Load Flow

Power ow calculations
Dirk Van Hertem Hakan Ergun Priyanko Guha Thakurta

Research group Electa Department of electrical engineering (ESAT) K.U.Leuven, Belgium
DVH, HE, PGT (KUL/ESAT/ELECTA)
September 19, 2011
1 / 33
Introduction
Outline
1
Introduction Example System representation The load ow problem Solving the problem Gauss-Seidel Newton-Raphson power ow Simplied Newton-Raphson Software State estimation
September 19, 2011
2 / 33
Introduction
Introduction: load or power ow

What are power ow calculations
Calculating the power ow (active and reactive) through all the lines in the power system Calculating the voltages (amplitudes and angles) at every node (substation) Determination of the static state of a given system Knowing only:
Grid conguration and parameters (R and X ) Power outputs of generator units Loads (active and reactive) Some voltages
Load ow and power ow are synonyms
September 19, 2011
3 / 33
Introduction
Why is load ow important?

Assessing if the power system is:
Within operational limits Safe (N-1)
Basis for other (e.g. dynamic) calculations Checking whether future situations are valid
September 19, 2011
3 / 33
Introduction
When is it used?
System planning System operations State estimation Dynamic simulations (basis, rst calculation) ...
September 19, 2011
3 / 33
Introduction

230 E . Greenwich
240
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410
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500
510
520
530
540
550
600
610
620
630
640
650 CBR
700 BERNEAU 5130
GEERTRUIDENBERG
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Tension nominale
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Nominale spanning 380 kV 220 kV 150 kV 70 kV
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70(150) 380+150
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50) 70(1
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150+70
MALFALISE
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1:500000
LANDRES
240 E . Greenwich 250 300 310 320 330 340 350 400 410 420 430 440 450 500 510 520 530 540 550
VIGY
Institut Gographique National Nationaal Geografisch Instituut
600
610
620
630
640
650
September 19, 2011
3 / 33
Introduction
Example
Example
File: case6 wh.m, from the book computational methods for electric power systems, M. Crow. Bus data
bus 1 2 3 4 5 6 type 3 2 2 1 1 1 Pd 25 15 27.5 0 15 25 Qd 10 5 11 0 9 15 Vm 1.05 1.05 1 1 1 1 Va 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vmax 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 Vmin 1.05 1.05 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95
Generator data Gen Pg Pq 1 0 0 2 50 0

3
Pmax 200 150
G 1 #1 4 #6
Branch data
#3
line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 from 1 1 2 2 4 3 5 to 4 6 3 5 6 4 6 R 0.020 0.031 0.006 0.071 0.024 0.075 0.025 X 0.185 0.259 0.025 0.320 0.204 0.067 0.150 B 0.009 0.010 0.000 0.015 0.010 0.000 0.017
#2 #5 #7 6 5 #4 2
September 19, 2011
4 / 33
Introduction
Example
Example
File: case6 wh.m, from the book computational methods for electric power systems, M. Crow. Bus data
bus 1 2 3 4 5 6 type 3 2 2 1 1 1 Pd 25 15 27.5 0 15 25 Qd 10 5 11 0 9 15 Vm 1.05 1.05 1 1 1 1 Va 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vmax 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 Vmin 1.05 1.05 0.95 0.95 0.95 0.95
Generator data Gen Pg Pq 1 0 0 2 50 0

