuI documenLs, LIe
occurrence oI sucI moves couId eusIIy go unnoLIced. n consIderuLIon oI LIe muny
urenus In wIIcI LIe sLuLe drew on ILs cIvIIIun und purumIIILury munpower buses Ior
securILy-orIenLed objecLIves, IL sIouId come us no surprIse LIuL LIe empIre underLook
LIe reIocuLIon oI non-sLuLe munpower Ior LIe purpose oI securILy uL Iome.


161
Burkun (1q1-z), p.6q. Tux breuks were uIso used Lo encouruge voIunLury mIgruLIon InLo ImporLunL
sILes, us In LIe cuse oI AyusoIug In LIe IuLer 16
LI
cenLury, uroqII (1q8q), p.z68.
16z
See nuIcik (1q86) Ior u compreIensIve survey oI LIe responsIbIIILIes pIuced on cerLuIn nomudIc groups
In reLurn Ior specIuI Lux sLuLus. AImeL RuIIk`s work provIdes numerous specIIIc InsLunces oI sucI
reIocuLIons, ReIIk (1qo).

61
C. Economic Ohjectioes
TIe economIc drIves wIIcI Iuy beIInd sLuLe-drIven reIocuLIon oI popuIuLIons ure
un IncredIbIy ImporLunL subjecL Ior LIe ussessmenL oI popuIuLIon LrunsIers In boLI
OLLomun und worId IIsLory. TIe Issue oI LIe dIsLrIbuLIon und reconIIguruLIon oI LIe
empIre`s economIc Iumun resource buse, Indeed, consLILuLed one oI LIe prImury sLImuII
Ior u greuL number oI LrunsIers underLuken LIrougIouL LIe perIod exumIned.
PUSHES: economIc reusons Ior movIng peopIe ouL
ulleviuting popolution pressore
TIe prImury economIc reuson Ior LIe desIre Ior popuIuLIon removuI Irom u
purLIcuIur LerrILory wus LIe uIIevIuLIon oI popuIuLIon pressure - u condILIon oI Loo muny
peopIe IIvIng on Loo IILLIe Iund. TIe removed popuIuLIons In uImosL uII oI LIese cuses
becume u useubIe popuIuLIon eIsewIere (us dIscussed In LIe subsequenL secLIon). WorId
IIsLory presenLs us wILI u number oI sucI exumpIes. MussIve projecLs uIong LIese IInes
were underLuken In LIe MIng EmpIre LIrougI LIe 1q
LI
und 1
LI
cenLurIes. AccordIng Lo
Cobo, LIe ncus uIso Iud u prucLIce oI LrunsIerrIng communILIes uwuy Irom denseIy
popuIuLed ureus Lo more spurseIy popuIuLed ones.
16

n LIe OLLomun EmpIre, we see LIIs drIve munIIesL In LIe seIecLIon oI men Ior
LrunsIer Lo ureus desIgnuLed Ior deveIopmenL. n LIe cuse oI Cyprus, Ior exumpIe, by
LurgeLIng Ior LrunsIers LIe IundIess, LIe unempIoyed, und mIgrunLs urrIvIng In Lowns und
cILIes Irom LIe counLrysIde, LIe sLuLe Look LIe opporLunILy Lo eIIecLIveIy sIpIon oII LIose

16
Cobo (1q;q), p.1qz.

6z
wIo puL u sLruIn on LIe economIc weII-beIng oI LIe provInces.
16q
EIIorLs were puL In
pIuce Lo reLurn ImmIgrunLs Irom ruruI ureus wIo were pIucIng pressure on LIe urbun
cenLers oI LIe empIre Lo LIeIr prevIous Iunds, boLI In generuI und especIuIIy IoIIowIng
LIe CeIuII uprIsIngs oI LIe eurIy 1;
LI
cenLury. TIe uLLempLs uL LIe reseLLIemenL oI
ugrIcuILuruIIsLs In 161o und 16 sImIIurIy uLLempLed u more IuvorubIe dIsLrIbuLIon oI
popuIuLIon. TIe reIocuLIon oI LIose wIo Iud IIed In seurcI oI work Lo LIe suIeLy oI
IorLIIIed Lowns Lo LIeIr Iormer Iunds wus InLended Lo uIIevIuLe LIe sLruIn pIuced on urbun
Iood suppIIes boLI by removIng non-conLrIbuLIng consumers und reLurnIng men Lo
producLIon.
16
SImIIur movemenLs uLLempLIng Lo remove popuIuLIons Irom ureus oI
nuLuruI economIc druw were underLuken In LIe MIng EmpIre wILI LIe Iurge-scuIe Iorced
mIgruLIon oI peopIe uwuy Irom LIe uLLrucLIve cousLuI cenLers Lo LIe InLerIors.
166

L sIouId be remembered LIuL LIe securILy-orIenLed 'pusIes` (us dIscussed In
secLIon B) very oILen Iud economIc dImensIons - u cenLruI reuson Ior LIe removuI oI
dIsrupLIve Trkmen Irom AnuLoIIu wus Lo mInImIze LIeIr deIeLerIous eIIecL on
ugrIcuILuruI producLIon. ndeed, LIe buIIdup oI nomudIc popuIuLIons In AnuLoIIu cun be
seen us popuIuLIon pressure oI u cerLuIn Lype LIuL Iound reIeuse In expunsIon InLo LIe
BuIkuns.
or LIe mosL purL, Iowever, IL seems LIuL LIe 'pusI` Ior LIe uIIevIuLIon oI
popuIuLIon pressure wus rureIy u primcr drIve beIInd uny oI LIe OLLomun LrunsIers;

16q
,Memclil-i mchruscmdc sc'b te senistcn erlerde mutemellin olub er hususundc muzcclclcri
olcn re'cci te recc crcsindc irret-u clc ile mc'ruj olcnlcri te tilcet tchririnde czilmcub lclcn
re'cc te re'cc olcnlcrini te sonrcdcn chcr erden elub mutctcttin olcnlcri te lendulerin erleri
olmcub ucret ile er tutcn re'cci te muddet-i medidedenberu clcl te bc te bce te er dc'tcsin
idub crclcri jcsl omcub nizc' uzere olcnlcri te ehl-i lcreden olub erlerin te urdlcrin bircub
lcscbct te ehirlerde mutemellin olcnlcri telhcsil eer lcscbct te eer lurc te ehirlerde bilcr olub
ii te ucu olmcub... MIImme DeILerI, no.1q p.q, In Burkun (1qqq-o), pp.o-1.
16
uroqII (1q8q), pp.z8-6.
166
TwILcIeLL und MoLe, p.q.

6
ruLIer IL wus generuIIy LIe puIIs LIuL drove LIe redIsLrIbuLIon oI Iubor us un economIc
resource.

depriving the enemy oI economic resoorces
A secondury objecLIve wus LIuL oI economIc deprIvuLIon. TIe desIre Lo deprIve
unoLIer group oI u vuIuubIe economIc resource by LIe removuI oI popuIuLIons wus uIso u
IucLor In severuI oI LIe LrunsIers presenLed so Iur. TIIs wus especIuIIy Lrue Ior
LemporurIIy IeId or conLesLed Iund. TIe deporLuLIon oI mercIunLs und scIoIurs Irom LIe
SuIuvId cupILuI oI TubrIz durIng ILs Lemporury occupuLIon by SuILun SeIIm wus no
doubL InjurIous Lo LIe cILy`s economIc IIIe. TIrougI LIe course oI LIe wurIure oI LIe 16
LI

und eurIy 1;
LI
cenLury, LIe OLLomuns und SuIuvIds Iud sLrIpped LIe urbun cenLers oI
AzerbuIjun Lo LIe beneIIL oI LIeIr more secureIy IeId cILIes - sLunbuI und Trubzon In LIe
OLLomun cuse und sIuIun In LIe SuIuvId.
16;
AnoLIer exumpIe oI economIc deprIvuLIon
wus LIe evucuuLIon oI LIe vIIIuges supporLIng ByzunLIne ConsLunLInopIe under BuyezIL
more LIun u cenLury prevIousIy.
168

PUS: economIc reusons Ior movIng peopIe In
EconomIc puIIs-reusons Lo InserL popuIuLIons Lo sLrengLIen LIe economy oI LIe
desLInuLIon IocuIe-were dIrecLIy responsIbIe Ior LIe IIon`s sIure oI popuIuLIon LrunsIers
In LIe OLLomun perIod und purLIcuIurIy LIose oI LIe 1
LI
cenLury. ProjecLs InsLIguLed Ior

16;
owry (1q;6), pp.1qq-1; owry (1q86b), p.1; SIuw (1q;6), p.81; Morgun (1q88), p.18. TIe SuIuvId
urmy, cumpuIgnIng uguInsL LIe OLLomuns In LIe IIrsL decude oI LIe 16oos deporLed eusLwurd wIoIe
vIIIuges und Lowns; CIrIsLIun men und boys were sIoLLed InLo LIe sLuLe sIuve sysLem; LIe ArmenIuns oI
JuIIu were IorcIbIy reIocuLed Lo sIuIun. GrIswoId (1q8), p.1o1.
168
SIuw (1q;6), p.81; Doukus (1q;), p.8.

