Energy Conversion and Management 43 (2002) 10271042

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Using exhaust gas recirculation in internal combustion engines: a review

G.H. Abd-Alla *
Al-Ain Technical School, P.O. Box 17835, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates Received 17 January 2001; accepted 25 April 2001

Abstract The aim of this work is to review the potential of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) to reduce the exhaust emissions, particularly NOX emissions, and to delimit the application range of this technique. A detailed analysis of previous and current results of EGR eects on the emissions and performance of Diesel engines, spark ignition engines and duel fuel engines is introduced. From the deep analysis, it was found that adding EGR to the air ow rate to the Diesel engine, rather than displacing some of the inlet air, appears to be a more benecial way of utilizing EGR in Diesel engines. This way may allow exhaust NOX emissions to be reduced substantially. In spark ignition engines, substantial reductions in NO concentrations are achieved with 10% to 25% EGR. However, EGR also reduces the combustion rate, which makes stable combustion more dicult to achieve. At constant burn duration and brake mean eective pressure, the brake specic fuel consumption decreases with increasing EGR. The improvement in fuel consumption with increasing EGR is due to three factors: rstly, reduced pumping work; secondly, reduced heat loss to the cylinder walls; and thirdly, a reduction in the degree of dissociation in the high temperature burned gases. In dual fuel engines, with hot EGR, the thermal eciency is improved due to increased intake charge temperatures and reburning of the unburned fuel in the recirculated gas. Simultaneously, NOX is reduced and smoke is reduced to almost zero at high natural gas fractions. Cooled EGR gives lower thermal eciency than hot EGR but makes possible lower NOX emissions. The use of EGR is, therefore, believed to be most eective in improving exhaust emissions. 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
Keywords: Exhaust gas recirculation; Diesel engine; Spark ignition engine; Dual fuel engine; NOX emission; HC emission; Hot EGR; Cooled EGR

Corresponding author. Tel.: +971-3-784-4096; fax: +971-3-784-6110. E-mail address: ghabdala@emirates.net.ae (G.H. Abd-Alla).

0196-8904/02/$ - see front matter 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. PII: S 0 1 9 6 - 8 9 0 4 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 0 9 1 - 7

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1. Introduction The development of power units with low environmental impact has become one of the most interesting challenges in automotive technology. In fact, partial recirculation of exhaust gas, which is not a new technique, has recently become essential, in combination with other techniques, for attaining lower emission levels [1]. Several reasons can be used to explain this sudden interest. Firstly, the proposal of the future European directive establishes separate, and even more stringent, limits for NOX emissions. Secondly, further reductions in NOX emissions have probably become the most dicult target to attain, owing to the associated reverse eect of other recently used techniques, such as high supercharging, an improved mixing process by more ecient injection systems etc. Thirdly, the development of a new generation of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valves and improvements in electronic controls allow a better EGR accuracy and shorter response time in transient conditions. Fourthly, the most common operating conditions, mainly in passenger cars, have moved to lower engine loads, owing to the increase in urban trac density, and it must be considered that it is mainly at partial loads where EGR is indicated because of its higher oxygen content. Finally, the inclusion in the early 1990s of particulate emission regulations, which are more stringent than those of smoke opacity, has redirected eorts to reduce emissions in terms of mass rather than in terms of concentration, which can be favoured by reducing the total exhaust mass ow rate.

2. Example of exhaust gas recirculation system To study the eects of EGR on the performance and emissions of automotive engines, the system shown in Fig. 1 gives an example of the EGR system. This system was designed, manufactured and installed on the Ricardo E-6 engine, which was used as an indirect injection dual fuel

Fig. 1. EGR system [2].

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engine [2]. To remove the smoke, a particulate trap lter size of 15 15 30 cm3 is used. The temperature of the recirculated exhaust gases if measured by a thermocouple tted in the EGR pipe near the intake air manifold. The lter material is made from steel wool. Part of the EGR pipe is made from exible stainless steel to avoid transfer of engine vibration to the exhaust system and then to the measuring instruments. Glass wool is used to insulate the EGR pipe to minimize the reduction gas temperature.

