Fuel 88 (2009) 13571364

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Fuel
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Experimental study on diesel engine nitrogen oxide reduction running with jojoba methyl ester by exhaust gas recirculation
H.E. Saleh *
Mechanical Power Department, Faculty of Engineering, Mattaria, Helwan University, P.O. Box 11718, Cairo, Egypt

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
Jojoba methyl ester (JME) has been used as a renewable fuel in numerous studies evaluating its potential use in diesel engines. These studies showed that this fuel is a very good gas oil substitute but an increase in the nitrogenous oxides emissions was observed at all operating conditions. The aim of this study mainly was to quantify the efciency of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) when using JME fuel in a fully instrumented, two-cylinder, naturally aspirated, four-stroke direct injection diesel engine. The tests were made in two sections. Firstly, the measured performance and exhaust emissions of the diesel engine operating with diesel fuel and JME are determined and compared. Secondly, tests were performed at two speeds and loads to investigate the EGR effect on engine performance and exhaust emissions including nitrogenous oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), unburned hydrocarbons (HC) and exhaust gas temperatures. Also, effect of cooled EGR with high ratio at full load on engine performance and emissions was examined. The results showed that EGR is an effective technique for reducing NOx emissions with JME fuel especially in light duty diesel engines. A better trade-off between HC, CO and NOx emissions can be attained within a limited EGR rate of 515% with very little economy penalty. 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 27 May 2008 Received in revised form 16 January 2009 Accepted 25 January 2009 Available online 14 February 2009 Keywords: Diesel engine Jojoba methyl ester Nitrogenous oxides Exhaust gas recirculation

1. Introduction The interest to renewable energy sources for energy production is not new. Several studies have been conducted to qualify various oil and their blends from plants and vegetables as alternative renewable energy sources. This renewable source of fuel may also help in reducing the net production of CO2 from combustion sources and our dependence on fossil fuels. Often the vegetable oils investigated for their suitability as biodiesel are those which occur abundantly in the country of testing. Therefore, soybean oil is of primary interest as biodiesel source in the United States while many European countries are concerned with rapeseed oil, and countries with tropical climate prefer to utilize coconut oil, hazelnut or palm oil [13]. Other vegetable oils, including sunower, rubber, etc., have also been investigated. Furthermore, other sources of biodiesel studied include animal fats, salmon oil and or waste cooking oils [47]. In the search for a viable vegetable oil as fuel for Egypt, jojoba ranks high as the vast area of the Egyptian deserts can be used for production the seeds are used to produce the jojoba fuel [811]. Many studies have been working on jojoba as a promising vegetable oil fuel for diesel engines for many years [811]. During this time, many tests have been performed on neat jojoba and jojoba

methyl ester (JME). These studies showed that this fuel is a very good gas oil substitute and offered the same product guarantees for JME as for gas oil due to the fact that the physiochemical properties of JME are close to those of gas oil. An increase in the emissions of nitrogenous oxides (NOx) at all operating conditions have been observed by [12]. The objective of this work was to quantify the efciency of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) when using JME as a renewable fuel. In this paper, all experiments described here were performed on a direct injection diesel engine in rst to compare diesel fuel and JME fuel in terms of engine performance and exhaust emissions at various speeds under full load and the second to investigate the effect of various EGR rates with JME fuel for NOx reduction. Also, effect of cooled EGR with high ratio at full load on engine performance and emissions was examined. EGR effects on engine performance, engine emissions, exhaust gas temperature, combustion quality and fuel economy for both high and low load engine operating conditions at two speeds were investigated. 2. Jojoba seed oil extraction and biodiesel production One of the several renewable sources, and yet not widely known, jojoba oil, appears to be promising with scope for cultivation in the relatively hot weather. The chemical structure of jojoba oil is similar to sperm oil which has been used as a constituent in many lubricating oil formulations [13]. The studies [812] showed that the viscosity of jojoba raw oil is high and that lead to blockage

* Tel.: +20 2 3420657; fax: +20 2 6332398. E-mail address: hosamsaleh@yahoo.com 0016-2361/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2009.01.023

