Arellano University Legarda, Manila

Philippine Ethnic Groups And Their Culture

Submitted by: Joy Mariette B. Cristo BSEd-IV Submitted to: Mrs. Salvacion Uy Professor

Meet Various Ethnic Groups and Discover Their Culture

The ethnic groups Philippines are diverse. Did you think that the ethnicity of the Philippine people is Filipino? Wrong. Filipino refers to citizenship, not ethnicity. The Philippines is in fact made up of a tapestry of ethnic groups, each at one point independent kingdoms and chieftaincies. The unity of these Philippine ethnic groups saw the overthrow of colonizers, namely Spain and America, through armed revolution and active participation in lawmaking respectively. Even after the Philippines achieved independence, however, not all of its ethnic groups have been empowered. Under this dubious and muddled umbrella term "Filipino people", some ethnic groups of the Philippines are more powerful than others, their culture more nurtured and their representation in government stronger. At times these Philippine ethnic groups come across imperialist-like, especially when they immigrate and dominate another tribe's ancestral domain.

THE IFUGAO:
A MOUNTAIN PEOPLE OF THE PHILIPPINES

Mention the word Ifugao and it immediately calls to mind the famous man-made Banaue Rice Terraces in northern Luzon, which has been included as one of the wonders of the world. In fact, the word Ifugao is said to have come from ipugo, which means from the hill. The tribes main source of living is agriculture because they are surrounded by mountain ranges. Each village is composed of 12 to 30 houses built near rice terraces and other agricultural resources. Ifugao is one of the places in the Philippines that has not been influenced by the Spaniards; they did enter Ifugao territory but were unable to touch their culture and values. Ifugao culture values kinship, family ties, and religious and cultural beliefs. The wanno or g-string is the traditional attire of male Ifugaos. There are six types of wanno, which are used depending on the occasion or the mans social status. Ifugao women wear tapis, a wraparound skirt. There are about five kinds of skirts. The Amganad Ifugao (also, Ifugaw) live in the central part of Ifugao Province. The tribe has two dialects Burnay and Banaue and is a part of the Nuclear Cordilleran stock.

OLD IFUGAO TRADITIONS BOGWA

Bogwa is the practice of exhuming the bones of the dead, cleaning, rewrapping and returning them to the grave or lubuk. The Ifugao is one of the ethnic groups in the Cordillera region of the Philippines that practice this tradition of exhuming their dead usually after a year or more depending on the desire and necessity. The Ifugaos traditionally see it as a family responsibility towards the deceased loved one and a necessity for those left behind in order to prosper and live at peace with the spirits of their departed. With all the animals offered to appease the spirits of the dead, the bogwa is one of the most expensive native rituals next to a wedding. Three days of feasting rather than mourning is expected and an open invitation is extended to everyone within or outside the community. Performing bogwa shows not only the love and care to a family member even though he died several years ago but also the concern, love, care and hope for prosperous years for the living ones. Bogwa repeats the normal burial ceremonies and activities when they died without the expression of grief. There is a woman and a man named Bugan and Wigan who live at Ducligan. They have healthy chickens, pigs and children. They farm their rice. One day, the people of Ducligan were performing the pangnga sacrifice. The wife Bugan asks Wigan the Ifugao. Where are you going, Wigan? Wigan the Ifugao says: I am going to drink with the people of Ducligan who are performing the pangnga sacrifice Wigan gets his spear and dagger and goes to drink with the people of Ducligan. By midmorning, the people of ducligan drop down their seedlings as they perform the pangnga sacrifice The earthquake of the underworld says : let me invite the thunderer of the skyworld, the farmer deities of the Deity of lagud and of the Deity Giving-growth of the Underworld, and the Farmer deities of the Thunderer of the Skyworld so that they may raise the rice up The thunderer of the Skyworld and the Farmer deities ask : Are you inviting us, Earthquaker of the Underworld? The Earthquaker of the underworld says : Yes, I am inviting you to raise up the rice of Bugan and Wigan at Ducligan who sacrifice to you. They say : Yes, we shall do.
The ABUWAB tales of rice rituals

(Bone Cleansing Ritual)

THE BALE: TRADITIONAL IFUGAO HOUSE

A bale or abung(house) which has four posts about ve feet in height. Each post (tukud) has the traditional lidi (cylindrical shaped wood placed above the post). The geometrical structures prevent rodents from entering the house. Just above the lidi is the kuling (beams). In the Tuwali dialect, the following are the parts of a house: atop roof, dingding - walls, dulung oor, tawang window; tukud post, kuling beams; onob/panto door; hagpo the ladder landing or ooring right in the door.