3. Denition of exhaust gas recirculation percent The percent of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR(%)) is dened as the percent of the total intake mixture which is recycled exhaust, EGR% mEGR =mi 100 1 where [mi ma mf mEGR ] and mEGR is the mass of EGR. Up to about 30% of the exhaust can be recirculated. An alternative denition of percent EGR is also used, based on the ratio of EGR to fresh mixture (fuel and air): EGR % mEGR =ma mf 100 2

The EGR ratio also, in some cases is dened as the volumetric ratio of the recirculated gas to the total charge induced into the cylinder. In such cases, the EGR ratio can reach 50% [3]. EGR% VEGR =Vair Vf VEGR 100 3

4. Exhaust gas recirculation in diesel engines EGR is one of the most eective techniques currently available for reducing NOX emissions in internal combustion engines. However, the application of EGR also incurs penalties. In the case of Diesel engines, they include worsening specic fuel consumption and particulate emissions [4,5]. In particular, EGR aggravates the trade-o between NOX and particulate emissions, especially at high loads. The application of EGR can also eect adversely the lubricating oil quality and engine durability. Also, EGR has not been applied practically to heavy duty Diesel engines because wear of piston rings and cylinder liner is increased by EGR. It is widely considered that sulfur oxide in the exhaust gas strongly relates to the wear. The results showed that the sulfur oxide concentration in the oil layer is related strongly to the EGR rate, inversely with engine speed and decreases under light load conditions. It was also found that as the carbon dioxide levels are increased due to EGR, the combustion noise levels also increase, but the eect is more noticeable at certain frequencies. Furthermore, whatever the carbon dioxide content of the intake mixture, it has been observed that as the engine load is increased, the noise levels decrease [6]. By increasing the EGR ratios, the heat release rates during premixed combustion, which is characterized by rapid burning and which signicantly governs NOX formation, can be suppressed more eciently. Furthermore, the combined eects of EGR and supercharging achieved a considerable

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improvement in combustion along with a reduction in NOX . The results show that NOX can be reduced almost in proportion to the EGR ratio and that an approximately 50% NOX reduction at a 20% EGR ratio can be achieved without deteriorating smoke and unburned HC emissions [7]. Diesel engines operate with no deliberate inlet air throttling (i.e. without a throttle). Thus, Diesel engines admit into the cylinders as much air as it is practicable to trap at a given engine running condition (say, 0.5 g as shown in Fig. 2). Thus, the application of EGR (say, 0.1 g as shown in Fig. 2) involves displacement of some of the inlet air by EGR. A consequence of this air

Fig. 2. Comparison of dierent ways in which EGR is used in internal combustion engines [4].

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Fig. 3. The eect on engine inlet charge of replacing 25% of the inlet air with hot (700 K) EGR (Diesel engine at 32:1 airfuel ratio) [4].

displacement (say, 0.1 g, see Fig. 2) is a reduction in the air available for combustion. Since for a given torque and power output, the amount of fuel supplied to the engine must stay constant, the reduced air available for combustion lowers the airfuel ratio at which the engine operates. This reduction in airfuel ratio can aect exhaust emissions substantially. Fig. 3 summarizes the eects of EGR on the inlet charge composition of a Diesel engine. In the example of Fig. 2, 25% of the inlet air ow rate is removed and replaced by an equal volume ow rate of hot EGR. It can be seen that the eect on the inlet charge is, rstly, a 14% reduction in the charge mass ow rate. This is due to the reduction in the engine volumetric eciency as a result of the rise in inlet charge temperature. Secondly, some of the inlet air is displaced by carbon dioxide (CO2 ) and water vapour (H2 O), which are the principal constituents of EGR. Thus, the application of hot EGR reduces the nitrogen (N2 ) ow rate to the engine by about 15% and the oxygen (O2 ) ow rate by 19%. About one-fth of the reduction in the O2 ow rate is due to its displacement by CO2 and H2 O present in the EGR, and the remainder is due to the reduction in volumetric eciency. When EGR is mixed with the inlet air supplied to a Diesel engine, the temperature of the inlet charge to the engine increases, which can signicantly aect the compressed charge temperature and the combustion process [4]. EGR, at part load, can be used to reduce Diesel engine NOX emissions. Note that since Diesel engines operate with the airow unthrottled, at part load, the CO2 and H2 O concentrations in the exhaust gas are low, being essentially proportional to the fuel/air ratio. Because of this, high EGR levels are required for signicant reductions in NOX emissions. Fig. 4 shows how NOX concentrations decrease as a DI Diesel engine inlet air ow is diluted at a constant fueling rate. The dilution is expressed in terms of oxygen concentration in the mixture after dilution. Fig. 5 shows how the EGR aects specic NOX and HC, fuel consumption and smoke for a small high swril DI Diesel engine at typical automobile engine part load conditions. Eective reduction of brake specic NOX is achieved and modest reductions in brake specic HC, with only a slight increase in bsfc. However, smoke is increased as the EGR rate is increased [8]. NOX emissions are mainly aected by two factors: (1) the presence of oxygen in the charge and (2) the reaction temperature, which promotes chemical activity during both the formation and