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H.E. Saleh / Fuel 88 (2009) 13571364

of fuel lines, lters, high nozzle valve opening pressures and poor atomization [1416], thus warrants treatment of oil before it becomes a viable engine fuel. To solve the problems associated with the high viscosity of jojoba raw oil, Kader and co-workers [17] synthesized the jojoba methyl ester in the laboratory and showed that methyl ester formation was 6065% complete at respective molar ratios of methanol/jojoba oil 4.6:1. The alkaline catalyst used was (NaOH) and was added with a percentage of 1% which proved to produce maximum yield. At 60 C, 65% JME was produced in 2 h. In addition, these studies concentrated on measuring the ignition delay period of JME and JME-gas oil blends at different conditions in shock tube. An optimum method for JME fuel production was developed by [8] on the grounds of production economy and fuel properties. Radwan et al. [8] measured the burning velocity of JME at different conditions in constant volume bomb. It is found that JME liquid fuel exhibited lower burning velocities than isooctane. An experimental investigation has been carried out to examine for the rst time the performance and combustion noise of an indirect injection diesel engine running with JME, and its blends with gas oil [9]. A Ricardo E6 compression swirl diesel engine was fully instrumented for the measurement of combustion pressure and its rise rate and other operating parameters. Test parameters included the percentage of JME in the blend, engine speed, load, injection timing and engine compression ratio. Results showed that the new fuel derived from jojoba is generally comparable and good replacement to gas oil in diesel engine at most engine operating conditions. With the same test rig, JME was investigated as a pilot fuel as a way to improve the performance of dual fuel engine running on natural gas or liqueed petroleum gas at part load [10,11]. Results showed that using the JME fuel with its improved properties has improved the dual fuel engine performance, reduced the combustion noise and extended knocking limits. Also, an experimental evaluation of using blends of jojoba oil with gas oil as compared to gas oil has been conducted by Bawady co-workers [18]. Heat ux mapping and metal temperature distribution was carried out using a single cylinder, naturally aspirated, indirect injection four-stroke diesel engine [12]. Results at variable loads and speeds were taken with JME and were compared with those obtained with gas oil. It was found that the heat ux level and gas face metal temperature in the cylinder liner and head with JME were higher than those with gas oil. Also, an increase in the emissions of nitrogenous oxides (NOx) at all operating conditions have been observed.

where it is inducted into the succeeding cycles and it is used in this study. External EGR has emerged as the preferred type of EGR for heavy-duty diesel engines and that due to external EGR can be cooled and that improves fuel economy and engine performance. EGR reduces NOx because EGR gases contain much lower concentrations of oxygen as compared to ambient air. As a result, EGR gas slows down the rate of combustion as there is less oxygen in the cylinder to combust with the fuel. In addition to having low levels of oxygen, EGR gas also has a higher heat capacity than ambient air. This aids in slowing down combustion because more heat can be absorbed in an air-fuel mixture that contains EGR gases. While EGR is effective in reducing NOx, it also has adverse effects on the engine efciency and may cause pollution of lubricating oil and corrosion of inlet manifold and moving parts as exhaust gas contains a lot of particulate matter. Some simple algorithms for adjusting EGR with engine power have been explored in the past to minimize its impact on the engine thermal efciency [22]. In this paper diesel particular lter adopted for diesel particulate reduction to supply nearly particle-free exhaust gas.

4. Experimental equipment The experiments were carried out on a two-cylinder, water cooled, four-stroke, direct injection diesel engine. It was necessary to make some of modications in the engine since the original engine had not EGR. It was necessary to connect the exhaust manifold with the air intake manifold, with an EGR valve at this connection. The experimental set up is shown schematically in Fig. 1 and comprises a hydraulic dynamometer, a pressure tank, a diesel particulate bag lter, a heat exchanger, an EGR valve, a liquid and gas fuel metering systems, and an exhaust gases analysis system. The engine specications are given in Table 1. It was necessary to connect the exhaust manifold with the air intake manifold, with a pressure tank, bag lter, a heat exchanger and an EGR valve at this connection. The bag lter is used for particulate reduction and supply of clean gas for EGR. The pressure tank is used for reduction of exhaust pressure pulse and the heat exchanger is used as an exhaust cooler for cooling exhaust gas by water ow. An EGR valve was installed in this connection that enabled manual to control the ow rate of EGR to the intake manifold to attain various EGR ratios. The EGR mass rate is the ratio between recirculated exhaust mass ow and the total mass ow allowed to pass into the engine