3
Pmax 200 150
G 1 #1 4 #6
Branch data
#3
line 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 from 1 1 2 2 4 3 5 to 4 6 3 5 6 4 6 R 0.020 0.031 0.006 0.071 0.024 0.075 0.025 X 0.185 0.259 0.025 0.320 0.204 0.067 0.150 B 0.009 0.010 0.000 0.015 0.010 0.000 0.017
#2 #5 #7 6 5 #4 2
How would you solve this simple example by hand?
September 19, 2011
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System representation
Outline
1
September 19, 2011
5 / 33
Most power systems are three phase AC Normal power ow uses one phase equivalents We only focus on this one today One phase power ow only valid for balanced systems Systems are usually given in per unit values Lines can be represented by a -equivalent
September 19, 2011
6 / 33
Per-unit calculations
Normalized representation of the four basic properties: voltage, current, impedance and complex power Of these, two can be chosen independently Normally rated phase voltage and one phase rated power are taken as basis
Upu =
U Ubase
and Spu =
S Sbase
Ibase = Zbase =
Sbase Ubase Ubase Ibase
or Zbase =
2 Ubase Sbase
Logical values: for a 11.8 kV , 60 MVA machine, Ubasis = 11.8 kV and Sbasis = 60 MVA 3 3 For a 400 kV line, with 100 MVA: Ubase = 400/ 3, Sbase = 100/3 Rbase =
400 3 2
3 100
= 1600
September 19, 2011
7 / 33
Per-unit calculations
Normalized representation of the four basic properties: voltage, current, impedance and complex power Of these, two can be chosen independently Normally rated phase voltage and one phase rated power are taken as basis
Upu =
U Ubase
and Spu =
S Sbase
Ibase = Zbase =
Sbase Ubase Ubase Ibase
or Zbase =
2 Ubase Sbase
Logical values: for a 11.8 kV , 60 MVA machine, Ubasis = 11.8 kV and Sbasis = 60 MVA 3 3 For a 400 kV line, with 100 MVA: Ubase = 400/ 3, Sbase = 100/3 Rbase =
400 3 2
3 100
= 1600
Why are voltage and complex power chosen as xed values?
September 19, 2011
7 / 33
Example per-unit
Generator example of before

Ubasis =
11.8 3
kV and Sbasis =
Sbase Ubase
60 3
MVA
60 3 11.83
Basis for current: Ibase =
= 2.9357 kA
11.8 3 60 3 2
Basis for impedance: Zbase =
2 Ubase Sbase
= 2.3207
Line connecting load: 0, 5 + 1 = 0.21546 + 0.43091 pu Afterwards, calculate using per-unit instead of original values
September 19, 2011
8 / 33
Per-unit and transformers

1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000
Z1
n1 : n2
11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00
1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000
Z2
U1
U2
Voltage at both sides of the transformer is dierent dierent basis One of the major advantages of per-unit calculations because of simplication
September 19, 2011
9 / 33

1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000
Z1
1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000
Z2
n1 : n2
11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00
U1
11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00
U2
Voltage at both sides of the transformer is dierent dierent basis One of the major advantages of per-unit calculations because of simplication U2 n2 Z2 = Z2 n1 = Z2 U1 2 2
2 2
September 19, 2011
9 / 33

1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000
Zp
n1 : n2
11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00
U1
U2
Voltage at both sides of the transformer is dierent dierent basis One of the major advantages of per-unit calculations because of simplication n2 U2 Z2 = Z2 n1 = Z2 U1 2 2
2 2
Zp = Z1 + Z2
September 19, 2011
9 / 33

n1 : n2
11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 11 00 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000
Zs
U1
U2
Voltage at both sides of the transformer is dierent dierent basis One of the major advantages of per-unit calculations because of simplication n2 U2 Z2 = Z2 n1 = Z2 U1 2 2
2 2
Zp = Z1 + Z2
Z Zs = Zp U2 and Zs (pu) = Zbase s(sec) 2 1 The per-unit impedance is the same on both sides of the transformer can be replaced by one series impedance!
DVH, HE, PGT (KUL/ESAT/ELECTA) Power ow calculations September 19, 2011 9 / 33
U2
Representation of a transmission line

1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000
B 2 G 2
B 2
G 2
-equivalent
Valid for lines up to 240 km All values are normally small Other equivalents exist and are sometimes used in practice Normally, G can be neglected With overhead lines, B can be neglected as well, for cables this is not the case (see chapters on lines and cables)
September 19, 2011
10 / 33
The load ow problem
Outline
1
September 19, 2011
11 / 33
The load ow problem
A bit of algebra: incidence matrix