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Fig. 4. Eect of reduction in oxygen concentration by dierent diluents (EGR, CO2 , N2 ) on NOX emissions in DI Diesel [8].

destruction stages. During the formation stage, the reaction temperature is close to the adiabatic ame temperature, which is a consequence of the oxygen concentration in the charge, the initial temperature and pressure and the local fuelair ratio. EGR reduces the oxygen concentration in the charge and, consequently, the combustion pressure and temperature, as shown in Fig. 6 [1]. The engine tests have demonstrated that NOX is greatly suppressed when the O2 concentration in the combustion chamber is reduced (dilution eect). The question arises, therefore, as to why the reduction in O2 concentration in the cylinder suppresses NOX emission. A possible explanation for this eect is discussed below with the aid of Fig. 7, which shows the combustion occurring in two Diesel fuel sprays, one with and the other without EGR being present. Firstly, the assumption is made that combustion takes place in regions where the airfuel ratio is at stoichiometric proportions, as shown in the left diagram of Fig. 7. On using EGR, some of the O2 in the cylinder contents is replaced by CO2 , and the local O2 concentration in the cylinder becomes lower. With the local O2 concentration reduced, a given amount of fuel will have to diuse over a wider area before sucient O2 is encountered for a stoichiometric mixture to be formed (right diagram of Fig. 7). Now, for a given amount of fuel, this larger region of stoichiometric mixture contains not only the stoichiometric mixture but also an additional quantity of CO2 , H2 O and N2 . The additional amount of these gases absorbs energy released by combustion, leading to lower ame temperature and lower NOX generation [4].

5. Exhaust gas recirculation in spark ignition engines EGR is the principal technique used for control of SI engine NOX emissions. A fraction of the exhaust gases is recirculated through a control valve from the exhaust to the engine intake system.

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Fig. 5. Brake specic HC, NOX , fuel consumption and smoke emissions as a function of EGR percent for 2.4 dm3 four cylinder high swirl DI Diesel engine at 1250 rpm and 255 kPa bmep [8].

The recirculated exhaust gas is usually mixed with the fresh fuelair mixture just below the throttle valve. EGR acts, at part load, as an additional diluent in the unburned gas mixture, thereby reducing the peak burned gas temperatures and NO formation rates [8].

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Fig. 6. Pressure signals for dierent EGR in the DI Diesel engine [1].

Fig. 7. Increase in volume occupied by spray ame with use of EGR [4].

It was found that EGR lowers the NOX concentration in the exhaust gas. It also lowered the specic fuel consumption and decreased the heat transfer from the cylinder contents to the surrounding surface. Practically, the quantity of EGR is limited to a point beyond which the combustion temperature and the ame speed are low enough to prevent a successful engine operation. EGR increases the HC emissions but has little eect on CO emissions. The increase of HC emissions may reach over 60% at higher rates of EGR [9]. Modern gasoline engines operate with a stoichiometric airfuel mixture. When no EGR is used, the amount of airfuel mixture mass admitted to the engine cylinders (say, 0.3 g as shown in Fig. 2) controls the torque and power developed by the engine. If the torque and power output are to stay constant when EGR is introduced, then the mixture mass trapped in the cylinders must also stay constant (at 0.3 g). For this reason, as Fig. 2 shows, the EGR mass admitted into the engine cylinders (say, 0.1 g as shown in Fig. 2) must be additional to the trapped airfuel mixture mass. Thus, the total trapped charge mass (airfuel mixture plus EGR) must increase (to 0.4 kg) for the torque and power output to say constant. Since the engine cylinder volume is xed, this increase