3. Mechanism of NOx formation and EGR technique Oxides of nitrogen are formed when nitrogen and oxygen (from air) react at the extremely high temperatures reached during combustion. In the direct injection diesel engines, the fuel sprayed into the cylinder forms tiny droplets. Oxygen interacts at the boundary surface between the air and fuel. This boundary surface is where combustion takes place. Due to burning of the fuel droplets, the localized temperature in the vicinity of the fuel droplets exceeds the limit at which NOx are formed. In general, high amounts of oxygen and high temperatures will result in high levels of NOx formation and these conditions are always present in the combustion chamber of diesel engines. Since diesel engines always run at a lean air-fuel mixture and at high compression ratios [19]. Recently, exhaust gas recirculation, has received attention as a potential solution. Research work results showed that EGR is one of the most effective methods used in modern engines for reducing NOx emissions [20,21]. There are two types of EGR; internal and external. Internal EGR uses variable valve timings or other devices to retain a certain fraction of exhaust from a preceding cycle. External EGR uses piping to route the exhaust gas to the intake system,

EGR rate %

 mEGR 100 mAir mFuel

The ow rate of air into the engine was measured using a laminar ow element. The laminar ow element was a honeycomb-like structure, which provides for a certain pressure drop across itself for a certain volumetric ow rate of air. This pressure drop was measured using an inclined manometer. The ow rate of EGR into the engine was measured with a sharp edge orice mounted on a pipe connected to the pressure tank. An inclined manometer was used to measure the pressure drop across the orice. The fuel consumption is measured by a fuel meter. The air temperature, exhaust gas temperature were measured using type K thermocouples and the CO, HC and NOx levels were obtained with a testo 350 gas analyzer was used to measure engine exhaust pollutant emissions. Pressure gauges were tted to measure the pressure of EGR, inlet mixer and fresh intake air. A full set of readings was taken for each data point recorded thus the EGR rate can be calculated based on the above data. One of the great benets of this engine is that the block was machined to allow for instrumented pressure measurements inside the combustion chamber. The cylinder pressure measurements

H.E. Saleh / Fuel 88 (2009) 13571364

1359

Fig. 1. Schematic of the experimental test rig.

will make it possible to evaluate coefcient of variation of indicated mean effective pressure (imep). The coefcient of variation (COV) can be evaluated from the indicated mean effective pressure calculation to establish the quality of the combustion at various EGR rate. An in-cylinder piezoelectric pressure transducer captured the in-cylinder pressure trace. This signal was fed to dual mode charge amplier, the output voltage signal was sent to the NIDAQmx data acquisition card. Data was collected on a computer using a LabVIEW program. The number of cycles chosen forms an acceptable limit for generating statistically meaningful results for all parameters examined. It has been shown by [23] that a greater number of cycles than 400 cycles form a safe limit for a statistical analysis. In this study a 1000 successive cycles have been taken. The coefcient of variation can be calculated as follows:

COVimep

rimep
imepmean

where n is the number of cycles, imepmean is the mean indicated mean effective pressure and rimep is the standard deviation of the mean effective pressure. 5. Experimental results and discussion The experimental results are given in two sections. The rst section compares diesel fuel and JME fuel in terms of engine performance and exhaust emissions at various speeds under full load. The second section investigates the effect of various EGR rate with JME fuel on the engine emissions, exhaust gas temperatures and engine fuel economy and combustion quality under various conditions. The tests and data collection were performed at two different engine speeds and loads. The engine evaluation at 1200 rpm 25% load to represent urban speed/load conditions. Thousand six hundred revolutions per minute 25% load, this is a low load condition for highway operation. Thousand two hundred revolutions per minute full load and 1600 rpm full load to represent heavy load operation. Table 2 shows the JME fuel with its improved

imepmean

n 1X imepi n i1

rimep

s Pn 2 i imepi imepmean n1

Table 1 Specication of the engine used. Model Type Cooling Number of cylinder Diameters of cylinder (mm) Stroke length (mm) Capacity (cm3) Compression ratio Rated speed (rpm) Rated power (HP) 112M-Helwan 4-Stroke direct injection Water cooling 2 112 115 2266 16.4 1500 26

Table 2 The properties of the JME fuel versus diesel fuel [12]. Properties Density @ 15 C Kinematic viscosity @ 40 C (cSt) Flash point Caloric value (kj/kg) Cetane number Water content % by mass Carbon residue % by mass Ash content % by mass JME 0.866 19.2 61 47,380 63.5 0.5 0.5 0.002 Diesel 0.820 1.67.0 Min. 55 44,300 46 0.1 0.1 0.01

1360 Table 3 Average uncertainties of some measured and calculated parameters. Parameters Temperature Speed Mass ow rate of fuel Mass ow rate of air Mass ow rate of EGR Nitric oxides Unburned hydrocarbon Carbon monoxide Engine torque

H.E. Saleh / Fuel 88 (2009) 13571364

1000
Uncertainty (%) 0.7 1.5 2.8 2.5 2.2 5 3.5 3.5 5.5

800 NO x -JME Egt-JME NO x -Diesel Egt-Diesel 600

800

600

400 400 200

Full load
200 2000

properties versus diesel fuel [11]. Three runs of tests were performed under identical conditions to check for the repeatability of all results and the experimental error is evaluated according to Ref. [24]. The details of the estimated average uncertainties of some measured at a typical operating condition are given in Table 3. 5.1. Comparison of performance and emissions with JME and diesel fuel 5.1.1. Engine performance The variation of engine speed on the brake thermal efciency (gth ) and the brake specic fuel consumption (bsfc) with JME and diesel fuel at full load is shown in Fig. 2. The experimental results of both JME and diesel fuel indicate that the brake thermal efciency variations were in harmony with the speed variations as the engine speed increases the thermal efciency increases for both JME and diesel fuel. At low speeds, the engine power and brake thermal efciency with JME are slightly higher than the diesel fuel. At high speed, the engine output and efciency with JME were higher than that with diesel fuel. The bsfc with JME is lower than that with diesel fuel by 8.2%, 9.8% at N = 1200 rpm and N = 1600 rpm, respectively. The main reason for the higher power and efciency or on the other hand, lower brake specic fuel consumption may be explained by the higher caloric value of JME [11,15]. Furthermore, JME as an oxygenated fuel has a benecial effect on combustion, especially in fuel rich zones as indicated by [25,26]. The author [25] found that the power and the engine efciency increased slightly with indirect diesel engine running on the tobacco methyl ester-diesel blends.

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

Engine speed ( N ) rpm

Fig. 3. Variation of NOx emissions and exhaust gas temperature with engine speed.

5.1.2. NOx emissions The nitrogenous oxides (NOx) concentration versus engine speed is shown in Fig. 3. The results show that as the speed decreases, NOx increases for both diesel fuel and JME and that due to the reduction in engine speed at full load increases the engine volumetric efciency, the maximum rate at which fuel is discharged from the injector nozzle and the quantity of fuel injected per stroke [27]. Increasing in the amount of fuel injected leads to higher cylinder temperatures which result in higher NOx concentration. It would be expected that the fuels with the highest in-cylinder temperature levels would have the highest NOx [19]. Since JME fuel was higher combustion chamber temperature as indicated from measured exhaust gas temperature, as shown in Fig. 3. The NOx concentration with JME fuel is higher than that with diesel fuel and that is may be due to the higher caloric value of JME. As shown in Fig. 3, at N = 1200 rpm, the increase of approximately 16% in the NOx emissions with JME than that with diesel fuel and about 14% at N = 1600 rpm. 5.1.3. CO emissions The variation of carbon monoxide (CO) emissions versus engine speed at full load is shown in Fig. 4. The reduction in engine speed produced higher CO in the exhaust and that due to the increasing of the amount of fuel per stroke and decreasing in swirl intensity