Houses generally had one single space or room where everything from eating to sleeping is done. The pun-dap-ulan ( re place) is located in one corner of the house. Just above the pundap-ulan is the hay-ungngan where palay is dried. The hay-ung-ngan is woven bamboo where about ve to six bundles of palay are spread to dry. Further above the hay-ung-ngan is the huguhug where rewood is piled to dry using the heat from the re in the pun-dap-ulan. We sat on the dalapong (wooden stool about 6 inches to 1 ft in height). We use the tete (ladder) to get in and out the house. The ladder is made up of light wood or bamboo pole which is pulled up inside the house or otherwise lowered down as a means of entry and exit. The roof consists of thatched mountain reeds (bila-u) or gulun (cogon grass) and the walls are made of wooden planks or woven bamboo.
COURTSHIP AND MARRIAGE

Courtship before marriage is customary with early Ifugaos. Courtship is generally done in the house of the woman with the strict supervision of the parents and approval of the girls family. This is contrary to the myth that courtship is done in the agamang where promiscuity is tolerated. The agamang is a house in the locality where people go to sleep only at night. It is usually a house owned by childless couples, widowers, spinsters or bachelors. Males and females have separate agamang houses. There are occasions however when the family of the boy chooses a girl as the prospective wife. The boys family would propose the matter to the girls family. When the proposal is accepted, a pig is brought to the girls house where the two families host a feast. At a very young age, the two are parentally engaged but are not allowed to live together. This is called nit-bi. When the two reach maturity and the woman marry someone else, a pig is sent back to the mans family as replacement of the pig that was used for the engagement. However, if the man marries another woman instead, the family of the woman is not obliged to replace the pig. When a union is planned, the mans family sends an intermediary to inform the womans family about the intention. Pertinent matters about the marriage are discussed. This is called the mun-ga-wi. If the proposal is accepted, three pigs (hingngot) are brought to the brides residence in an entourage comprising the grooms relatives and close associates. Af uent families usually butcher a carabao or a cow and an array of pigs for the marriage celebration. The marriage feast is characterized by extravaganza of endless dancing and merrymaking. In a particular area of the marriage feast, the choicest "baya" (rice wine) is given to any one who in turn gives gift or dowry to the newly married couple. This is called gala. A meal is provided to the multitude who witnessed the affair. A long queue is formed for the orderly distribution of food. This is called hamul. Later, the families of the married couple would inform the bride and the groom the respective properties to be inherited. The ta-wid (inheritance) system of the Tuwali usually gives the choicest property to the eldest child, going down to the youngest. Couples in some occasions separates basically because they are childless. It is uncommon that early Ipuggo couples would separate due to in delity. This is called mun-bolhe (divorce) in the tuwali tribe. They may remarry which is termed as nun-bintan. A woman begetting a child out of wed lock is called nun-lag-lag-a. Prostitution and polygamy is never a trait nor practiced by Ifugaos.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

Ifugao religious beliefs are expressed in the numerous rites and prayers (baki) that comprise the main body of Ifugao myths. The myths and folktales tell of their gods and goddesses, related supernatural beings, their ancestors and the forces of nature. The Ifugaos, aside from being deity worshipers, are nature worshipers and ancestor worshipers. A horde of major and minor deities are invoked at every ritual, the major gods being appealed to first. Barton listed as many as 1,500 deities in various ranks from gods, to demons, monsters, imps and spirits dwelling in trees, stones, mountains, and rivers aside from the omnipresent ancestor spirits. The Ifugaos believe that the cosmos is composed of six regions, four regions being above the earth, one being the earth itself, and the sixth lying under the earth. The people do not consider any of their deities as supreme but generally refer to Mah-nongan as the honorary dead and creator of all things. He is their chief god. The major gods Liddum, Punholdayan, Hinumbian, Ampual, Wigan and Yogyog are invoked to intercede with Mah-nongan or any of the particular major gods who might have caused sickness or other suffering. These invocations, which are always accompanied by animal offering and drinking of wine, are meant to bribe the gods and win their favor. The people believe that since certain gods cause sickness, the malady can only be cured by having other deities intercede for the invalid, thus making it necessary to offer sacrifices to the several gods concerned. Liddum is regarded as the chief mediator between the people and the other gods. The exact prayers to be recited by the mombaki and the number of chickens or pigs to be sacrificed (and later eaten, of course, by those present) are clearly specified in Ifugao tradition. If the first series of rituals brings no improvement in the patients condition, another more elaborate series is resorted to, provided the family can afford the expense. The alim is chanted by a chief mombaki (mombagol) and eight to twelve other priests. The bagol ceremony lasts from early evening till late morning.
RICE CULTURE

Ifugao culture revolves around rice, which is considered a prestige crop. There is an elaborate and complex array of rice culture feasts inextricably linked with taboos and intricate agricultural rites, from rice cultivation to rice consumption. Harvest season calls for grandiose thanksgiving feasts, while the concluding harvest rites "tungo" or "tungul" (the day of rest) entail a strict taboo of any agricultural work. Partaking of the rice wine (bayah), rice cakes, and 'moma' (mixture of several herbs, powdered snail shell and betel nut/ arecoline: and acts as a chewing gum to the Ifugaos) is an indelible practice during the festivities and ritual activities