6q
LIe deveIopmenL oI economIc IIIe LurgeLed boLI LIe ruruI ureus und urbun cenLers oI LIe
empIre.
WIen consIderIng InsLunces oI sLuLe-munduLed sIIILs In Iubor resources, IL sIouId
be remembered LIuL Iubor operuLed us u mobIIe Iorce In 'ordInury` cIrcumsLunces. L wus
cusLomury Ior Iuborers und skIIIed workers Lo IoIIow LIe work uvuIIubIe, und sIIILs In
Iubor resources occurred on u reguIur busIs us muLerIuIs und munpower were mobIIIzed
Ior LIe execuLIon oI specIIIc projecLs, boLI pubIIc und prIvuLe. L wus cusLomury, Ior
exumpIe, Ior cruILsmen und Lrudesmen (buLcIers, cooks, suddIers, cobbIers, und so on)
Lo be uIIocuLed Ior LruveI wILI LIe OLLomun urmIes on cumpuIgn.
16q
Edwurd urmer,
wrILIng ubouL LIe movemenL oI Iumun resources In LIe consLrucLIon oI BeIjIng under
LIe MIng mukes u dIsLIncLIon beLween sIorL-Lerm Iuborers und seLLIers. WIIIe sIorL-
Lerm Iuborers were ussIgned Lo gruIn LrunsporL, buIIdIng cunuIs, und consLrucLIon
projecLs, IL wus permunenL seLLIers LIuL uIIowed LIe esLubIIsImenL oI u Iong-Lerm Lux
buse, u permunenL Iubor pooI, und boLI ugrurIun und urbun popuIuLIon buses.
1;o
L Is LIe
movemenL oI LIIs second group LIuL Is our prImury InLeresL In LIIs essuy.
revivul oI conqoered lunds
Muny oI LIe economIcuIIy drIven moves were uImed specIIIcuIIy uL LIe
deveIopmenL oI LIe producLIve poLenLIuI oI newIy ucquIred Iunds. ConsIderIng LIe desIre
Ior resources LIuL drIves communILIes Lo conquesL, IL comes us IILLIe surprIse LIuL LIe
conquerIng power wouId seek muxImum expIoILuLIon oI ILs new IoIdIngs In us sIorL u
LIme us possIbIe; Ior LIose sLuLes LIuL ure wIIIIng Lo do so, IL Is onIy nuLuruI LIuL LrunsIers

16q
mber (zooz), p.zq.
1;o
urmer (1q;6), pp.1q8-z.

6
wouId be execuLed Lowurds LIIs gouI. CIezu de eon descrIbes sucI u poIIcy In LIe cuse oI
LIe ncu:
... I, percIunce, LIey Iud conquered LerrILory In LIe IIgIIunds or pIuIns or
on u sIope suILubIe Ior pIowIng und sowIng, wIIcI wus IerLIIe und Iud u
good cIImuLe, und wus empLy oI peopIe, LIey quIckIy ordered LIuL Irom
neur-by provInces LIuL Iud LIe sume cIImuLe us LIese, Ior LIe good oI LIe
IeuILI, enougI peopIe come In Lo seLLIe IL, und Lo LIese Iunds were gIven,
und IIocks, und uII LIe provIsIons LIey needed unLII LIey couId IurvesL
wIuL LIey pIunLed.
1;1

Muny oI LIe demogrupIIc movemenLs occurrIng In LIe wuke oI LIe OLLomun conquesLs
cun be seen wILIIn LIIs IIgIL. n LIe cuse oI Cyprus, Ior exumpIe, u correspondence senL
by LIe governor-generuI oI LIe IsIund Lo LIe ImperIuI courL In sLunbuI, decIured LIe
LerrILory`s economIc reIurbIsImenL Lo be prImury und expIIcIL gouI oI LIe enLIre LrunsIer
projecL:
WILI muny pIuces IyIng ruIned IoIIowIng LIe InvusIon oI LIe IsIund oI
Cyprus by LIe vIcLorIous Lroops, IeL IL be known LIuL ruIned Iunds sIouId
be mude IeuILIy, wILI gurdens und orcIurds und sugur cune puL InLo
cuILIvuLIon; Iunds producIng one busIeI oI IurvesLed gruIn sIouId be mude
sLrong, wILI yIeIds oI o-6o busIeIs; LIe Lowns, vIIIuges, und oLIer Iunds
und pIoLs sIouId become prosperous und IIourIsIIng.
1;z


1;1
CIezu (1qq), p.6z
1;z
Ancdolu te Kcrcmcn te Rum te Zullcdiriede tcli' olcn lcdilcrc hulum li, Hclc Kibris
belerbeisi Sincn dcme ilbcluhu sudde-i se'cdetime meltub onderup Kibris ceziresi `csclir-i nusrct
eser istilcsile hcli erleri hcrcb olub te hcrcb olcn erler zirccte bc te bce te eler lcmiinc sclih
erler olub hcttc toprcindc zircct oluncn hububun bir lilesinden elli cltmi lile hcsil tirur luttetlu
erler olub eer lcscbct te eer lurcsi te scir erczi te bulc'i mc'mur te cbcdcn olmcl lczim iduun
bildirmisin. MIImme DeILerI, no.1q p.q, In Burkun (1qqq-o), p.o.

66
TIe Iunguuge used In expressIng LIe uIms oI LIe LrunsIer oI men und IumIIIes onLo LIe
IsIund Is In IucL very cIose Lo LIuL used In LIe order concernIng LIe reIubIIILuLIon oI LIe
IIveIIIood oI Cyprus` nuLIve CIrIsLIun popuIuLIon.
1;

As we Iuve seen, LIe LIree mujor OLLomun urbun deveIopmenL projecLs oI LIe 1
LI

cenLury-SuIonIcu, sLunbuI, und Trubzon-were underLuken In ByzunLIne cILIes dIrecLIy
IoIIowIng LIeIr conquesLs. TIese eIIorLs wIII be exumIned In greuLer deLuII beIow.
developing the rorul economy
PopuIuLIon LrunsIers were used Lo deveIop LIe producLIon poLenLIuI oI LIe
empIre`s ruruI economy-ugrIcuILuruI und pusLoruIIsL-In boLI newIy conquered und
InLernuI LerrILorIes.
Muny oI LIese LrunsIers consLILuLed munIpuIuLIons oI LIe empIre`s ugrIcuILuruI
Iubor buse. On u broud scuIe, LIe esLubIIsImenL oI CIrIsLIun peusunL communILIes In
AnuLoIIu LIrougIouL LIe IIrsL Lwo cenLurIes oI LIe dynusLy no doubL IeIped deveIop LIe
ugrIcuILuruI buse oI LIe economy. On u smuIIer scuIe, InsLunces sucI us LIe movemenL oI
CIrIsLIun und MusIIm peusunLs Irom SuruIun onLo u timcr In RumeII und LIe pIunLIng
oI peusunL communILIes In SIIIsLre uround LIe begInnIng oI LIe 16
LI
cenLury represenL
LIe esLubIIsImenL oI LIe Iubor buses oI specIIIc LerrILorIes.
1;q
As we Iuve seen In LIe
LrunsIer Lo Cyprus, ugrIcuILuruI producLIon wus one oI LIe cenLruI sLuLed gouIs oI LIe
IsIund`s seLLIemenL.
1;
MucI oI LIe movemenL uImed uL buIIdIng up sLunbuI Look LIe

1;
See MIImme DeILerI, no.1q p.6q, In Burkun (1qqq-o), p.6o.
1;q
Burkun (1q1-z), p.6q; Burkun (1q-q), p.zz.
1;
MIImme DeILerI, no.1q p.q, In Burkun (1qqq-o), p.o.

6;
Iorm oI LIe seLLIemenL In LIe surroundIng regIon LIuL couId LIen IeIp Ieed LIe cILy, u
Lusk underLuken In LIe deveIopmenL oI BeIjIng us weII.
1;6

AL LImes, sucI LrunsIers were uImed uL LIe esLubIIsImenL oI u Iubor buse dIrecLIy
uLLucIed Lo LIe cenLruI governmenL. TIe seLLIemenL oI vIIIuges neur sLunbuI, Bursu, und
BIgu wILI sIuveJsIurecropper Iubor wus InLended Lo provIde LIe SuILun u reguIur suppIy
oI gruIn und IIvesLock. TIe ncu sImIIurIy used LrunsIer Lo sLrengLIen LIe sLuLe-conLroIIed
secLor oI LIe economy In LIeIr reIocuLIon oI muIze Iurmers.
1;;
Groups LIuL wouId Iuve
oLIerwIse operuLed wILI greuLer uuLonomy or wILIIn LIe provIncIuI udmInIsLruLIve
sysLem were InsLeud mude Lo reporL dIrecLIy Lo LIe cupILuI.
L sIouId be noLed LIuL LIe OLLomun munIpuIuLIon oI ILs peusunL Iubor buse,
LIougI cerLuInIy uppurenL, does noL seem Lo Iuve reucIed LIe scuIe or ImpucL oI sImIIur
eIIorLs eIsewIere In LIe worId. L Is cIuImed, Ior exumpIe, LIuL In LIe second IuII oI LIe
1q
LI
cenLury oI LIe MIng dynusLy, LIere were some LIree mIIIIon peopIe reseLLIed In LIe
decImuLed LerrILorIes oI LIe norLI, muInIy Irom SIunsI, un ureu LIuL Iud enjoyed reIuLIve
sLubIIILy.
1;8


TIe movIng oI nomudIc und semI-nomudIc pusLoruIIsLs, so Iur dIscussed onIy In
Lerms oI LIe securILy LIreuLs und udvunLuges LIey posed, uIso Iud economIc dImensIons.
As nuIcik poInLs ouL, despILe LIeIr poLenLIuI Ior dIsrupLIon, LIe nomuds served un
ImporLunL roIe In LIe ruruI economy. AILIougI sedenLury ugrIcuILure wus u superIor

1;6
nuIcik (1q6q-;o), p.zq. TIe consLrucLIon oI BeIjIng uIso IeuLured u Iurge number oI moves uImed uL
deveIopIng LIe ugrIcuILuruI producLIon oI LIe provInce us u wIoIe, urmer (1q;6), p.1qq.
1;;
Conrud und DemuresL (1q8q), p.1.
1;8
TwILcIeLL und MoLe, p.q.