Directed Graph
Incidence matrix (A0 )

line # 1 -1 nodes 1 0 0
# lines (branches) # nodes
September 19, 2011
12 / 33
The load ow problem

Directed Graph

line # 1 line # 2 -1 -1 nodes 1 0 0 0 1 0
September 19, 2011
12 / 33
The load ow problem

Directed Graph

line # 1 line # 2 line # 3 -1 -1 0 nodes 1 0 0 1 -1 1 0 0 0
September 19, 2011
12 / 33
The load ow problem

Directed Graph

line line line line # # # # 1 2 3 4 -1 -1 0 0 nodes 1 0 0 1 -1 1 -1 0 0 0 0 1
September 19, 2011
12 / 33
The load ow problem

Directed Graph

line line line line line # # # # # 1 2 3 4 5 -1 -1 0 0 0 nodes 1 0 0 1 -1 1 -1 0 0 -1 0 0 0 1 1
September 19, 2011
12 / 33
The load ow problem

Directed Graph

line line line line line # # # # # 1 2 3 4 5 -1 -1 0 0 0 nodes 1 0 0 1 -1 1 -1 0 0 -1 0 0 0 1 1
# lines (branches) # nodes the columns are dependent
September 19, 2011
12 / 33
The load ow problem
Incidence matrix
Incidence matrix is written as A0
Some symbols Meaning of the incidence matrix

Describes the directed graph Produces dierences 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 U2 U1 U 1 0 1 U3 U1 U2 1 0 = U3 U2 (1) U3 U4 U1 0 1 U4 0 1 U4 U2
Ii : Current injected at node i Iij : Current from node i to node j Ui : Potential of node i Eij : Potential dierence (voltage) between nodes i and j Cij : Conductance of the line between nodes i and j
September 19, 2011
13 / 33
The load ow problem
Incidence matrix
Meaning of the incidence matrix

Describes the directed graph Produces dierences 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 U2 U1 U 1 0 1 U3 U1 U2 1 0 = U3 U2 (1) U3 U4 U1 0 1 U4 0 1 U4 U2
Some symbols
Setting U4 = 0 Resulting matrix is the incidence matrix: A
September 19, 2011
13 / 33
The load ow problem
Incidence matrix

Describes the directed graph Produces dierences 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 U2 U1 U 0 1 1 U3 U1 U2 1 1 = U3 U2 (1) U3 U1 0 0 1 0 U2
Some symbols
Setting U4 = 0 Resulting matrix is the incidence matrix: A
September 19, 2011
13 / 33
The load ow problem

1 2
Incidence matrix is A0 with one node removed (grounded, reference) Ii is a nodal current injection, Iij is a branch ow T 1 1 0 I12 1 0 I1 1 I13 I2 = 0 1 1 I23 0 1 0 I24 I3 0 0 1 I34 Ui is a nodal voltage/potential, Eij represents a potential drop over line ij The relation between the voltage dierence (e) and line ows (f): Ohms law (take Cij the conductance of i to j) Link on youtube
September 19, 2011
14 / 33
The load ow problem

1 2 3
Incidence matrix is A0 with one node removed (grounded, reference) Ii is a nodal current injection, Iij is a branch ow Ui is a nodal voltage/potential, Eij represents a potential drop over line ij E12 1 1 0 E13 1 0 1 U1 E23 = 0 1 1 U2 E24 0 1 0 U3 E34 0 0 1 The relation between the voltage dierence (e) and line ows (f): Ohms law (take Cij the conductance of i to j) Link on youtube
September 19, 2011
14 / 33
The load ow problem