400 34
th -JME th -Diesel

3000 JME fuel

bscf-JME bsfc-Diesel 360

2500 Diesel fuel

Brake thermal efficiency (%)

32 30

bsfc (g/ kw.hr)

320 28 26 24 22

CO (ppm)

2000

Full load
280

Full load
1500

240 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

1000 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 2. Relation between the gth and bsfc with the engine speed.

Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 4. Variation of CO emissions with engine speed.

Exhaust gas temperature ( o C)

NO x (ppm)

H.E. Saleh / Fuel 88 (2009) 13571364

1361

240 210 180 JME fuel Diesel fuel

HC (ppm)

150 120 90 60 30 0 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000

sel fuel blends and that due to the poor spray characteristics of coconut oil, poor mixing, and consequently poor combustion because of coconut oil has a viscosity of about eight times as much as that of diesel fuel. The author [28] has been investigated the effect of coconut oil-diesel blends using a single cylinder, direct injection diesel engine. At high speed, CO concentration with JME is lower than that with diesel fuel that may be due to the benecial effect of JME as an oxygenated fuel as mentioned before. 5.1.4. HC emissions The variation of unburned hydrocarbons (HC) emissions versus engine speed at full load is shown in Fig. 5. The reduction in engine speed produced higher HC concentration due to poorer mixing, since the fuelair pocket can be mixed to stoichiometric proportions and then diluted by more air before autoignition occurs in that element [27]. As a result there are contours for lean equivalence ratios and when autoignition occurs there is fuel and air mixed locally to proportions less than the lean ammability limit. Thus this local fuel mixture does not burn and will increase the HC concentration. Also, the percentage of heat loss to the coolant is increasing with decreasing the engine speed and that leads to higher HC concentration in the exhaust gases. As shown in Fig. 5, at low speeds, HC concentration with JME is higher than the diesel fuel and there is no appreciable difference between HC concentration with JME and diesel fuel at high speed. 5.2. Experimental study on diesel engine with JME using EGR technique In the above section have been observed a decrease in the emissions of CO and HC in the almost of the operating conditions but an increase in the NOx emissions in all operating conditions and the overall engine performance with JME was equivalent to that of the conventional diesel fuel. Thus, the aim in this section is to reduce NOx emissions using JME as fuel. The measurements of an experimental investigation of the effect of various EGR rates on NOx reduction with JME at different engine parameters are presented and discussed in the present section. Also, CO and HC emissions, exhaust gas temperatures, combustion quality and fuel economy are obtained for wide range of various EGR rates. 5.2.1. Effect of EGR on NOx emissions and fuel consumption with JME Fig. 6 shows inuence of the various EGR rate on NOx emissions and fuel consumption when the diesel engine was operated with JME at 1200 rpm 25% load, 1200 rpm 100% load, 1600 rpm 25% load and 1600 rpm 100% load. It is shown that, EGR rates

Full load

Engine speed (rpm)

Fig. 5. Variation of HC emissions with engine speed.

within the cylinder which causes poorer mixing since there is insufcient oxygen to convert all carbon in the fuel to carbon dioxide [27]. As shown in Fig 7, at low speed, CO concentration with JME is slightly higher than the diesel fuel and that due to the higher viscosity of JME which causes poorer atomization and distribution of the JME fuelair. Also it has been shown by [28] that CO emissions increased when the coconut oil amount increased in the die-

1000 NOx, 25% load 800 NOx, Full load

600 500 400

bsfc, 25% load

bsfc, Full load

600 300 400

Jojoba methyl ester

200

200 N = 1200 rpm 0

100 0

10

20

30

40

50

EGR rate (%)

bsfc (g/kw.h)