68
revenue producer, pusLoruIIsm IIIIed un ImporLunL nIcIe In LIe uLIIIzuLIon oI Iess eusIIy
cuILIvuLed or murgInuI Iunds Ior sLock ruIsIng (producIng wooI, meuL, und IIdes).
1;q

TIe movemenL oI vurIous nomudIc groups InLo LIe BuIkuns deveIoped LIe
pusLoruI economy und uIIowed LIe uLIIIzuLIon oI murgInuI Iunds. TIe emergence oI
IIIbe-Iome Lo Iurge numbers oI LrunsIerred nomuds LIrougI LIe 1q
LI
und eurIy 1
LI

cenLurIes-us un ImporLunL cenLer Ior LIe producLIon oI wooIen goods In LIe mIddIe
yeurs oI LIe empIre Is perIups u demonsLruLIon oI LIe conLrIbuLIon wIIcI pusLoruIIsLs
couId muke Lo LIe economy oI LIe ureus In wIIcI LIey seLLIed.
18o
SuILun Murud V`s
commundIng LIe reIocuLIon oI LIe ZeyneIII und oLIer LrIbes InLo ErzIncun und PusIn In
LIe 16os seems Lo Iuve been prImurIIy uImed uL LIe economIc resLoruLIon oI LIose
ureus.
181

TIe Iorced sedenLurIzuLIon oI nomuds wus boLI economIcuIIy und securILy drIven
und consLILuLed u poIIcy wIIcI sougIL Lo enIurge LIe body oI Iubor enguged In
ugrIcuILuruI producLIon. SucI eIIorLs were meunL Lo cIunge LIe nuLure oI ruruI
producLIon Lo IIL LIe desIres oI LIe sLuLe. SomeLImes Iorced reIocuLIon served us u
cuLuIysL Ior LIe sIIIL Lo seLLIed IIIe. Muny oI LIose pusLoruIIsLs urrIvIng In RumeII In LIe
IIrsL cenLury oI conquesL cIose Lo Luke up IuII-LIme ugrIcuILure, us wus LIe cuse Ior u
number oI LIe TuLur groups reIocuLed LIere In LIe 1
LI
cenLury.
18z
n sucI u wuy, LIe
LrunsIer oI peusunLs und pusLoruIIsLs uIIowed greuLer uLIIIzuLIon oI LIe empIre`s Iund
resources.

1;q
nuIcik (1qqq), pp.;-q1, 16o-161.
18o
uroqII (1q8q), p.z;6.
181
Suun ote tcrcjindc bir un oturulup Zenelli te dier ciretleri bin lcdcr obc ile erlerinden
lcldirulup Erzinccn te Pcsin scnccllcrindc bo te hcrcp erlere erlemel emirler czilup belerine
scnccl te zecmet terildi. NuImu (1q68), p.11z.
18z
Burkun (1q-q), pp.z11-z1z. A IurLIer economIc roIe pIuyed by LIe nomudIc segmenLs oI LIe
popuIuLIon wus In LrunsporLuLIon. nuIcik (1qqq), p.q.TIe reseLLIemenL oI u group oI lcrc crcplcr In
coIonIes uIong Lrude rouLes In norLIwesLern AnuLoIIu In LIe mId-1q
LI
cenLury proves un exumpIe oI u move
InsLILuLed Lo LIIs eIIecL, nuIcik (1q8).

6q
reconstroction und orbun development
TIe economIc deveIopmenL oI LIe empIre`s cILIes wus LIe sIngIe mosL ImporLunL
objecLIve drIvIng LIe LrunsIer oI popuIuLIon In LIe eurIy OLLomun EmpIre. TrunsIers were
used Lo buIId up LIe cupILuI oI EdIrne In LIe 1q
LI
cenLury und proved u cenLruI pIIIur In
LIe reconsLrucLIon oI SuIonIcu, sLunbuI, und Trubzon In LIe 1
LI
.
TIe empIoymenL oI LrunsIers In cILy-buIIdIng Is u common IeuLure oI u Iurge
number oI ImperIuI sLuLes. Some, us In LIe OLLomun cuses, occurred wILIIn LIe conLexL
oI rebuIIdIng ureus ruvuged In LIe course oI conquesL. OLIers occurred IoIIowIng bouLs
oI pIugue. SLIII oLIers were InILIuLed wILI LIe decIuruLIon oI u cupILuI cILy. CIezu de eon`s
descrIpLIon oI LIe ncu cupILuI oI Cuzco, Ior exumpIe, pIuces prImury empIusIs on LIe
dIversILy oI communILIes ImporLed Irom LIrougIouL LIe empIre.
18
SImIIurIy, Iurge
numbers oI deporLees were used In LIe consLrucLIon oI LIe MIng cupILuIs oI NunjIng In
LIe 1q
LI
cenLury und BeIjIng In LIe eurIy 1
LI
cenLury.
18q


n LIe boLI LIe OLLomun und MIng exumpIes, LIe governmenLs drew on boLI LIe
Iund-poor cIusses (LIose wIo Iud noLIIng Lo Iose und couId be mosL eusIIy sIIILed) us
weII us skIIIed und weuILIy groups (LIose wIo Iud LIe greuLesL Lo conLrIbuLe); LIe IIrsL
esLubIIsIed LIe cILy`s Iubor buse, wIIcI LIe second IIesI ouL specIIIc segmenLs oI LIe
urbun economy.
18
n LIe cuse oI LIe BeIjIng, weuILIy IumIIIes Irom uII LIe souLIern
provInces, buL especIuIIy LIe rIcIesL ureus oI LIe SouLIern CupILuI und CIekIung, were
umong LIe IIrsL Lo be moved. TIIs decIsIon Insured LIuL LIe new cupILuI wouId be

18
CIezu (1qq), p.1q8.
18q
Ho (1qq), pp16-q; urmer (1q;6), pp.1q8-z.
18
TIIs IormuIu wus urLIcuIuLed by owry (1q86b), pp.z-. n LIe OLLomun cuse, LIe esLubIIsImenL
unskIIIed Iubor wus underLuken prImurIIy In LIe eurIIesL sLuges oI LIe projecL; cuIIIng oI skIIIed Iumun
cupILuI conLInued Ior muny decudes uILerwurds.

;o
popuIuLed wILI peopIe oI subsLunce, soIId cILIzens wIo wouId brIng weuILI und cuILure
wILI LIem.
186
MucI oI LIIs process In LIe cuse oI sLunbuI Ius been reIuLed. n uddILIon
Lo u Iurge number oI cuIIs exLended Lo specIIIc IndIvIduuIs und communILIes, KrILovouIos
InIorms us oI LIe seIecLIve seLLIemenL uppIIed Lo LIe Iurge bodIes oI munpower brougIL
Lo LIe cILy Irom cumpuIgn: As muny oI LIe PeIoponnesIuns wIom Ie Iud brougIL buck
us seemed Lo be beLLer LIun LIe resL In LIeIr knowIedge oI Lrudes. TIe resL oI LIem Ie
pIuced In LIe surroundIng vIIIuges...
18;
SucI LInkerIng wILI LIe dIsLrIbuLIon oI skIIIed
munpower In LIe empIre conLInued InLo LIe reIgn oI LIe Conqueror`s grundson, SuILun
SIeymun (1zo-66). As seen In LIe LrunsIer oI LIe IIsIIng communILIes Irom Trubzon
Lo sLunbuI, sucI moves conLInued Lo be execuLed some sIxLy Lo eIgILy yeurs uILer LIe
conquesL. SucI LrunsIers couId Iuve u Iurge ImpucL on LIe ucLuuI composILIon oI LIe cILy;
owry sLuLes In LIe cuse oI SuIonIcu, Ior exumpIe, LIuL LIere wus u dIrecL correIuLIon
beLween LIe promInence oI LIese Lrudes und IndusLrIes In SuIonIcu, und LIe nuLure oI LIe
popuIuce suruned LIere by MeImed .
188

n uddILIon Lo IncreusIng LIe generuI presLIge oI LIe cILy, sucI ucLIons presenLed
LIe sLuLe wILI specIIIc economIc udvunLuges. n creuLIng superpowered economIc
cenLers, LIe OLLomuns were IeverugIng LIe sume udvunLuges LIuL brIng Lrudesmen
LogeLIer In un open economy, LIe process oI uggIomeruLIon. TIe concenLruLIon oI Lrudes
sImpIIIIed und reduced LIe cosL oI brIngIng In muLerIuIs und murkeLIng IInIsIed goods; IL
IucIIILuLed LuxuLIon und puL LIe Iubor Iorce wILIIn dIrecL reucI oI LIe sLuLe Ior
empIoymenL In pubIIc projecLs. TIIs conLroI-LIrougI-consoIIduLIon meLIod wus
Ieveruged In LIe ncu cuse us weII, wILI cruILsmen beIng reIocuLed Lo specIuI

186
urmer (1q;6), p.1qq.
18;
KrILovouIos (1qq), pp.1q-qo.
188
owry (1q86b), p.;.