NEGRITOES:
THE AETAS OF THE PHILIPPINES

"Aeta," "Ayta," "Agta," "Atta (Ata)," "Ati," and "Ita"- these probably derive from the root word "it," which in various Philippine languages means "black" as inferred from the Tagalog term itim and the Visayan term itom. "Negrito" or "little black one" is a Spanish term coined from the word "negro." The Aeta are a mountain people who are dark skinned, short, small of frame, kinky haired, snub nosed, and with big black eyes. The Aeta have different names which may refer to their history, their geographical situation, or their relationship with their neighbors. Various Aeta groups have been differentiated in curious ways. For example, one group in northern Luzon is known as "Pugut" or "Pugot," a name designated by their Ilocano-speaking neighbors, and which is the colloquial term for anyone with dark skin. In Ilocano, the word also means "goblin" or "forest spirit." An Aeta group may resent a name designated by non-Aeta groups or neighbors, especially when they consider the given names deprecating. Because the majority of Filipinos look down on their dark color, some groups resent being called "Ita." On the other hand, the term "baluga" is acceptable to some Aeta groups since it means "hybrid," akin to the positive connotation of "mestizo" for lowlanders. But relativity, it seems, is the rule of thumb. The word "Baluga", for instance, is also considered insulting by other Aeta groups since it means "brackish, half-salt and half-fresh."

CULTURE
Language All Aeta communities have adopted the language of their Austronesian Filipino neighbors, which have sometimes diverged over time to become different languages. These include, in order of number of speakers, Mag-indi, Mag-antsi, Abellen, Ambala, and Mariveleo. Religion There are different views on the dominant character of the Aeta religion. Those who believe they are monotheistic argue that various Aeta tribes believe in a supreme being who rules over lesser spirits or deities, with the Aeta of Mt. Pinatubo worshipping "Apo Na". The Aetas are also animists. For example, the Pinatubo Aeta believe in environmental spirits such as anito and kamana. They believe that good and evil spirits inhabit the environment, such as the spirits of the river, sea, sky, mountain, hill, valley and other places. No special occasion is needed for the Aeta to pray, although there is a clear link between prayer and economic activities. The Aetas dance before and after a pig hunt. The night before Aeta women gather shellfish, they perform a dance which is partly an apology to the fish and partly a charm to ensure the catch. Similarly, the men hold a bee dance before and after the expeditions for honey. In the mid-60s missionaries of the American-based Evangelical Protestant mission group New Tribes Mission, in their effort to reach every Philippine tribal group with the Christian Gospel reached out to the Agtas/Aetas. The mission agency provided education including pastoral training for natives to reach members of their own tribe. Today, a large percentage of Agtas/Aetas of Zambales and Pampanga are Evangelicals. Jehovah's Witnesses also have members of the Aeta people Clothing Their traditional clothing is very plain. The young women wear wrap around skirts. Elder women wear bark cloth, while elder men wear loin cloths. The old women of the Agta wear a bark cloth strip which passes between the legs, and is attached to a string around the waist. Today most Aeta who have been in contact with lowlanders have adopted the T-shirts, pants and rubber sandals commonly used by the latter. Art A traditional form of visual art is body scarification. The Aetas intentionally wound the skin on their back, arms, breast, legs, hands, calves and abdomen, and then they irritate the wounds with fire, lime and other means to form scars. Other "decorative disfigurements" include the chipping of the teeth. With the use of a file, the Dumagat modify their teeth during late puberty. The teeth are dyed black a few years afterwards. The Aetas generally use ornaments typical of people living in subsistence economies. Flowers and leaves are used as earplugs for certain occasions. Girdles, necklaces, and neckbands of braided rattan incorporated with wild pig bristles are frequently worn.

Music The Aeta have a musical heritage consisting of various types of agung ensembles ensembles composed of large hanging, suspended or held, bossed/knobbed gongs which act as drone without any accompanying melodic instrument.
Religious Beliefs and Practices

There are divergent views on the dominant character of the Aeta religion. Those who believe they are monotheistic argue that various Aeta tribes believe in a supreme being who rule over lesser spirits or deities. The Mamanua believe in the supreme Magbabaya while the Pinatubo Aeta worship Apo Namalyari. According to anthropologist E. Arsenio Manuel, the Agta believe in a supreme being named Gutugutumakkan. Manuel notes other lesser deities of the Agta; Kedes, the god of hunting; Pawi, the god of the forest; and Sedsed, the god of the sea. There are four manifestations of the "great creator" who rules the world: Tigbalog is the source of life and action; Lueve takes care of production and growth; Amas moves people to pity, love, unity, and peace of heart; while Binangewan is responsible for change, sickness, and death. These spirits inhabit the balete tree (Noval-Morales and Monan 1979:77-78) The Aeta are also animists. For example, the Pinatubo Aeta believe in environmental spirits such as anito and kamana. They believe that good and evil spirits inhabit the environment, such as the spirits of the river, the sea, the sky, the mountain, the hill, the valley, and other places. The Ati of Negros island call their environmental spirits taglugar or tagapuyo, which literally means "from/inhabiting a place." They also believe in spirits of disease and comfort (Noval-Morales and Monan 1979:79-80). No special occasion is needed for the Aeta to pray, although there is a clear link between prayer and economic activities. The Aeta dance before and after a pig hunt. The night before Aeta women gather shellfish, they perform a dance which is half an apology to the fish and half a charm to ensure the catch. Similarly, the men hold a bee dance before and after the expeditions for honey.
Visual Arts and Crafts

The most common form of Aeta visual art is the etching found in their daily tools and implements. This is done on the outer surfaces of various household containers/utensils and ornaments. Bamboo combs are decorated with incised angular patterns. Geometric designs are etched on arrow shafts (Noval-Morales and Monan 1979:115). They are also skillful in weaving and plaiting. For example, the Mamanua, like other Aeta groups, produce excellent nego or winnowing baskets, duyan or rattan hammocks, and other household containers (Noval-Morales and Monan 1979:29-31).