NOx (ppm)

10

1000 NOx, 25% load 800 NOx, Full load

600

9 8

N = 1200 rpm, 25% load N = 1200 rpm, Full load N = 1600 rpm, 25% load N = 1600 rpm, Full load

bsfc, 25% load

bsfc, Full load 500

COV of imep (%)

7 6 5 4

600 300 400

bsfc (g /kw.h)

400

accepted drivability limit

NO x (ppm)

Jojoba methyl ester

200 100

Jojoba methyl ester

3 2

200 N = 1600 rpm 0 0 10 20 30 40 50

10

20

30

40

50

EGR rate (%)

Fig. 6. Variation of NOx and bsfc with EGR rate at different operating conditions.

EGR rate (%)

Fig. 7. Effect of EGR rate on COV of imep at different conditions.

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H.E. Saleh / Fuel 88 (2009) 13571364

produced a corresponding decrease in NOx emissions. As stated before; this is caused mainly by exhaust gas dilution of fresh air which causes decrease of oxygen concentration of in-cylinder combustible mixture and decrease of in-cylinder maximum temperature. To optimize NOx emissions reduction, EGR rate should be increased gradually by an EGR valve from 0% to the maximum allowable value according to speed/load conditions. As shown in Fig. 6, the bsfc is decreased or the fuel economy is raised with increasing EGR rate up to 5% at 25% load. Very important to note this increase in fuel economy and reduction in NOx emissions with EGR is obtained. This is due to increase of engine thermal efciency because of unburnt hydrocarbons contained in the EGR would possibly re-burn in the mixture, leading to lower unburnt fuel in the exhaust [29]. Furthermore, lower combustion temperatures with EGR reduced heat loss to the walls. At 25% load, the maximum reduction in NOx emissions with minimum in fuel economy is obtained by increasing EGR rate to 1520%. It has also been shown by [20] that at low loads, the CO2 and H2O concentrations in the exhaust gas are low, since EGR routes exhaust gas from preceding engine combustion cycles into the combustion chamber for succeeding combustion cycles. Because of this, the heat capacity of the cylinder charge decreased. So, large EGR rate (2540%) can be used for high reduction efciency of NOx (5055%) without obvious increase of bsfc (less than 5%). Increasing of EGR rate above 40%, the combustion of mixture deteriorates. Since EGR in a diesel engine displaces a unit of fresh air with an equal unit of burned exhaust products, it not only alters A/F ratio, but causes a dilution effect. By reducing the oxygen concentration, the mixing time between the direct-injected fuel and the fresh oxygen increases and reduce the burn rate once diffusion combustion starts, therefore, makes stable combustion more difcult [20,27] to achieve and which indicates a speed and power output decrease and bsfc increases up to 17%. At high load, the heat capacity increases as the concentrations of CO2 and H2O are substantially higher. Both these molecules have higher than air heat capacities and with H2O being much higher than CO2 at typical combustion temperatures [27]. With the higher heat capacity of the mixture, more energy is required to pre-heat the incoming mixture, thus lowering the ame temperature and deterioration in diffusion combustion. Furthermore, at high load, the temperature of the mixture of EGR and fresh air increase, the cylinder trapped mass decrease and that has a detrimental effect on the volumetric efciency [20]. So, it is difcult to employ EGR rate larger than 12% as shown in Fig. 6 and this may result in an excessive increase in bsfc up to 11%. At that level of EGR rate, the reduction in NOx was 33%. 5.2.2. Effect of EGR on combustion quality with JME The effect of EGR rate on NOx emissions and bsfc has been discussed in the previous section. One interesting side effect of using various levels of EGR rate is the coefcient of variation of indicated mean effective pressure. The COV of imep value gives a quantitative value to the degree of change in the combustion completeness with increasing the levels of EGR rate. In this study a 1000 successive cycles have been taken to ensure stationary values from the statistical analyses. For good drivability, the COV of imep should be no greater than 5% [30]. Fig. 7 shows the result of this evaluation under the different operating conditions. As expected, the COV of imep is increased continuously with increasing EGR rate at all the operating conditions. COV of imep ranged from 1.0% to 1.4% for all data sets when EGR rate of 540% at 25% load. Beyond 40% of EGR rate, COV of imep reaches 2%, and that supports the results of the previous sections where the combustion of mixture deteriorates and the cyclic dispersion increases. Also, at full load with EGR rate less than 12%, COV of imep ranged from 1.0% to 1.2%. Generally, COV of imep ranged from 1.0% to 2% for all various conditions