;1
communILIes Lo uIIow IuIIIIImenL oI LIeIr sLuLe Iubor responsIbIIILIes und euse LIe Lusk oI
sLorIng und dIsLrIbuLIng goods.
18q

As Ius been menLIoned, LIere wus uIso u mujor eIIorL Lo deveIop LIe IInLerIunds
oI cILIes, us peusunLs were brougIL Lo seLLIe uround EdIrne und, on u mucI Iurger scuIe,
sLunbuI; sucI moves puruIIeIed MIng seLLIemenL oI LIe norLIern provInces surroundIng
LIe new cupILuI, u purLIcuIurIy underdeveIoped regIon uL LIe sLurL oI LIe projecL.
1qo

looting lubor
DruwIng oII LIe Iubor resources, boLI skIIIed und unskIIIed, oI newIy conquered
reuIms wus u cenLruI IeuLure oI u Iurge number oI LrunsIers InsLILuLed In LIe deveIopmenL
oI vurIous sILes In LIe empIre. As dIscussed eurIIer, conquered popuIuLIons were u group
over wIIcI LIe sLuLe couId exercIse power wILI u greuL deuI oI ImpunILy. ConsIdered
pureIy economIcuIIy, II LIe revIvuI oI conquered Iunds wus uImed uL brIngIng LIe
LerrILory InLo LIe ImperIuI economIc sysLem, LIe removuI oI popuIuce uImed uL brIngIng
In ILs munpower. bn KemuI`s sLuLemenL concernIng LIe cumpuIgns uguInsL Kurumun In
cenLruI AnuLoIIu In LIe mId-1
LI
cenLury LIuL orders were Issued LIuL Irom eucI cILy
some Iundreds oI IouseIoIds oI cruILsmen und weuILIy cILIzens sIouId be seIecLed Ior
LrunsIer
1q1
uppeurs Lo Iuve been uppIIcubIe LIrougIouL LIe conquesLs oI LIe perIod. As
we Iuve seen, LIree consecuLIve suILuns drew oII conquesLs In SerbIu, muInIund Greece,
LIe Moreu, LIe IsIunds oI LIe Aegeun, cenLruI und eusLern AnuLoIIu, AzerbuIjun und EgypL
In LIe peopIIng oI LIe ImperIuI cupILuI. WIIIe sIIpmenL oI munpower comIng In Irom LIe
eurIIesL conquesLs conLuIned boLI sLundurd und skIIIed Iubor, IuLer LrunsIers cume Lo
Iocus soIeIy on LIIs second secLor.

18q
JuIIen (1q8), pp.;8-q.
1qo
urmer (1q;6), p.1qq.
1q1
bn KemuI, quoLed In nuIcik (1q6q-;o), p.z8.

;z
Once uguIn, LIe OLLomuns were In good compuny wILI LIeIr neIgIbors und
predecessors. TIe deporLuLIon oI skIIIed Iubor Ior conquered cILIes wus u mujor LIeme
LIrougIouL LIe conquesLs oI GengIIs und Ogedey KIun In LIe 1
LI
cenLury und TImur In
LIe 1q
LI
cenLury; Doukus, Ior exumpIe, reIuLes LIuL beIore conIronLIng LIe OLLomuns uL
Ankuru, TImur ruzed Dumuscus und AIeppo und LrunsporLed muny cruILsmen Lo
PersIu.
1qz
TIe SuIuvIds used LIe cumpuIgns oI 16oq- Lo brIng some ,ooo ArmenIun
cruILsmen Irom JuIIu, on LIe OLLomun-SuIuvId border, Lo sIuIun, wIere LIey were
seLLIed In LIe neIgIborIood oI New JuIIu.
1q

TIe MIng uLIIIzed cupLured Iubor us weII, seLLIIng ;,ooo cupLured Annumese
urLIsuns In BeIjIng In 1qo;.
1qq
TIe sume opporLunILIes were noL mIssed by LIe ncus;
oIIowIng LIe conquesL oI CIImu, Ior exumpIe, Topu ncu, wILI IIs usuuI cIemency,
|ordered| LIe survIvors Lo devoLe LIemseIves Lo LIIIIng LIeIr IIeIds... As LIe |CIImus|
were so skIIIIuI uL workIng meLuIs, muny oI LIem were Luken Lo Cuzco und LIe cupILuIs oI
LIe provInces, wIere LIey wrougIL jeweIry, vesseIs, und gobIeLs oI goId und sIIver, und
wIuLever eIse LIey were ordered.
1q
As sIown, Iurge porLIons oI munpower were
reIocuLed Irom conquered cILIes In un uLLempL Lo sLrengLIen LIe presLIge und economIc
power oI LIe ImperIuI cenLer.

1qz
Doukus (1q;), p.qo.
1q
Morgun (1q88), p.18.
1qq
MoLe und TwILcIeLL, ppz8-q.
1q
CIezu (1qq), p.z8.

;

PurL . MeLIods und PILIuIIs
TIe meLIods by wIIcI LIe OLLomun suruns, or popuIuLIon LrunsIers, were
execuLed vurIed uccordIng Lo LIe objecLIves und conLexL. TIe InsLILuLIon no doubL
cIunged over LIme. WIIIe LIe LrunsIers oI LIe 1q
LI
cenLury, muInIy LIe movemenL oI
LrIbesmen und conquered peusunLry, uppeur In LIe cIronIcIes us IuIrIy opporLunIsLIc
dIsposuIs oI popuIuLIon, by LIe 1
LI
cenLury LIe poIIcy Iud Luken on un InsLILuLIonuI
cIurucLer, u Lrend wIIcI puruIIeIed LIe deveIopmenL oI LIe OLLomun sLuLe us u
cenLruIIzed bureuucruLIc order.
Some LrunsIers were IeveIed uguInsL communILIes on u cuse-by-cuse busIs, sucI us
In InsLunces oI uIIevIuLIng specIIIc LIreuLs (deporLIng rebeIIIous LrIbes), opporLunIsLIc
grubs Ior munpower (removIng cupLIves Irom newIy conquered ureus), or IuIIIIIIng
smuII-scuIe needs (popuIuLIng u IorLress). OLIers, generuIIy deIIberuLeIy underLuken
projecLs requIrIng Iurge-scuIe InserLIon oI Iumun cupILuI, were InsLILuLed LIrougI
generuI cuIIs Ior munpower wIIcI couId LIen be IoIIowed up by cuIIs Ior IndIvIduuIs or
groups unswerIng specIIIc needs.
MeImeL `s use oI Iorced LrunsIers In LIe repopuIuLIon oI sLunbuI Look on LIIs
IuLLer Iorm.
1q6
As KrILovouIos reIuLes ImmedIuLeIy IoIIowIng LIe cupLure oI LIe cILy, Ie
senL un order In LIe Iorm oI un ImperIuI commund Lo every purL oI IIs reuIm, LIuL us
muny InIubILunLs us possIbIe be LrunsIerred Lo LIe CILy, noL onIy CIrIsLIuns buL uIso IIs
own peopIe und muny oI LIe Hebrews, und IuLer, Ie guLIered LIem LIere Irom uII purLs

1q6
or cIose exumInuLIons oI LIIs process, see owry (1q86b) und nuIcik (1q;).

;q
oI AsIu und Europe, und Ie LrunsIerred LIem wILI uII possIbIe cure und speed...
1q;
TIIs
broud cuIIIng oI munpower wus LIen uugmenLed over u Iong perIod oI LIme wILI
summons Issued Lo specIIIc IndIvIduuIs und communILIes-LIe weuILIy cILIzens oI Bursu
und LIe IIsIermen Irom Trubzon, Ior exumpIe
1q8
-us weII us LIe Iumun spoIIs oI
conquesL.
Some generuI cuIIs Look on LIe Iorm oI u Iumun Lux, puruIIeIIng LIe coIIecLIon oI
CIrIsLIun youLIs wILIIn LIe detirme sysLem or LIe LuxuLIon oI sIeep.
1qq
n LIe
coIonIzuLIon oI Cyprus In LIe 1;os, LIe surun projecL Ior wIIcI-LIunks Lo Burkun`s
sLudIes-we Iuve LIe mosL compIeLe documenLuLIon, one ouL oI every Len IouseIoIds oI
dIsLrIcLs LIrougIouL AnuLoIIu were Lo be seL usIde Ior ImmIgruLIon Lo LIe IsIund.
zoo
TIe
MongoI KIun HIeg, uccordIng Lo one cIronIcIer, underLook LIe reconsLrucLIon oI IIs
ArmenIun IoIdIngs In u sImIIur IusIIon: Irom eucI InIubILed vIIIuge Ie seIecLed
IouseIoIders, one Irom u smuII und Lwo or LIree Irom Iurge vIIIuges . und senL LIem Lo
uII desLroyed pIuces Lo underLuke rebuIIdIng.
zo1
n LIe cuse oI Cyprus, LIe crILerIu Ior
seIecLIon LurgeLed boLI LIose IndIvIduuIs IyIng on LIe perIpIery oI socIeLy und LIe
economy-LIose IuckIng Iund or occupyIng murgInuI Iund, sIure-croppers, recenL
ImmIgrunLs, unempIoyed bucIeIors, us weII us LIose convIcLed oI peLLy oIIenses sucI us
usury-us weII us LIose possessIng specIIIc Lrudes skIIIs-cobbIers, cIoLI-mukers, cooks,
cundIe-mukers, grocers, Lunners, bIucksmILI, curpenLers, sLonemusons, und so on.
zoz
A

1q;
KrILovouIos (1qq), ppq, 1o.
1q8
nuIcik (1q6q-;o), p.z;; owry (1q;6), pp.1qq-8.
1qq
nuIcik (1qqq). TIe sIeep Lux In LIe 16
LI
cenLury cuIIed Ior one ouL oI every Iundred sIeep Lo be Lurned
over Lo LIe provIncIuI udmInIsLruLor. Tupu TuIrIr, no.;o, In Burkun (1q-q), p.zz.
zoo
MIImme DeILerI, no.1q p.q, In Burkun (1qqq-o), pp.o-1.
zo1
GrIgor oI Akunc`, quoLed In AIIsen (1q8;), p.qo.
zoz
ehir te lcscbctdc sclin olcn erbcb-i hirej te ehl-i scnci'den pcbuccu te bcmclci te derzi te
tcleci te lemhcci te mutcj te hcllcc te lczzcz te ci te bcci te mumcu te semerci te nclbcnd te
bcllcl te debbc te demurcu te duler te bennc te tcci te luumcu te lczcnci. MIImme DeILerI,
no.1q p.q, In Burkun (1qqq-o), pp.o-1.