Women exclusively weave winnows and mats. Only men make armlets. They also produce raincoats made of palm leaves whose bases surround the neck of the wearer, and whose topmost part spreads like a fan all around the body, except in front, at the height of the waistline (Noval-Morales and Monan 1979:31). The traditional clothing of the Negrito is very simple. Cloth wraparound skirts are worn by the women when young. Elder women wear bark cloth, and the elder men loincloths. The old women of the Agta wear a bark cloth strip which passes between the legs, and is attached to a string around the waist. Today most Aeta who have been in contact with lowlanders have adopted the T-shirts, pants and rubber sandals commonly used by the latter. A traditional form of visual art is body scarification. The Aeta cause wounds on the skin of the back, arms, breast, legs, hands, calves and abdomen, and then irritate the wounds with fire, lime and other means to form scars, which are arranged symmetrically. The Aeta generally use ornaments typical of peoples living in subsistence economies. Flowers and leaves are used as earplugs, usually for certain occasions and discarded when the need lapses. Girdles, necklaces, and neckbands of braided rattan are worn frequently, often incorporated with wild pig bristles. Aeta ornamentation is best exemplified by the comb, which is made from a section of bamboo. At one end, the teeth of the comb are meticulously carved. The outer convex surface is profusely etched with varied geometric designs or decorated with curvilinear incisions. The end opposite the teeth has attachments like plumes of long tail feathers of mountain cocks and other birds, or other attachments like fibers and strings (Peralta 1977:536-538).
Performing Arts

Some of the musical instruments found (Kroeber 1919) among the Aeta are the flute, jew's harp made of a silver of slit bamboo, a traded bronze gong, and the bamboo violin (Noval-Morales and Monan 1979:109). Instruments were documented in 1931 by Norberto Romualdez (1973) among the Aeta groups. The kullibaw of the Aeta is a jew's harp made of bamboo. The bansik of the Aeta of Zambales is a four-hole flute made of mountain cane. The kabungbung of the Aeta of Bataan is a guitar made of one closed node of bamboo, from which two cords are slit loose from the outer skin of the bamboo and given tension by brides. A hole is cut into the bamboo under the two cords for resonance. The gurimbaw of the Aeta of Tayabas has a bow called gaka made from fibers of the lukmong vine, and a coconut resonator called kuhitan. The aydluing of the Mamanua is a long guitar with several strings, similar to the kudyapi of other Mindanao groups.

THE TAGBANUA:
COUNTRYSIDE PEOPLE IN EL NIDO PALAWAN

The Tagbanua tribe,one of the oldest tribes in the Philippines, are found in central and northernPalawan. Research has shown that the Tagbanua are possible descendants of the Tabon Man; thus, making them one of the original inhabitants of the Philippines.

The Tagbanua 42 letter Alphabet

The term "Tagbanua" - also spelled "Tagbanwa" and "Tagbanuwa" - may have been derived from "taga" meaning "people from" and "banua" meaning "countryside," and therefore means "people from the inland area". The Tagbanua are the most widely distributed group on Palawan Island, Philippines. They occupy areas in the northern, central, and southern parts of the island, particularly the eastern and the western coastal area, the near-coastal plains and the valleys of central Palawan. To the north of the main Tagbanua communities live the small and dwindling Palawan group known as Ken-uy, and the southern highlands dwellers known as the Palawan. On Culion Island, at the northern end of Palawan, also live some Tagbanua groups. In 1988, the Tagbanua numberd about 10,000.
Visual Arts and Craft

The traditional costumes of the Tagbanua were fashioned from the bark of trees, particularly the salugin. The preparation of this bark was unique. After being felled, the tree would be cut around the trunk, the outer bark stripped off to expose the inner layer. A mallet would beat the layer, until it is soft to hang loose from the bole. This is washed and dried under the sun. In the past, menfolk wore simple loincloths, supported by a woven rattan waistband called ambalad, while women wore only brief wraparound skirts made from bark. The Tagbanua later adopt some articles of Muslim clothing. At present, while many Tagbanua still wear their traditional apparel, western-type clothing has found its way among the people. In the past, when both men and women wore their hair long, they filled and blackened their teeth, and carved earplugs from the hardwood bantilinaw. The Tagbanua also carved wooden combs and bracelets. They strung bead necklaces to be used in covering women's necks. Anklets of copper and brass wire were also crafted and worn by women. Baskets and woodcarvings are the more notable products of Tagbanua artistic crafts today. They excel in the number of designs which they apply to their tingkop (harvest basket) made of hard strip bamboo. These baskets are made if blackened and natural bamboo, which makes the designs, stand out. The cone-shaped type of basket is another fine example of Tagbanua skilled artistry. Using black and natural color designs outside, the center of the cone has the bamboo strip skived slightly smaller, creating even holes for the screen. The funnel effect is accomplished through a close weaving of the bamboo strips towards the top. The soft rice baskets, called bayong-bayong, are made with different unusual shapes. These have square bases and round tops. To produce interesting block and V-shapes, the plain buri sides superimposed with colored buri. Color is woven into the Tagbanua basket with the used of dyed palm leaves. Blackened woodcarvings of animals, with simple etched or incised features exposing the original whit grain of the wood, are the most well known examples of Tagbanua woodcarvings or sculpture. Some of the objects carved are mammanuk (rooster), a ritual bowl, kiruman (turtle), kararaga (a native bird), dugyan (a small ground animal), lizards, and wild pigs. Carved animals are used with rice, betel nut, and other offerings to attract the deities and spirit relatives in the pagdiwata rituals. The turtles, for instance, floats on grains of palay in an ancient Ming trade bowl. Others that are not used in rituals become toys for children.