thus each point on the graph is a stable combustion point, dened as a point having a COV of imep less than 5%, which is well within accepted drivability limit. On the other hand, all COV of imep are below 5% which means that the diesel engine with JME will run stable with very little uctuation in output work for EGR rate less than 40% at part load and 12% at full load. 5.2.3. Effect of EGR on HC and CO emissions with JME It is important to measure the quantity of HC and CO emissions in the exhaust gases when the diesel engine was operated with JME because it is an indicator of the completeness of the combustion. So, the effect of EGR rate on HC emissions can be seen on Fig. 8 at different conditions. It is shown that the HC concentration can be maintained when increasing EGR rate reaches 15% under different engine conditions. Unfortunately, HC emissions increase rapidly with greater levels of EGR rate and this mean that the combustion quality worsens with the increase of EGR rate. Also, it can be observed that HC emissions at 25% load are higher than that at full load since the lighter load reduce turbulence and fuel mixing to too lean an equivalence ratio. This has a negative impact on the combustion efciency and therefore leads to higher HC emissions. Also, Fig. 8 shows engine-out CO emissions versus EGR rate for speed/load cases as before. As previously, data points have been shown that the trend of CO emissions is similar to HC emissions change under the different working conditions. Increasing EGR rate above 15%, the CO emissions increased rapidly. The CO production

6000 CO, 25% load 5000 4000 HC, 25% load CO, Full load HC, Full load

800 700 600

CO (ppm)

3000 2000 1000 N = 1200 rpm 0 0 10 20 30 40

400 300

Jojoba methyl ester

200 100 0 50

EGR rate (%)

6000 CO, 25% load 5000 4000 HC, 25% load CO, Full load HC, Full load

800 700 600

CO (ppm)

3000 2000 1000 0

400 300 200

Jojoba methyl ester

0 10 20 30 40

100 0 50

EGR rate (%)

Fig. 8. Variation of CO and HC emissions with EGR rate at different operating conditions.

HC (ppm)

N = 1600 rpm

500

HC (ppm)

500

H.E. Saleh / Fuel 88 (2009) 13571364

1363

is most likely due to an incomplete combustion caused by the diluted mixture. Trade-off between HC, CO and NOx concentrations with increasing EGR rate because of reduction of HC and CO needs high temperature and complete combustion, which requires good fuelair mixing and enough oxygen. Therefore, EGR can bring satisfactory results for NOx reduction, but at the same time HC and CO increase. From the emissions data presented above, a better tradeoff between HC, CO and NOx emissions can be attained within a limited EGR rate of 515%. 5.2.4. Effect of EGR on exhaust gas temperature with JME The effect of EGR rate on the exhaust gas temperatures under the different operating conditions is presented in Fig. 9. As expected, the exhaust gas temperatures were reduced continuously with increasing EGR rate. As stated before; increasing EGR rate augments the amount of inert gas in the combustion chamber, lowering the burned gas temperature and therefore lowering the NOx emissions. Since the composition of the EGR of diesel engine varies with load. At 25% load for both N = 1200 rpm and N = 1600 rpm, there is a little of CO2 and H2O concentrations in exhaust gas, so large EGR 3540% can be used for signicant reduction in exhaust gas temperature about 4248% compared with the baseline case (without EGR) as shown in Fig. 9. At high load the heat capacity increases as the concentrations of CO2 and H2O are substantially higher so low EGR rate 1417% can be used for the same reduction in exhaust gas temperature.