;
sImIIur, II noL IdenLIcuI process wus empIoyed severuI decudes eurIIer In LIe coIonIzuLIon
oI RIodes und muy or muy noL Iuve been empIoyed In LIe muny LrunsIers oI LIe 1
LI

cenLury.
zo
SucI u duuI upproucI - uImIng boLI Ior LIe murgInuI und LIe vuIuubIe
eIemenLs In socIeLy - wus common Lo sucI projecLs. n LIe repopuIuLIon oI BeIjIng und
ILs IInLerIund In LIe IIrsL decude oI LIe 1
LI
cenLury, LIe MIng noL onIy mude use oI
IundIess peusunLs und convIcLs buL uddILIonuIIy Lo LurgeLed weuILIy IumIIIes wIo wouId
be ubIe Lo conLrIbuLe dIrecLIy Lo LIe reconsLrucLIon.
zoq

TIe Issue oI exempLIons wus ImporLunL In LIe cuse oI generuI us weII us specIIIc
cuIIs. JusL us cerLuIn ureus und popuIuLIons were exempLed Irom ImperIuI Luxes, some
LerrILorIes, sucI us LIe porL Lown oI SInop In LIe 16
LI
cenLury, were grunLed u sLuLus oI
permunenL proLecLIon guurunLeeIng Ireedom Irom beIng uLIIIzed In u sLuLe LrunsIer
projecL.
zo
OLIer LerrILorIes und communILIes were specIIIcuIIy excused In LIe course oI
ImpIemenLuLIon, sucI us In LIe cuse un exempLIon decree (mucj hulmu) Issued Ior LIe
cILy oI AyusoIug (EpIesus) ubsoIvIng IL Irom LIe duLy oI sendIng men Lo LIe IsIund oI
RIodes.
zo6

TrunsIers occurrIng In LIe course oI conquesL generuIIy Look u somewIuL
dIIIerenL Iorm. Muny Look pIuce rIgIL uL LIe LIme oI LIe occupuLIon oI LIe LerrILory, In
wIIcI cuse LIe sLuLe Iud LIe beneIIL oI beIng ubIe Lo use LIe conquerIng Iorces In LIe
execuLIon oI LIe move. TIose LrunsIerred couId consLILuLe eILIer LIe enLIre or u porLIon
oI LIe popuIuLIon, wILI oLIers beIng druILed InLo sLuLe servIce, dIsLrIbuLed us booLy, soId

zo
MenLIon Is mude oI u Iew peopIe Irom every Lown oI LIe peopIe oI LIe wIoIe oI LIe provInce beIng
ordered Lo seLLIe on LIe IsIund: cmme-i tilcetin ehclisinden her lcscbcdcn bir lc nejer limesne
cezire-i mezlurdc temellun etdirilmel emr olunduldc. Tupu TuIrIr. no.z8, In Burkun (1qqq-o),
pp.q6-8.
zoq
urmer (1q;6), pp.1q8-z.
zo
uroqII (1q8q), p.1o;.
zo6
Tupu TuIrIr. no.z8, In Burkun (1qqq-o), pp.q6-8.

;6
In uucLIon, or IeIL In resIdence. SeveruI yeurs uILer LIe conquesL oI sLunbuI, Ior exumpIe,
Doukus reIuLes LIuL wIen LIe SuILun cupLured u IorLress neur Smederovo Ie Look uII LIe
InIubILunLs cupLIve, LIen uILer cIuImIng IuII oI LIe cupLIves Ior IImseII, . senL LIem Lo
popuIuLe LIe vIIIuges ouLsIde ConsLunLInopIe.
zo;
oIIowIng LIe conquesL oI MILyIene, on
LIe IsIund oI esbos, un LuIIun cIronIcIer wrILes LIuL u census wus Luken oI LIe cILIzens,
wIo were dIvIded beLween LIe worLIIess wIo sLuyed beIInd, LIose wIo were soId uL
pubIIc uucLIon, und LIe remuInder, some 1o,ooo, wIo were LrunsporLed Lo
ConsLunLInopIe.
zo8
OLIer uLIIIzuLIon oI conquered popuIuLIons uppeurs Lo Iuve come
severuI yeurs uILer LIe InILIuI conquesL, sucI us In LIe LrunsIer In 1q6o oI LIe popuIuLIons
oI OId und New ou (cupLured In 1q) und LIe IsIunds oI mbros, emnos, TIusos, und
SumoLIruce (1q6) Lo sLunbuI.
zoq
L Is probubIy noL InsIgnIIIcunL LIuL LIe LrunsIer
occurred uILer IuvIng Luken sLock oI LIe newIy uvuIIubIe resources - LIe prucLIce oI
ussessIng munpower LIrougI LIe recordIng oI popuIuLIon regIsLers (tchrir dejters)
provIded boLI u porLruIL oI LIe empIre`s LuxubIe resources us weII us un uccounL oI LIe
LoLuI Iumun resources uvuIIubIe Lo LIe sLuLe.
z1o


A number oI urcIIvuI documenLs und nurruLIve unecdoLes provIde us wILI un
undersLundIng oI LIe process by wIIcI LIese LrunsIers were execuLed. TIe surun orders

zo;
Doukus (1q;), p.zq; u sImIIur scene Is descrIbed by KrILovouIos IoIIowIng LIe desLrucLIon oI severuI
IorLresses In LIe Moreu, KrILovouIos (1qq), p.1;.
zo8
Doukus (1q;), noLe pp.zz-. CIuIcocondyIes, quoLed In owry (1q;6), p.q, descrIbes LIe evenLs
IoIIowIng LIe conquesL oI Trubzon In sImIIur Lerms: DIvIdIng LIe popuIuLIon InLo porLIons, Ie kepL one
Ior IImseII, mukIng oI IL IuLer In IIs courL Silchdcrs und Sipchi Dlcns. AnoLIer secLIon Ie seLLIed In
ByzunLIum, und LIe LIIrd Ie mude JunIssurIes und Iuborers.
zoq
KrILovouIos (1qq), pp.1q8-q, 1q; nuIcik (1q6q-;o), p.z8.
z1o
SucI prucLIces were common Lo bureuucruLIc Lux-drIven sLuLes. TIe ncus, Loo, mude u poInL oI
conducLIng u census sIorLIy uILer brIngIng new ucquIsILIons InLo LIe empIre, buL us LIIs wus compIeLed
IoIIowIng LIe muIn body oI popuIuLIon resIuIIIIngs IL does noL seem Lo Iuve pIuyed un ImporLunL roIe In
LIe process. We mIgIL ussume LIuL sucI duLu proved useIuI IuLer us LIe sLuLe seL ubouL LIe mobIIIzuLIon oI
munpower Lowurds projecLs sucI us LIe consLrucLIon oI Cuzco, Cobo (1q;q), p.1qq.

;;
were neurIy uIwuys dIrecLIy IInked Lo LIe courL oI LIe suILun, LIougI u Iew InsLunces exIsL
In wIIcI InsLIguLIon uppeurs Lo Iuve occurred uL Iower IeveIs, sucI us un InsLunce oI u
group oI peusunLs reIocuLed Irom SuruIun Lo RumeII by u noLubIe Irom Trubzon wIo wus
uLLempLIng Lo esLubIIsI u IIeI (timcr) LIere.
z11
TIe documenLs Irom LIe Cyprus LrunsIer
provIde us wILI LIe roIe pIuyed by oIIIcIuIs In LIe provIncIuI governmenL. TIe mujorILy oI
orders reIuLIng Lo LIe coIIecLIon und emburkuLIon oI LrunsIerees ure uddressed Lo LIe
provIncIuI lcdis (judges); some ure exLended Lo LIem us u group, wIIIe oLIers uddress
IndIvIduuIs wILI specIIIc InsLrucLIons.
z1z
L Is evIdenL Irom u number oI LIe orders LIuL
LIere wus communIcuLIon beLween provIncIuI oIIIcIuIs und LIe cupILuI; Ior exumpIe, one
correspondence Is uddressed Lo LIe governor-generuI oI Cyprus InquIrIng wIeLIer or noL
LIe 1,ooo IouseIoIds under u cerLuIn oIIIcer Iud urrIved on LIe IsIund.
z1
TIe orders
uIso menLIon LIe roIe oI oIIIcIuIs (mubcir)-wIo ure wurned uguInsL LurnIng Lo
corrupLIon-und useIuI men, someLImes soIdIers ussIgned Lo execuLe LIe move.
z1q