Performing Arts

Complementing the rich Tagbanua rituals and social gatherings in the past was an assortment of musical instruments. These included the aruding or jew's harp; the babarak or nose flute; the tipanu or mouth flute; the pagang and tibuldu, two variations of the bamboo zithers; the kudlung or boat lute; the gimbal or drum, whose top was made from the skin of the bayawak or monitor lizard; and the tiring, composed of lengths of bamboo with openings of various sizes producing different notes when struck with a stick. In addition, there were two generic types of gongs obtained from the shallow babandil. The mouth flute is still in use, and the gongs and drums are still played during rituals. Modern acoustic type guitar and the ukulele, which is fashioned from a half coconut shell, supplant the other instruments. The known dances associated with the rituals are the following: abellano, also called soriano, a traditional dance performed by males; bugas-bugasan, a dance for all participants of a pagdiwata, after they have drunk the ceremonial tabad (rice wine); kalindapan, solo dance by the female babaylan and her attendants; runsay, ritual dances performed by the villagers on the seashore, where bamboo rafts laden with food offering are floated for the gods; sarungkay, a healing dance by the main babaylan as she balances a sword on her head and waves ugsang or palm leaf strip; tugatak and tarindak, dances perform by the villagers who attend an inim or pagdiwata; tamigan, performed by male combatants using round winnowers or bilao to represent shields. The dancing accompanying the runsay, performed about midnight and lasting until daybreak, is possibly the most moving of all Tagbanua dances, since it is a part of a sacred ritual that takes place only once a year, and is performed on the beach from where the ritual raft has been launched towards the sea world. Guests who attend the albarka ritual watch dances such as the busak-busak, the spider dance; batak ribid, a dance simulating the gathering of camote; bungalon, a showing off dance; bugsaybugsay, a paddle dance using fans; segutset, a courtship dance; and tarek, a traditional dance. The andardi is a festival dance of the Tagbanua in and around Aborlan, perform at social gatherings. When dancing during a festival, the performers are dressed in their costumes, and hold in each hand a dried palm leaf called palaspas. The music of the andardi is composed of one part of twelve measures, played or sung continuously throughout the dance. Drum or gongs accompanies the music and the song. Drama in Tagbanua society is expressed in the mimetic dances imitating animals, such as busakbusak, and those showing occupations, such as batak ribid and bugsay-bugsay. But the most important mimetic forms are the rituals where the priestess is possessed by and plays the role of the deity to whom the offerings are being made. The most important of Tagbanua rituals is the diwata, also called pagdiwata or inim, which is essentially an open invitation to the deities to partake of a lavish feast of ceremonial tabad, cooked rice, rice cakes, jewelry, music and other offerings. The ritual is undertaken for any of various purposes: healing of the sick, supplication for a bountiful harvest or a successful hunt, thanksgiving for rice harvest, and the general well being of the village. The ritual is held in honor of Mangindusa and the other deities. The jars of fermented rice wine play a most important role in these rituals, because they the means by which the deities are attracted to participate in the feast, rice wine being the only thing absent in the spirit world. The bond formed through the rice wine is at once social and cosmological, since the beverage binds the individual to the group, and mortals to the gods and the spirit of the dead

and the deities. At the center of the diwata rituals is the babaylan, who has the responsibility of selecting the areas for a new clearing, placating the spirits of the surroundings, providing magical charms for hunters and fishers, and curing all kinds of ailments. While any adult can invoke the spirits of the dead in other Tagbanua rituals, only the babaylan can summon them in the pagdiwata. The bilang ceremony is the all-important ritual for the dead. It takes place after the rice harvest, a time when tabad becomes plentiful. Every family is expected to host one or more bilang rituals. The bilang rituals begin with the rite of divination, to determine which among the spirit relatives has caused a person's illness. This makes use of the babaylan who performs the brief rite of panawag near the grave of the dead relative by making offerings of the betel quids and ceremonial cigarettes, and promises tabad should the ill become well. The celebrants together with the offerings prepare a jar of tabad with sipping reeds. The bilang ceremony involves the paurut (invocation) of as many spirit relatives as possible through incantation, and the burning of the parina (incense) whose pleasant smells attract the deities and spirits of the dead. The gongs are played as the paurut is being performed, and their music is an added incentive for the spirit to descend on the gathering. After the ritual offering of the articles have been laid out on the mat, the food is distributed to the children first, and then to the guests; then the bilang mat is removed. The communal drinking of tabad through the reed straws follows, a very festive social event that lasts through the night.
Religious Beliefs and Practices