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Fig. 8. Variation of exhaust NO concentration with EGR (%). Spark ignition engine, 1600 rpm, gv 50% MBT timing [8].

in trapped mass can only be achieved by raising the trapped charge density, which necessitates further opening of the engine throttle (see Fig. 2). An incidental benet of this increase in throttle opening is a reduction in engine pumping work and some increase in fuel economy [4]. Fig. 8 shows the eect of EGR on NO emissions. Substantial reductions in NO concentrations are achieved with 1025% EGR. However, EGR also reduces the combustion rate, which makes stable combustion more dicult to achieve. EGR percentages in the 1530% range are about the maximum amount of EGR a spark ignition engine will tolerate under normal part throttle conditions [8]. The eect of EGR on engine performance and eciency, for mixtures with / 6 1:0, is similar to the addition of excess air. Both EGR and excess air dilute the unburned mixture. In practice, since EGR is only used at part throttle conditions, / 6 1:0 is the region of interest. Fig. 9 shows the eect of increasing EGR on bsfc at constant bmep, predicted using a thermodynamic based computer simulation of the engines operating cycle. Predictions made for dierent burn duration are shown, at MBT timing of a stoichiometric mixture. At constant burn duration, bsfc decreases with increasing EGR. The improvement in fuel consumption with increasing EGR is due to three factors: (1) reduced pumping work as EGR is increased at constant brake load (fuel and air ows remain almost constant, hence, intake pressure increases), (2) reduced heat loss to the cylinder walls because the burned gas temperature is decreased signicantly and (3) a reduction in the degree of dissociation in the high temperature burned gases, which allows more of the fuels chemical energy to be converted to sensible energy near TDC. The rst two of these are comparable in magnitude, and each is about twice as important as the third [8].

6. Exhaust gas recirculation in dual fuel engines The dual fuel is a conventional Diesel engine of the compression ignition type in which some of the energy release by combustion comes about from the combustion of a gaseous fuel, while the

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Fig. 9. Eect of EGR on brake specic fuel consumption at constant bmep and speed, stiochiometric mixture and various burn durations. Predictions from thermodynamics based cycle simulation [8].

Diesel liquid fuel continues to provide throughout, through timed cylinder injection, the remaining part of the energy release (about 10% of total energy release). The term dual fuel should not be confused with bi-fuel applications of spark ignition engines, where the liquid fuel is not combusted simultaneously with the gaseous fuel. The dual fuel engine is an ideal multi-fuel engine that can operate eectively on a wide range of dierent fuels, while maintaining the capacity for operation as a conventional Diesel engine. Normally, the change over from dual fuel to Diesel operation, and vice versa, can be made automatically, even under load. Over the years, the dual fuel engine has been employed in a very wide range of applications. Numerous stationary installations were and are being used for power production, CO generation, compression of gases and pumping duties. In transport, the problem of the portability of the gaseous fuel and the provision of a compact storage facility in mobile applications remain a eld of urgent long term research that can have the potential for opening widely the market for the dual fuel engine and the increased exploitation of gaseous fuel resources [10]. The dual fuel engine can be either the four stroke or the two stroke type. The latter is a little more demanding in its conversion to the dual fuel principle, mainly so as to avoid the unnecessary passage of the mixture of fuel and air needlessly to the exhaust during the scavenging process. Thus, relatively fewer two stroke engines have been modied to run on gaseous fuels in comparison to those of the four stroke type. Moreover, both normally aspirated and turbocharged Diesel engines have been run on gaseous fuels over an extremely wide range of engine power that can extend to very large marine engine applications involving thousands of kilowatts per engine [11]. The gaseous fuel is normally introduced and mixed with air in a simple carburetor system. Occasionally, timed injection into the manifold can be utilized, while for some turbocharged two stroke applications, timed injection directly into the engine cylinder is employed [12]. Nevertheless, the control of such multi-fuel operation does represent, in principle, increased complexity of operation, contributing towards higher capital and operational costs. There is much room for developing reliable, inexpensive and simple control systems for dual fuel engines. the dual fuel combustion system in compression ignition engines features essentially the rapid compression of the gasair mixture to below its