TIe provIncIuI udmInIsLruLors were LIen cIurged wILI LIe LrunsporL oI LIe
LrunsIerees, uIong wILI LIeIr IIocks und oxen, Lo LIe porL Ior sIIpmenL Lo LIe IsIund,
wIere LIey wouId come under LIe commund oI LIe IocuI governor-generuI
(belerbei).
z1
TIe use oI porLIons oI LIe ImperIuI IIeeL In LrunsporLIng LrunsIerees
uppeurs In u number oI sources. or LIe LrunsporL oI LIe popuIuLIons oI OId und New
ou Lo sLunbuI, Ior exumpIe, KrILovouIos reIuLes LIuL MeImeL senL Zugunos,

z11
Burkun (1q1-z), p.6q, bused on u tchrir dejter Irom LIe litc oI SuruIun.
z1z
See MIImme DeILerI, no.1q p.q, In Burkun (1qqq-o), pp.o-1, Ior exumpIe, versus AIkum
DeILerI, yp.1o In Burkun (1qqq-o), pp..
z1
MIImme DeILerI, no.1q p.6q, In Burkun (1qqq-o), p.6o.
z1q
MIImme DeILerI, no.1q p.6q, In Burkun (1qqq-o), pp.o-z. TIe pIrusIng used Is dchi crcr
cdemlere loub, n LIe LrunsIer oI lizilbc Lo Cyprus severuI decudes IuLer specIIIes Lo uppoInL soIdIers Lo
LIe Lusk. hiscr erlerine loub. MIImme DeILerI, no. p.zo6, In Burkun (1q-q), pp.zzq-o.
z1
MIImme DeILerI, no.1q p.q, In Burkun (1qqq-o), p.z. n LIe cuse oI LIe reIuLIves oI LIe execuLed
lizilbc LrunsporLed Lo BudIn In Hungury we uIso see LIe belerbei IndIcuLed us LIe recIpIenL oI LIe
LrunsIerees. MIImme DeILerI, no.6 p.;, In Burkun (1q-q), p.zzq.

;8
Governor oI GuIIIpoII und udmIruI oI LIe enLIre IIeeL, Lo LIe IsIunds wILI IorLy sIIps.
WIen LIIs mun urrIved LIere, Ie removed some peopIes oI TIusos und oI SumoLIruce
und seLLIed LIem IIkewIse.
z16
DeporLuLIons IoIIowIng conquesL oILen mude use oI LIe
sIIps wIIcI Iud been used In LIe course oI LIe conquesL, sucI us In LIe removuI oI
groups Irom Trubzon und esbos.
z1;
TIe LuIIun cIronIcIer presenLs us wILI u Iess LIun
IdeuI porLruIL oI LIIs pIuse oI LIe operuLIon In LIe movemenL oI cupLIves Irom MILyIene
Lo sLunbuI In 1q6z, noLIng us weII LIe uLLenLIon puId Lo proper uccounLIng: Muny dIed
Irom overcrowded condILIons on LIe LrunsporLs; LIe rIgIL eur oI eucI corpse wus cuL oII
us evIdence oI deuLI und LIe nume wus removed Irom LIe IIsLs Lo obvIuLe dIspuLes us Lo
ownersIIp.
z18

TIe empIusIs on keepIng Lruck oI LIe peopIe und goods InvoIved LIrougI cIose
record keepIng Is uppurenL LIrougIouL LIe orders Ior Cyprus. RegIsLers compIIed uL LIe
source IocuLIon were Lo be copIed Lo boLI LIe cupILuI und LIe governor-generuI oI LIe
desLInuLIon und IIsLs compIeLed uL vurIous sLuges were LIen used Lo verIIy urrIvuIs und
Lruck deserLIon.
z1q
TIe prescrIbed punIsImenL oI LIose wIo wenL mIssIng uILer IuvIng
been regIsLered Ior LIe LrunsIer wus IursI: LIose wIo oppose my |LIe suILun`s|
commund und urrIve In oLIer ureus ure Lo be execuLed wIerever LIey ure Iound.
zzo

TIese LrunsIers, oI course, couId noL Luke pIuce by LIe LIreuL oI Iorce uIone, und IL
wus oI muxImum beneIIL Lo LIe sLuLe Ior LIe LrunsIerees Lo uccepL LIeIr IuLe und become

z16
KrILovouIos (1qq), p.1q. Trubzon In 1q61 presenLs u sImIIur cuse: Doukus (1q;), p.zq; KrILovouIos
(1qq), pp.1;-6; CIuIcocondyIes, quoLed In owry (1q;6), p.q.
z1;
KrILovouIos (1qq), pp.1;-6; Doukus (1q;), noLe pp.zz-.
z18
Doukus (1q;), noLe pp.zz-.
z1q
MIImme DeILerI, no.1q p.q, In Burkun (1qqq-o), pp.1-z.
zzo
Ve bilcumle emr-i erijim uzere Kibrisc czilub te lejili clinub ihrcc dejterine lcd olunub dctcrile
Kibrisc onderilenlerden biri cbet idub emrime muhclij chcr dicrc tcrc her ne mchclde bulunursc
ondc sicset olunur. MIImme DeILerI, no.1q p.q, In Burkun (1qqq-o), p.z.

;q
producLIve In us sIorL u LIme us possIbIe. CIezu de eon remurks on LIe sume Issue Iuced
by LIe ncus In deuIIng wILI LIe mitimce seLLIers:
As LIe ncus were uwure oI Iow reIucLunL peopIes ure Lo Ieuve LIeIr nuLIve
Iund und LIe surroundIngs LIey know, In order LIuL LIey sIouId cIeerIuIIy
uccepL LIIs exIIe, LIey LreuLed LIese peopIe wILI specIuI consIderuLIon; Lo
muny LIey guve urm bunds oI goId und oI sIIver, und cIoLIIng oI wooI, und
IeuLIers, und women, und LIey enjoyed oLIer prIvIIeges. To LIese Iunds
were gIven, und IIocks, und uII LIe provIsIons LIey needed unLII LIey couId
IurvesL wIuL LIey pIunLed... or u number oI yeurs no LrIbuLe wus exucLed
oI LIese new seLLIers, buL on LIe conLrury, LIey were gIven women, cocu,
und Iood so LIuL LIey wouId curry ouL LIe work oI seLLIemenL wILI beLLer
wIII.
zz1

TIe OLLomuns sImIIurIy Iud u number oI meusures by wIIcI Lo ussuuge und ussIsL LIe
dIspIuced popuIuLIons. KrILovouIos LeIIs us oI LIe seLLIemenL oI Greeks Irom LIe Moreu
wIom Ie pIuced In LIe surroundIng regIon |oI sLunbuI| In vIIIuges, dIsLrIbuLIng Lo LIem
gruIn und yokes oI oxen und every oLIer necessury suppIy LIey needed Ior LIe LIme
beIng, so LIuL LIey were ubIe Lo gIve LIemseIves Lo ugrIcuILure.
zzz
NeurIy uII LrunsIers
were uccompunIed by LIe dIsLrIbuLIon oI Iunds; nuIcik cILes LIe grunLIng oI timcrs In LIe
1q
LI
und 1
LI
cenLurIes Lo LIe nomuds under LIe IronLIer Iords sucI us PuuyIgIL Bey, us
evIdence LIuL In LIe IronLIer dIsLrIcLs LIe deporLees us wurrIors were LreuLed In un
excepLIonuIIy generous wuy.
zz
TIose IndIvIduuIs und communILIes wIose removuI Iud
IILLIe jusLIIIcuLIon-LIose noL umong LIe IIgIIy 'dIsposubIe` popuIuLIons-were gIven

zz1
CIezu (1qq), pp.6o-z.
zzz
KrILovouIos (1qq), pp.1q-qo.
zz
nuIcik (1qq), p.1z.

8o
greuLer compensuLIons. MeImeL brougIL Lo sLunbuI LIe weuILIy Greeks oI EdIrne,
IIIbe, GeIIboIu, und Bursu, gIvIng Lo some oI LIem Iouses, Lo oLIer buIIdIng IoLs In
wIuLever purL oI LIe cILy LIey preIerred, und Lo sLIII oLIers every sorL oI IucIIILy In needed
beneIIL, mosL generousIy Ior LIe LIme beIng.
zzq
WIen LIe objecLIve wus LIe removuI oI
noLubIes or LrIbesmen Irom posILIons dungerous Lo LIe sLuLe, promIses oI proIILubIe
Iunds or LIe opporLunILy Lo purLIcIpuLe In IronLIer wurIure were LecInIques empIoyed Lo
muke LIe move worLI LIeIr wIIIe.
TuxuLIon Loo, LIe IundumenL oI LIe reIuLIonsIIp beLween sLuLe und subjecL In
muny empIres, pIuyed u key purL In LIe uLLempL Lo euse LIe sIock oI LrunsIer. TIe
exLensIon oI Lux breuks-mosL oILen exempLIon Irom exLruordInury Luxes, LIe ctcriz-i
ditcnie und LIe telclij-i orjie-were u common meuns oI compensuLIon Ior specIuI
servIces sucI us guurd duLy or provIdIng Iron or IIrewood. Tux beneIILs were uIso used Lo
encouruge voIunLury mIgruLIon Lo cerLuIn regIons oI LIe empIre.
zz
PopuIuLIons IoIdIng
LIe sLuLus oI surun, LIuL Is, LIose LrunsIerred by sLuLe decree, were uwurded sImIIur
dIspensuLIons. TIe peusunLs LrunsIerred Lo Cyprus, Ior exumpIe, were exempLed Irom
LIe ugrIcuILuruI LILIe Ior u perIod oI Lwo yeurs.
zz6
TIe surun communILy oI SIIIsLre,
IuvIng evIdenLIy been esLubIIsIed In LIe ureu Ior u number oI yeurs, puId u Lux on sIeep
und oxen und LIe ugrIcuILuruI LILIe, buL were exempLed Irom LIe exLruordInury ctcriz
Lux
zz;
TIe CIrIsLIun IumIIIes ussIgned Lo LIe dungerous puss neur YenIeIIr, beIng boLI

zzq
KrILovouIos (1qq), pp.1q8-q.
zz
See uroqII (1q8q), pp.6o-1, z68, z;. nuIcik (1qq), uIso reIyIng on LIe documenLs pubIIsIed by
Burkun, uddresses LIe Issue In sImIIur Lerms, p.1z. Iuve reIerenced uroqII (1q8q) und nuIcik (1qqq)
Ior LIe udmInIsLruLIve LermInoIogy In LIIs secLIon.
zz6
MIImme DeILerI, no.1q p.q, In Burkun (1qqq-o), p.o: ol ceziree tcrcnlcrin ili ilc dein our
te hululu clinmcub cj olunmcl uzere... pz: ilier illil hcsili clinmcc deu emrim oluduun
reccc tenbih te ilcn eleub cezire-i mezburee terib eleesiz.
zz;
Tupu TuIrIr, no.;o, In Burkun (1q-q), p.zz.