The Tagbanua's relationship with the spirit world is the basis for their rituals, celebration, and dances. The many ceremonial feasts punctuating Tagbanua life are based on a firm belief in a natural interaction between the world of the living the world of the dead. These ceremonies and rituals takes place on all levels, ranging from rituals perform within the family, to those which are led by the community's leader on behalf of the people. Such celebrations call for special structures to be built, such as ceremonial platforms and rafts. Rituals offering include rice, chicken and betel nut. The focal point of Tagbanua life is the period immediately following the harvest, when there is much singing, dancing, courting, and conclusion of blood compacts. The Tagbanua recognize the existence of a supreme being called Mangindusa who sits up in the sky and lets his feet dangle below, above the earth. Other spirits inhabit the forests and environment, and belief in their existence necessitates rituals to placate them or gain their favors. The babaylan performs rituals of life, from birth to death. It is believed that there is a deity who accompanies the soul of the dead to its final destination. Hunters invoke the assistance of the spirits of the dead relatives in asking the owners of the wild pigs to allow their hunting dogs to locate the prey. A mutya (charm) is commonly used to help its possesor succeed in the hunt. The Tagbanua cosmology includes the sky called langit, " an infinitely high canopy" which encompasses the visible celestial region. A being called Tungkuyanin sits on the edge of this celestial region, his feet dangling in the vastness of the cosmos, his eyes always cast down toward the earth. Rain is a gift of Mangindusa, the highest-ranking deity. The sky is held up in place by immense tree trunks. One maybe found in Babatan, the east; the other is in Sidpan the west. In Babatan lives a deity known as diwata kat libatan, while in Sidpan is the deity known as diwata kat

sidpan. Both of them control the rain. A being called Tumangkuyun is tasked with washing the trunks of the trees with blood of Tagbanua who died in epidemics. Below the langit is the sky world, which includes the clouds. This region is called dibuwat, meaning "high". In the dibuwat live the bangkay, the spirits of the Tagbanua who died violently or were poisoned, as well as spirits of women who died while giving birth. Beneath the dibuwat reside the bulalakaw or diwata kat dibuwat, flying deites who roam the region of the clouds, ready to come to the aid of any Tagbanua needing their help. Mangindusa dwells in a sacred area called Awan-awan. It lies beyond the langut, in a region between the sky world and the earth. He lives with his wife Bugawasin, his messengers, and other celestial beings. While Mangindusa is considered the highest-ranking deity, there is no traditional ascription to him as the sole "creator" of the world, although Christian mythology has had some influence in imbuing Mangindusa with more powers than he used to possess. In fact the creation of the world and of human beings is said to have been the handiwork of the diwata. Mangindusa has always been traditionally considered as the punisher of dusa (crime). In Tagbanua society, the only recognized public dusa is sumbang (incest). In this case, Mangindusa holds the society responsible for the sumbang. Mangindusa's punishment of the society may take the form of withholding the rains. In the past, society punished the offenders by drowning them in the sea. In present society, a huge fine is imposed and in top of this a special lumbay ritual must given in honor of Mangindusa. A Tagbanua is believed to have six souls in all. A "true soul" called kiyarulwa, and five secondary souls called the payu. The kiyarulwa is a gift of Mangindusa to a child emerging from the mother's womb, while the other souls appear only during the lambay ritual for the child upon reaching one month or two. Lambay is any ceremony, which is directly addressed to Mangindusa. These other souls are found at the extremities of the hands and feet, and on top of the head. When a person dies the kiyarulwa wanders to four possible destinations. If the cause of death is epidemic sickness, then the soul will go to the kiyabusan. If a person from poisoning or violence the souls goes to inhabit the "high regions". Those who died because their souls were caught by the environmental or evil spirits - their soul will transform into biyaladbad and will inhabit the environment. If a person dies of natural death, the souls travels to basad, the underworld. The underworld of the Tagbanua has clearer outlines than the blurred and indeterminate sky world. When a Tagbanua dies, his or her soul remains on earth for seven days, until the kapupusan or rites for the dead are finished. For seven days, the soul lingers on in the grave at daytime, but returns to its former house at night to observe the behavior of those left behind. In it journey to the underworld, the soul encounters several places and characters. There is the sacred river, kalabagang, where soul meets taliyakad, the watcher who guards the vine bridge called balugu. Later it meets Anggugru, "keeper of the fire," who welcomes the soul to the underworld and gives it fire. In basad, the spirits of the dead become known as tiladmanin, and live a life, which mirrors exactly that of the living. But the structure of basad is interesting: everything is the reverse of what happens in the world of living. As the sun rises on earth, it goes down in basad or planting time on earth is harvest time in basad.