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autoignition conditions. The charge is then ignited during the compression stroke at some point near the top dead center position by ignition of Diesel liquid fuel in the usual way. The engine retains the ability to run on either Diesel liquid fuel only or in association with a gaseous fuelair mixture over a wide range of concentration. The Diesel liquid fuel is injected through the conventional Diesel fuel system, and the quantity of the pilot charge per injection can be either xed, regardless of engine output, or made to vary in relation to the gaseous fuel supplied in a prescribed fashion [10]. The use of EGR has become a popular way of reducing NOX levels in dual fuel engines. By using EGR, the intake mixture composition and thermodynamic state are changed, and the resulting charge contains signicant quantities of radicals and diluents, such as CO2 , N2 and H2 O. The presence of radicals activates the preignition reactions, which leads to changes in the combustion characteristics of the engine. The primary eect of the diluent in the intake mixture on the NOX formation process is that it reduces the ame temperature by increasing the heat capacity of the cylinder charge per unit mass of fuel [7]. On the other hand, many investigators recommend to using EGR to improve the light load performance of dual fuel engines [13]. It is suggested that the disadvantages of using EGR in both spark ignition and compression ignition engines (e.g. noise levels and wear of piston rings due to relatively higher concentrations of SO2 ) can be avoided in dual fuel engines. Dual fuel engines are a combination of both spark ignition and Diesel engines. They operate without throttling. Thus, dual fuel engines admit into the cylinders as much air as it is practicable to trap at a given engine running condition. The gaseous fuel is normally introduced and mixed with the air in the manifold. Thus, the application of EGR (say, 0.1 g as shown in Fig. 2) involves displacement of some of the inlet gaseous fuelair mixture by EGR. A consequence of this gaseous fuelair mixture displacement (say,0.1 g, see Fig. 2) is a reduction in the gaseous fuelair mixture available for combustion. For a given torque and power output, the amount of gaseous fuel supplied to the engine must be increased, and this will reduce the airfuel ratio at which the engine operates. This reduction in airfuel ratio can aect exhaust emissions substantially. As discussed earlier, NOX emissions are mainly aected by two factors: (1) the presence of oxygen in the charge and (2) the reaction temperature. EGR reduces the oxygen concentration in the charge, and this can lead to substantial reduction in NOX emissions. Fig. 10 shows the eects of hot EGR. Higher EGR ratios signicantly decreased the HC emissions. One reason for this is that a portion of the unburned gas in the exhaust from the previous cycle is recirculated to and burned in the succeeding cycle. The recirculated exhaust gas, although raising the intake charge temperature, caused lower combustion temperatures due to the following: the local airfuel ratio is lowered, and the ignition delay is reduced, thereby decreasing the early part of combustion. This possibly reduced the NOX in the exhaust [3]. The thermal eciency improved with more EGR, especially at higher natural gas fractions. This could be the result of better combustion of natural gas due to the increase in intake air temperature and the relative reduction in the amount of natural gas used with increased EGR. Some smoke is emitted when using EGR because of the reduction in the amount of air in the intake charge. However, it is found that when the natural gas fraction is raised to 40% at 1/4 load and 70% at 1/2 load, the smoke level decreased to almost zero. Dual fuel operation with hot EGR at high natural gas fractions is, thus, eective in reducing Diesel smoke.

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Fig. 10. Eect of hot EGR in dual fuel engine (2000 rpm, 1/4 load) [3].

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Fig. 11. Eect of hot EGR in dual fuel engine (2000 rpm, 2/4 load) [3].

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Fig. 12. Comparison between hot EGR and cold EGR (2000 rpm, 1/4 load) [3].