81
LrunsIerred und ussIgned guurd duLy, were excused Irom LIe ugrIcuILuruI LILIe und LIe
ctcriz und telclij Luxes.
zz8

RegurdIng LIe Iong-Lerm udmInIsLruLIon oI LrunsIerred communILIes, we uguIn
see some vurIuLIon uccordIng Lo LIe conLexL oI LIe move. As noLed In LIe works oI nuIcik
und owry, u dIsLIncLIon wus mude In urbun seLLIngs beLween ureus mude up oI groups
LrunsIerred Irom eIsewIere, oILen IubeIed us cemccts (communILIes), und Iong-sLundIng
or nuLuruIIy seLLIed dIsLrIcLs, or mchclles.
zzq
PopuIuLIon regIsLers oILen IndIcuLed LIe
orIgIns oI LIese ImporLed groups und Iud u greuLer Lendency Lo record proIessIonuI
uIIIIIuLIons LIun puLronyms, u prucLIce wIIcI owry Ius suggesLed wus meunL Lo IeIp
keep Lruck oI LIe new ImmIgrunLs;
zo
LIey muy uIso be sIgnIIIcunL In consIderuLIon oI LIe
ImporLunce pIuced on brIngIng IndIvIduuIs und groups wILI specIIIc Lrude skIIIs Lo IIesI
ouL vurIous secLors oI LIe urbun economy. WILI LIme, us LIe IoreIgn eIemenLs puL down
rooLs In LIe cILy, LIe dIsLIncLIon oI cemcct wouId LIen Iude uwuy.
z1
We see u sImIIur
sILuuLIon In LIe cuse presenLed by Burkun oI LIe ugrIcuILuruIIsLs esLubIIsIed In SIIIsLre,
wIo, despILe beIng dIsLrIbuLed LIrougIouL severuI vIIIuges, remuIned us u dIsLIncL
LuxuLIon unIL (IubeIed us u zecmet-i suruncn) under un IndependenL oIIIcIuI (subci)
Ior u number oI decudes.
zz
TIe BuIgurIun vIIIuges pIuced In wesLern AnuLoIIu In LIe 1
LI

cenLury uppeur Lo been gIven u sImIIur udmInIsLruLIve dIsLIncLIon.
z



zz8
Tupu ve KudusLro Umum MdrIg ArIvI, no.;, In Burkun (1q1-z), p.6q: ourlerin te rusumlerin
clmic te ctcrizi ditcnieden te telclij-i orjieden mucj te musellem olclcr...
zzq
nuIcik (1q;), p.zq; owry (1q86b), pz6.
zo
owry (1q86b), ppz6-;. See uIso owry (1q;6), pp1qq-8.
z1
owry (1q;6), p.q1.
zz
Burkun (1q-q), p.zz, cILIng Tupu TuIrIr, no.;o.
z
UzunuriIi (1qq;), p.181. He cILes un enLry In tchrir dejter Ior LIe lczc oI MIIuIi: lcre-i ulcrlcr,
Rumeli'den surunlerdir. Hcssc-i pcdichi Alhiscr'dc hcs olcn oz lorusundc olurlcr te hcrcc dchi
terirler. Tupu TuIrIr, no.111 p.1;q.

8z
TIougI LrunsIer couId uL LImes presenL LIe opporLunILy Ior udvuncemenL In LIe
worId, IL wus In neurIy uII sILuuLIons u dIsrupLIve Iorce, oILen meL wILI unwIIIIngness on
LIe purL oI LIose InvoIved. ResIsLunce In LIe OLLomun cuse Look on severuI Iorms. Some,
especIuIIy LIose wILI InIIuence, uLLempLed Lo IIuunL LIe orders or negoLIuLe LIeIr wuy ouL
oI LIem. TIe weuILIy cILIzens oI Bursu uLLempLed Lo uvoId deporLuLIon Lo sLunbuI,
producIng some umounL oI puperwork us u resuIL.
zq
TIe noLubIes oI cenLruI AnuLoIIu,
wIose deporLuLIon wus ordered durIng cumpuIgns uguInsL LIe emIruLe oI Kurumun, were
evIdenLIy ubIe Lo guIn LIe Iuvor oI LIe oIIIcIuI puL In cIurge oI LIe projecL; IIs subsequenL
eIIorLs Lo LrunsIer poorer subjecLs In LIeIr pIuce were dIscovered und correcLed by LIe
courL.
z
OIIIcIuIs uL LIe cupILuI couId InLervene on beIuII oI LIose LurgeLed Ior LrunsIer,
us occurred In LIe course oI LIe Cyprus surun.
z6

OLIer LrunsIer groups deserLed en route. TIe nomuds, wIIIe In oLIer respecLs one
oI LIe greuLesL cundIduLes Ior movemenL LIrougIouL LIe empIre, proved u purLIcuIurIy
dIIIIcuIL group Lo guLIer und drIve Lo u desLInuLIon. SeveruI groups murked Ior LrunsIer
Lo Cyprus kIIIed LIose dIrecLIng LIe move und Look up bundILry In AnuLoIIu. SerIous
communds were pIuced upon LIe provIncIuI judges oI AnuLoIIu orderIng LIe urresL oI
LIose wIo uLLempLed Lo IIee LIe projecL.
z;

TIe popuIuLIon regIsLers exumIned by owry sIow u decreuse In LIe number oI
MusIIms In boLI SeIunIk und Trubzon by LIe eurIy 16
LI
cenLury wIIcI Ie suggesLs muy
sIow LrunsIerred popuIuLIons reLurnIng Lo LIeIr ureus oI orIgIn.
z8
As mup Iour sIows,
LIe oILen sIorL dIsLunces InvoIved wouId Iuve mude sucI repuLrIuLIon un eusy Lusk.

zq
nuIcik (1q6q-;o), p.z;.
z
nuIcik (1q6q-;o), p.z8, cILIng bn KemuI und Eremyu eIebI Kmrcyun.
z6
uroqII (1q8q), p.z8.
z;
Burkun (1qqq-o), p.zz. See MIImme DeILerI, no.1q p.q.
z8
owry (1q;;), pp.z8-q; owry (1q86b), p..

8
uroqII, exumInIng u number oI muhimme dejters noL IncIuded In Burkun`s sLudy,
pronounced LIe resuIL oI LIe Cyprus LrunsIer projecL medIocre: A rescrIpL duLed
severuI yeurs uILer LIe InILIuLIon oI LIe projecL remurks LIuL oI 1z,ooo IumIIIes or
IouseIoIds deporLed Lo Cyprus, onIy u Iew Iundred remuIned.
zq

n summury, II Iubor wus u munIpuIuLubIe resource uvuIIubIe Lo LIe sLuLe, IL uL
LImes proved u dIIIIcuIL one. TIe reIocuLIon oI enLIre communILIes requIred u
deLermIned uppIIcuLIon oI cenLruI uuLIorILy und cureIuI coordInuLIon on LIe purL oI LIe
oIIIcIuIs InvoIved.


zq
uroqII (1q8q), p.z8.