The Manobos:
River People of Cotabato

"Manobo" or "Manuvu" means "person" or "people"; it may also have been originally "Mansuba" from man (person or people) and suba (river), hence meaning "river people." A third derivation is from "Banobo," the name of a creek that presently flows to Pulangi River about 2 km below Cotabato City. A fourth is from "man" meaning "first, aboriginal" and "tuvu" meaning "grow, growth." Manobo " is the hispanized form. The Manobo Belong to the original stock of proto-Philippine or proto-Austronesian people who came from South China thousands of years ago, earlier than the Ifugao and other terrace-building peoples of the northern Luzon. Ethnolinguist Richard Elkins(1966)coined the term "Proto-Manobo" to designate this stock of aboriginal non-Negritoid people of Mindanao. The first Manobo settlers lived in northern Mindanao: Camiguin, Cagayan, and some areas of Bukidnon and Misamis Oriental. Subgroups are: Agusan-Surigao, Ata, Bagobo, Banwaon, Blit, Bukidnon, Cotabato(which include the Arumanen, Kirintekan, and Livunganen), Dibabawon, Higaonon, Ilianon, Kulamanen, Manuvu, Matigsalug, Rajah Kabungsuan, Sarangani, Tboli, Tagabawa, Tigwa, Ubo, Umayamnon, and western Bukidnon. Manobo languages representative of these groups are Agusanon, Banwaon, Binukid of Mindanao, Cagayano of Cagayancillo Island, Cotabato Manobo, Dibabawon Manobo, Eatern Davao Manobo, Ilianon Manobo, Kidapawan, Kinamigin of Camiguin Island, Livunganen, Magahat, Sarangani Manobo, Southern Cotabato and Davao Manobo, Tasaday, Tagabawa, Tigwa Manobo,, Ubo of the Mt Apo region in Davao, western Bukidnon Manobo, and western Cotabato Manobo (Elkins 1966; Olson 1967).

The Manobo have for their neighbors the Talaandig of Bukidnon, the Matigsalug of the middle Davao River area, the Attaw or Jangan of the midland area which is now within the jurisdiction of Davao City, the Tahavawa and Bilaan in the south and southeast, and the Ilianon along the Pulangi river basin . This was the site of barter dealings with the Muslim traders who travelled upriver into the hinterlands. Economy The upland Manobo practise swidden or slash-burn farming whereas those inhabiting the valleys practise wet-rice farming. Rice culture is so central to the Manobo way of life that there are more than 60 different names for rice varieties, and all agricultural rituals center around it. In the late 190s, however many Manobo groups shifted to corn culture because of the gradual disappearance of swidden sites. Besides corn grit, other supplementary foods are sweet potatoes and cassava. In times of famine, emergency foods are unripe bananas and wild yam. Other major means of subsistence are fishing, hunting, bee hunting, and trapping. Because of these occupations, the Manobo live a seminomadic life. However, some Manobo villages that have established permanent settlements have shifted to the cultivation of coconut for copra export. Political System Manobo settlements are either dispersed or relatively compact, depending on the terrain, the agricultural system practised, and the degree of acculturation. Compact villages traditionally have three or fourdatu or timuay (chieftains), but dispersed settlements have none. Some Manobo groups did not have a fromal system of chieftainship until the present century. In 1910, the Agusanon Manobo, for example, did not have a title for chief. He was simplu a bagani (warrior) a title that he shared with other members of the bagani class. The term "datu" was used by the Visayan traders for this chief but not by the Manobo. The Spaniards called him masikampo (derived from maestre de campo) and the Moro called him kuyano/kulano. The subgroup Manuvu did not develop a datuship system until the middlle of the 20th century. On the other hand, one western Bukidnon Manobo recounts the elaborate rites that used to be held to install the chosen datu or bai (famale datu). A great number of people would converge at a place called the center of the earth for ceremonies that involved several aspiring datu who represented four directions: the "Upstream direction" (Cotabato of the Maggindanao), : "eastward" (Davao of Matigsalug), and "westward" (Lanao Lake of the Maranao). The people of these four directions recognized a ruler, whom they chose by a common agreement called the lantung (literally, a wooden beam that functions as a divider at the center of the house). Social Organization and Customs The traditional social structure consists of four classes: the bagani, the baylan, commoner, and slave. The bagani class, now gone, defended the community and went to battle. The baylan, who can still be found, is a male or female priest and healer. The commoners were farmers; and the slaves, who had been seized in raids, belonged to the ruler and were usually given away as part of the bridewealth. Village members could also become enslaved if they could not pay the penalty for a crime they had committed, such as thievery, destruction of property, adultery, or verbal offense. Slaves, however could win their freedom through diligence in the fulfillment of their duties, faithfulness to their master, or payment of their debt through servitude. Slaves who were treated like members of the family although still in servitude are bilew, and it was considered an insult if