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Fig. 11 shows the data for 1/2 load. HC emissions are lower, NOX levels about the same, and the thermal eciency is higher compared to those at 1/4 load. The smoke levels are higher than that at low load at higher EGR ratios and lower gas fractions. Fig. 12 presents a comparison between hot EGR and cooled EGR. HC emissions are lower with hot EGR compared to cooled EGR. NOX , however, is lower with cooled EGR on account of lower combustion temperatures with the latter. The brake thermal eciency with hot EGR is slightly better than that with cooled EGR. This could be due to a lower combustion velocity, arising from a lower intake charge temperature with cooled EGR. In practice, the choice between cooled EGR to reduce NOX and hot EGR to improve thermal eciency will have to be made properly to suit specic demands.

7. Conclusion 1. Adding EGR to the air ow rate to the Diesel engine, rather than displacing some of the inlet air, appears to be a more benecial way of utilizing EGR in Diesel engines. This way may allow exhaust NOX emissions to be reduced substantially. 2. In spark ignition engines, substantial reductions in NO concentrations are achieved with 10 25% EGR. However, EGR also reduces the combustion rate, which makes stable combustion more dicult to achieve. At constant burn duration and brake mean aective pressure, the brake specic fuel consumption decreases with increasing EGR. The improvement in fuel consumption with increasing EGR is due to three factors: rstly, reduced pumping work; secondly heat loss to the cylinder walls; and thirdly, a reduction in the degree of dissociation in the high temperature burned gases. 3. In dual fuel engines, with hot EGR, thermal eciency is improved due to increased intake charge temperatures and reburning of the unburned fuel in the recirculated gas. Simultaneously, NOX is reduced, and smoke is reduced to almost zero at high natural gas fractions. Cooled EGR gives lower thermal eciency than hot EGR but makes possible lower NOX emissions. The use of EGR is, therefore, believed to be most eective in improving exhaust emissions. References
[1] Lapuerta M, Hernandez JJ, Gimenez F. Evaluation of exhaust gas recirculation as a technique for reducing Diesel engine NOX emissions. Proc Instn Mech Engrs Part D, J Autom Engng 2000;214:8593. [2] Abd Alla GH. Eect of exhaust gas recirculation on the performance of a dual fual engine. PhD Thesis, Mechanical Engineering Department, Shoubra Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Cairo, Egypt, 1994. [3] Daiso Y, Yaeo T, Koseki T, Quiros E. Combustion and exhaust emissions in a direct-injection Diesel engine dualfueled with natural gas. SAE paper 950465, 1995. [4] Ladommatos N, Abdelhalim SM, Zhao H, Hu Z. The eects of carbon dioxide in exhaust gas recirculation on Diesel engine emission. Proc Instn Mech Engng part D J Autom Engng 1998;212:2542. [5] Beatric C et al. Inuence of high EGR rate on emissions of a DI Diesel engine. ASME ICE Div 1998;ICE 22: 193201. [6] Reader GT, Galinsky G, Potter I, Gustafson RW. Combustion noise levels and frequency spectra in an IDI Diesel engine using modied intake mixtures. Emerging Energy Technol Trans ASME 1995;66:538.

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[7] Unchide N et al. Combined eects of EGR and supercharging on Diesel combustion and emissions. Diesel Combustion processes, SAE 930601, 1993. [8] Heywood JB. Internal combustion engine fundamentals. New York: MGraw-Hill; 1998. [9] Mozafari A. Exhaust gas recirculation in spark ignition engine. Adv Heat Trans ASME 1994;PD64(1):197202. [10] Karim GA. The dual fuel engine. In: Evans RL, editor. Automotive engine alternatives. New York: Plenum Press; 1987. [11] Karim GA. A review of combustion process in the dual fuel engine the gas Diesel engine. Prog Energy Combust Sci 1980;6:27785. [12] Klat SR. Combustion mechanism in dual fuel engine. PhD Thesis, Mechanical Engineering, London University, 1965. [13] Karim GA. The dual fuel engine of the compression ignition type prospects, problems and solutions a review, SAE 831073, 1983.