8q

PurL V. OuLcomes und ConcIusIon

As LIe objecLIves und condILIons InvoIved In LIe muny OLLomun popuIuLIon
LrunsIers vurIed greuLIy, so Loo musL u consIderuLIon oI LIe ouLcomes oI LIe moves
uddress u number oI ungIes. IrsL, Lo wIuL degree were LIe OLLomuns successIuI In
uLIIIzIng LIe LrunsIer oI popuIuLIon In und ouL oI newIy conquered LerrILorIes Lo meeL
LIeIr objecLIves oI IoIdIng domInIon over LIem? n LIe sIorL-Lerm, LIe deporLuLIon oI
conquered peopIes us sIuves und communILIes cerLuInIy served LIe objecLIves oI brIngIng
conLroI over LIe ureu, purLIcuIurIy In IoIdIng sLruLegIc sILes und In IsoIuLIng LIose wIo
wouId Iuve been cupubIe oI mounLIng resIsLunce Lo LIe new regIme. TIe wIoIesuIe
cIeurIng oI LerrILorIes In SerbIu, LIe Moreu, und LIe IsIunds oI LIe Aegeun wouId Iuve IeIL
IILLIe ubIe-bodIed munpower Lo Impede OLLomun ruIe LIere. TIe deporLuLIon oI LrIbes
dIrecLIy resIsLIng expunsIon InLo AnuLoIIu wus underLuken on u scuIe wIIcI wouId Iuve
served consIderubIy In cIeurIng LIe puLI oI LIe urmIes udvuncIng uguInsL LIe TurkIsI
Beys IoIdIng ouL uguInsL growIng OLLomun domInunce In LIe regIon. CoIonIzuLIon by
cIvIIIun und purumIIILury communILIes In Europe uIIowed LIe expunsIon oI LIe OLLomun
presence beyond cILIes und gurrIsons InLo LIe counLrysIde.
CrucIuI Lo LIe OLLomun success In Europe, Iowever, wus LIe ubIIILy Lo
uccommoduLe members oI LIe ruIIng eIILes InLo LIe new sysLem oI governunce, LIus
LurnIng u poLenLIuI source oI resIsLunce InLo u vuIuubIe conLrIbuLIon Lo LIe growIng
OLLomun ruIIng cIuss. By LIe seIecLIve uppIIcuLIon oI Iurd Iorce und concIIIuLory
meusures, LIe OLLomuns were ubIe Lo pusI LIeIr borders ouL Lo LIe AdrIuLIc und InLo

8
CenLruI Europe wILIIn LIe IIrsL Lwo cenLurIes oI LIeIr regIme. WIIIe LIe degree Lo wIIcI
LrunsIers were ImporLunL Lo LIIs process does noL seem Lo muLcI wIuL commenLuLors
uLLrIbuLe Lo sImIIur prucLIces under LIe ncu, deporLuLIon und coIonIzuLIon no doubL oII
LIe process oI consoIIduLIng conLroI.
TIe pIuce oI popuIuLIon LrunsIer wILIIn LIe Iurger Issue oI Iong Lerm demogrupIIc
cIunge In LIe BuIkuns, Aegeun, und EusLern MedILerruneun Is uIso ImporLunL Lo our
consIderuLIon oI LIe poIIcy. To wIuL degree dId sucI cIunge Luke pIuce und wIuL roIe dId
LrunsIers pIuy In brIngIng IL ubouL? TIe sIumIIIcuLIon oI LIe empIre`s IoIdIngs In Europe
Indeed consLILuLes u cenLruI quesLIon In OLLomun IIsLory. On LIe wIoIe, LIe BuIkuns
were cerLuInIy neILIer sIumIcIzed nor TurkIIIed Lo LIe exLenL LIuL AnuLoIIu Iud been.
Muny MusIIm communILIes resuILed Irom conversIon ruLIer LIun seLLIemenL. n BosnIu
und HercegovInu, Ior exumpIe, Todorov wrILes LIuL sIumIzuLIon Look pIuce wILIouL
mussIve TurkIsI coIonIzuLIon.
zqo
NeverLIeIess, TurkIsI seLLIemenL occurred on u scuIe
Iurge enougI Lo Iuve wIuL nuIcik Ius cuIIed u revoIuLIonury eIIecL on LIe demogrupIy
oI LIe eusLern BuIkuns und TIruce.
zq1
Some dIsLrIcLs were IuIIy domInuLed by Trkmen
ImmIgrunLs by LIe 16
LI
cenLury, In purLIcuIur LIose LIuL served us LIe desLInuLIon oI u
number oI LrunsIers, sucI us Serez und IIIbe.
zqz
TIe reIuLIve ImporLunce oI voIunLury
und Iorced mIgruLIon In LIese cuses Is dIIIIcuIL Lo evuIuuLe. RegurdIng 'coIonIzuLIon`
eIIorLs IurLIer souLI, we IInd LIe roIe oI LIe LrunsIers us u veIIcIe oI demogrupIIc cIunge
equuIIy obscure: LIe ruLIo oI MusIIm und CIrIsLIun InIubILunLs on Cyprus, wIIcI Iud

zqo
Todorov (1q8), p.1
zq1
nuIcik (1qqq), pp.q-.
zqz
nuIcik (1qqq), p..

86
undergone u conscIous coIonIzuLIon projecL, und CreLe, wIIcI Iud noL, uppeur Lo Iuve
reucIed very sImIIur IeveIs In LIe Lwo cenLurIes uILer LIeIr conquesLs.
zq

TIe cIunneIIng oI LIe empIre`s nomudIc popuIuLIon remuIns un ImporLunL Issue.
TIe reconsoIIduLIon oI sLuLe conLroI over AnuLoIIu under MeImeL In LIe eurIy 1
LI

cenLury muy Iuve owed u greuL deuI Lo LIe suILun`s ubIIILy Lo sIIIL boLI LrIbesmen und
urIsLocrucIes onLo IoreIgn Iunds. TIe dIIIIcuILy oI revoIL on LIe wesLern IronLIer und LIe
IeuducIes LIuL border-IoppIng pusLoruIIsLs conLInued Lo cuuse LIe cenLruIIzed sLuLe,
Iowever, reveuI LIuL LrunsIer Lo Europe wus noL un end-uII soIuLIon. TIe deLerIoruLIon oI
nomud-sLuLe reIuLIons corresponds In purL wILI LIe sLuLe`s IncreusIng InubIIILy Lo IInd u
pIuce Ior LIe LrIbuIIsL In LIe new ruIIng order. TIe eurIIer duys, In wIIcI IL wus possIbIe
Lo dIrecL sucI IucLIons Lo LIe Europeun IronLIer, Iud proved mucI eusIer In LIIs regurd.
TIougI oLIer IucLors were uIso uL pIuy, IL wus noL unLII LIe IIow oI nomudIc peopIes InLo
souLIeusLern Europe Iud sLuIIed by LIe IuLer 1
LI
und 16
LI
cenLurIes LIuL LIe Trkmen
uprIsIngs In AnuLoIIu Look on sucI endemIc proporLIons.
TIe ImpucL oI LIe poIIcIes IuuncIed under LIe suILuns Murud und MeImeL
Ior LIe reconsLrucLIon oI LIe conquered ByzunLIne cILIes oI SuIonIcu, sLunbuI, und
Trubzon wus Iur reucIIng. n eucI cuse, LIe cILIes were noL onIy resLored Lo economIc
IeuILI, buL LrunsIormed InLo dIsLIncLIy OLLomun cILIes wIIcI reIIecLed LIe cIurucLer oI
peopIes LIrougIouL LIe empIre, mucI IIke CIezu de eon`s descrIpLIon oI Cuzco, IuII oI
sLrunge und IoreIgn peopIes.
zqq
n LIe cuse oI SuIonIcu, Iowever, LIe greuLesL growLI
occurred wILI LIe InIIux oI JewIsI ImmIgrunLs In LIe IuLer 1
LI
cenLury, noL wILI LIe

zq
18
LI
cenLury Cyprus uppeurs Lo Iuve been zo-o% MusIIm, HIII (1qz), pp.1-z, wIIIe CreLe In LIe sume
perIod muy Iuve been o-o%, Greene (zooo), pp.z-.
zqq
CIezu (1qq) p.1q8. owry uIso empIusIzes LIe deIIberuLe meLropoIILun cIurucLer esLubIIsIed LIrougI
LIe use oI popuIuLIon LrunsIers, owry (1q86b), pp.6-8.

8;
muILIpIe LrunsIers wIIcI preceded.
zq
TIougI IL seems probubIe LIuL LIe reconsLrucLIon
oI sLunbuI mIgIL Iuve been possIbIe LIrougI by LIe Iorces oI voIunLury mIgruLIon uIone,
LIe use oI LrunsIers In sLockIng IL wILI LIe mosL producLIve resource buse LIuL LIe empIre
couId yIeId no doubL Iud u Iurge ImpucL on LIe speed uL wIIcI LIe cupILuI once uguIn
becume LIe preemInenL cILy oI LIe EusLern MedILerruneun.

TIere Is no doubL LIuL LIe subjecL oI surun Ius IeIL u consIderubIe ImprInL on
OLLomun IIsLory. orced popuIuLIon LrunsIer Indeed served us u powerIuI LooI In LIe
IormuLIon und muInLenunce oI LIe eurIy OLLomun sLuLe. TIe gouI oI LIIs sLudy Ius been
Lo uddress severuI oI LIe mecIunIsms by wIIcI LIIs ucLIon Ius IuncLIoned us u LooI oI
poIIcy, und In u brouder sense Lo undersLund LIe dynumIcs by wIIcI sLuLes und
popuIuLIons Iuve InLerucLed LIrougIouL LIe course oI LIeIr IIsLory LogeLIer.



zq
owry (1q8o-1), p.z6q.

88
BIbIIogrupIy
OLLomun prImury sources
BubukunIIk ArIvI, sLunbuI. AIkum DeILerIerI. yp.1o. pubIIsIed In Burkun (1qqq-o),
p..
BubukunIIk ArIvI, sLunbuI. MIImme DeILerIerI. no.6, 1z, 1q, . pubIIsIed In Burkun
(1qqq-o), pp.o-, 6o-1; Burkun (1q1-z), p.6q; Burkun (1q-q), pp.zzq-o.
BubukunIIk ArIvI, sLunbuI. Tupu TuIrIr. no.z8, p.;o. pubIIsIed In Burkun (1qqq-
o), pp.z6-8; Burkun (1q-q), p.zz.
Tupu ve KudusLro Umum MdrIg ArIvI, Ankuru. no.;. pubIIsIed In Burkun (1q1-
z), p.6q
Aikpuuzude. (1qqz). Ail Pccolu Tcrihi. (Tetcrih-i Al-i Dsmcn) ed. NIIuI ALsiz.
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