they were referred to as slaves. One who did so was committing tempela, ridiculing someone for their low status physical handicap. Intervillage relationship is based on upakat or reciprocity. Village members, usually belonging to kinship group or groups allied by marriage, expect assistance from each other in matters of subsistent labor, defense, and support in crises. A pregnant woman observes several taboon protect the infant's life and health. She stays indoors when the sky is red at sunset, for the bloodthirst busaw (ghouls) are around. She must never run or even just stubbing her toe will cause a miscarriage. After bathing, she must not come out of the water she has adjusted the position of the baby in her womb. Visual Arts and Crafts Before the Spanish colonial period, the Manobo wore bark cloth to cover their genitalia. Today they wear Western clothes: the skirt and blouse or dress for the women, trousers and sports shirt for men. The heavily embroidered traditional Manobo costume is now worn only on special occasions. Traditional fabric for clothes was abaca or hemp, weaved by the ikat process, but is now cotto cloth obatained through trade. Dyes were acquired from plants and trees: the tagum plant and the bark of the lamud treee produced lack, the turmeric root, yellow, and the keleluza plant, red. Ginuwatan are inwoven representational designs such as flowers. If cotton trade cloth is bought, big floral designs are preferred. Typical colors are red, black, yellow, green, blue and white. Manobo ancestors had blankets of abaca fiber which were linetungan if these had multicolored design, and bayas if plain white. Traditional costume most extensively described by researchers are those of the Agusanon Manobo, the Bukidnon/Higaonon, and the western Bukidnon. According the Manuel (1973), this costume was introduced only in the early part of this century or a little earlier, for the Manuvu did not know weaving. It was during the 19th century that contact with other groups acquainted the Manuvu with abaca cloth. The color of the body of the jacket with it's matching skirt or trousers identifies the tribal groups to which the wearer belongs. The Agusanon Manobo usually wear red, with contrasting colors for the sleeves and embroidery thread. The Umayamnon Manobo wear royal blue, and the Matigsalug, navy blue, with red and white as the favorite embroidery or patch work colors. The costume style varies with each tribal group. The Agusanon Umpak o Illianon Kumbala, the jacket for both men and women, is closed, so that it is pulled over the head. Among the Tigwahanon, the women wear the pakabu, a blouse with flared sleeves: the men wear the binukad, the typical Manobo jacket. It is embroidered on all the seams, i.e., the cuffs, shoulders, sides, neckline, the hemline, which is at the waist level. Typical decorative colors are red, yellow, white, and blue. Binain or decorative patterns are geometric., such as diamonds, rectangles, squares, and triangles; horizontal lines and zigzags; and representational figures such as a dancing man, stars, leaves, and crocodiles. Patchwork consists of red, white, and black cloth; embroidery colors are red, white, black, yellow, blue, and green. Based on the type of decoration used, western Bukidnon women's blouses are called linebian (zigzag) kinulingtan ( striped patchwork), tinedtezan (geometrical patchwork patterns).

For most groups, the men's jacket is short, moderately close fitting, square cut, and long sleeved. Besides being embroidered, the seams of the jacket are covered with cotton tuffs of red, yellow, and dark blue. A strip of cloth of a different color from the jacket is sewn between the sleeves and the body of the jacket. The top of the jacket's back is covered with an embroidered band, 4-6 cm wide. Most Manobo men have two kinds of sawa/sawal, trousers: one for working and the other for festive occasions. Both types reach to just below the knees. The working trousers are close fitting and plain. The Tigwahanon call this type of trousers the bandira. The festive trousers are square cut, baggy, and embroidered in the typical colors and designs on the sides and cuffs. A fringe of cotton yarn is sewn between all the seams except at the waist. The trousers are kept in place with a drawstring, to both ends of which are attached tassels in the typical colors. The men carry their betel quid in a kamuyot, a square abaca knapsack, usually decorated only by a fringe of multicolored yarn that is attached around the seam. It is worn with the arms passing under two strings attached to both sides. If elaborately decorated, it is surrounded by tassels and covered with beads and embroidery. The chief of the bagani had a special attire, which was predominantly red. The red jacket and trousers were embroidered in the same colors and designs as the ordinary man's attire. His red headkerchief was embroidered with white, blue, and yellow cotton yarn at the corners. LITERARY ARTS The Manuvu have atukon, riddles; panonggelengan, proverbs; panumanon, folktales, fables, and humorous tales; ituan, myths and legends; and Owaging, epics. Narrative poems and lyric poems are generally also ritual songs addressed to gods. The Ilianon Manobo have the following narrative prose forms: tudtul, a news item; guhud, a historical account; and teterema, folktale. PERFORMING ARTS Manobo music differs from one group to another. The variance can be observed in the gong ensembles, which may consist of 8 to 10 agong (gongs) as in the ahong of Magpet, or five small hand-held gongs as in the sagagong. The ahong has 10 small knobbed gongs hung vertically on a frame usually in a triangular formation, with the smallest gong near the apex. The gongs I the set are grouped into the kaantuhan, consisting of the higher-pitched gongs, which carry the melody; the gandingan, which are three or four lowerpitched gongs providing a melodic costinato; and the bandil, the lowest-pitched gong, which sets the tempo. The gaantuhan layer stands as he/she strikes gongs one to six in repeated melodic patterns, sometimes moving away from the gongs as he/she interjects some dance movements. The gandingan player strikes gongs seven, eight, and nine, and occasionally gong six, while the bandil player is limited to gong ten. Both gandingan and bandil players are sited either crossed-legged or on their heels. The ahong is heard during festive occasions and has in its repertoire pieces entitled "Panihuman" (conversation), "Badbad" (thanksgiving), "Tukubong" (reconciliation), and "Malandoy" (clan reunion).