5.2.5. Effect of cooled EGR on engine performance and emissions at full load To increase the engine efciency or in other words, decrease the bsfc at full load with EGR rate above 12%, an EGR cooler was added for cooling the hot exhaust gases in the EGR system to reduce the peak EGR temperatures in an attempt to regain the volumetric efciency lost by operating with EGR rate. The effect of using cooled EGR on the volumetric efciency and bsfc is depicted in Fig. 10 and on HC, CO and NOx emissions in Fig. 11 for an engine speed of 1600 rpm at full load with EGR rate of 16%. It is clear that the bsfc has decreased about 8% when using cooled EGR as compared to hot EGR and that may be due to improve the volumetric efciency [20] as shown in Fig. 10. Since the temperature of the mixture of EGR and fresh air increased from a baseline level (without EGR) of 43110 C at 16% of hot EGR and 70 C with using cooled EGR. Furthermore, by using the EGR cooler, the H2O with the higher heat capacity of the mixture is removed from exhaust gases and that improve the combustion efciency and consequently, the engine efciency [20]. Also it is shown from the Fig. 11 that using cooled EGR has a positive effect on reducing the combustion temperature which leads to a decrease in NOx emissions by 10%, HC emissions by 24% and also reduces CO emissions by 15%. It has been shown by Ref. [31] that using hot EGR in a diesel engine causes the combustion temperature to increase, as well as causing the combustion gases to spent longer periods at these higher tem-

a
Exhaust gas temperature ( o C)

500

100
Full load 400 25% load

baseline, tair = 43 0 C without cooler, t mixture = 110 0 C with cooler, t mixture = 70 0 C Full load N=1600 rpm

500

80

400

300 N = 1200 rpm 200

v (%)

60

Jojoba methyl ester

300

40

200

100

20

100

Jojoba methyl ester

0

10

20

30

40

50

bsfc

EGR rate (%)

Fig. 10. Effect of cooled EGR on gv and bsfc with EGR rate = 16%.

b
Exhaust gas temperature ( o C)

500 Full load 400 25% load

700 baseline, tair = 43 0 C 600 500 without cooler, tmixture = 110 0 C with cooler, tmixture = 70 0 C Full load 400 300 200 100 N =1600 rpm

Emissions (ppm)

300

N = 1600 rpm

200

Jojoba methyl ester

100

Jojoba methyl ester

0

10

20

30

40

50

EGR rate (%)

Fig. 9. Variation of exhaust gas temperature with EGR rate at different operating conditions.

NO x

CO (10 )

HC

Fig. 11. Effect of cooled EGR on NOx, CO and HC emissions with EGR rate = 16%.

bsfc (g/ kw.hr)

1364

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peratures, which leads to an increase in the formation of both NOx and particulate emissions. 6. Conclusions In this paper, an experimental investigation of the effect of exhaust gas recirculation on exhaust emissions and performance in diesel engine operating with JME. Tests were made at two speeds and loads. Engine performance, exhaust emissions, exhaust gas temperatures and combustion quality were investigated. From the study carried out the following conclusions may be drawn: 1. JME is a good gas oil substitute as the brake power output with JME was higher than that with gas oil and NOx was higher with JME than those with gas oil. 2. The NOx emissions decreased with increasing the EGR rate. Also, at all engine speeds and loads, the JME produced a higher CO and HC emissions when the EGR rate is increased. 3. NOx emissions with minimum loss in fuel economy are obtained by increasing EGR rate to 15% at low load. 4. Using high levels of EGR (in excess of 40%) at low load has the benecial effect of lowering the ame temperature, which leads to low NOx emissions of 50% with increase in bsfc of 5%. 5. From the COV of imep, the combustion was affected with levels of more than 15% of EGR for all operating conditions. 6. The optimum EGR level is 515% for all engine speeds and loads and that may be favorable in a trade-off between HC, CO and NOx emissions with little economy penalty. 7. When the exhaust gas temperature has decreased by using cooled EGR at full load, the engine economy signicantly increased with decreased in the exhaust emissions.

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