1 2 3
Incidence matrix is A0 with one node removed (grounded, reference) Ii is a nodal current injection, Iij is a branch ow Ui is a nodal voltage/potential, Eij represents a potential drop over line ij The relation between the voltage dierence (e) and line ows (f): Ohms law (take Cij the conductance of i to j) I12 C12 0 0 0 0 E12 I13 0 C13 0 0 0 E13 I23 = 0 0 C23 0 0 E23 I24 0 0 0 C24 0 E24 I34 0 0 0 0 C34 E34 Link on youtube
September 19, 2011
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The load ow problem
Putting it together
AT C A U = I Ybus U = I Ybus is the bus admittance matrix Representation of the entire network by an admittance matrix, a vector of nodal voltages and a vector of nodal current injections Yij = yij (admittance between node i and j) Yii = j yij (sum of the rest of the row + yii , the impedance to the reference)
n
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The load ow problem
The power system represented
The power system consists of:

Generators: delivering P and Q Loads: consuming P and Q Lines or branches: connecting generation and load Nodes or busbars: connections points in the power system
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The load ow problem
The power system represented
The power system consists of:

Generators: delivering P and Q Loads: consuming P and Q Lines or branches: connecting generation and load
Wanted: Power ow of P and Q through these lines
Nodes or busbars: connections points in the power system

Wanted: Voltage amplitude (U) and voltage angle () at each node
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The load ow problem
Mathematical statement of the problem

Ia a Iac c Ic Ibc yac ybc Iab yab b Ib
Uc c
Ub b Neutral
Ua a
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The load ow problem
Ia a Iac c Ic Ibc yac ybc Iab yab b Ib
Voltage of node i to neutral is Ui i Admittance between i and j is yij Current from i to j is Iij The injected current at i is Ii
Ub b Neutral Ua a
Uc c
Ia = Iab + Iac Ia = (Ua Ub ) yab + (Ua Uc ) yac Ia = Ua (yab + yac ) Ub yab Uc yac
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The load ow problem

Last equation repeated: Ia = Ua (yab + yac ) Ub yab Uc yac n We take Yaa = yab + yac = yaa + i=a yai yaa = ya0 = the parallel branches to node a (in this example, yaa = 0) We take Yai = yai as with Ybus , the bus admittance matrix Which results in: Ia = Yaa Ua + Yab Ub + Yac Uc Or for the entire system: Ia Yaa Yab Yac Ua Ib = Yba Ybb Ybc Ub Ic Yca Ycb Ycc Uc or and I = Ybus U Yij = Yji in symmetrical systems (e.g. not with phase shifting transformers)
(2)
(3) (4)
The load ow problem

Resulting equations for a general system with n nodes
n
Ii =
j=1
Yij Uj
i N n
(5) (6)
Si = Ui Ii Above equations form the basis of power ow There are 4 basic quantities for each node in power ow calculations:
Voltage amplitude |U| Voltage angle between the voltage vector and the voltage reference Active power injection, withdrawal at a node Reactive power injection, withdrawal at a node
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The load ow problem

Where do shunt elements t?
Ia Yaa Ib = Yba Ic Yca
n
Yab Ybb Ycb
Yac Ua Ybc Ub Ycc Uc
(7)
Yii =
j=1 n
yij Yij + yii

j=1 j=i
(8)
(9)
yii is the term to the node that has been grounded In practice: shunt elements
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The load ow problem
Types of nodes
Three distinct types of nodes (important)
PV bus: A generating source is connected to the bus; the nodal voltage is controlled at a certain magnitude U by injecting or absorbing reactive energy. The generated power PG is set at a specied value. and QG are computed. Constant voltage operation is only possible when the generator is within its reactive energy generation limits. PQ bus: P and Q are the control variables. This is the case when there is only a load connected to the bus or the generator is outside its reactive power limits. Slack (swing) bus: one of the generator busses is chosen to be the slack bus where the nodal voltage magnitude, Uslack , and phase angle slack are specied. This bus is needed to provide a compensation for the electrical losses that are not known in advance. The bus forms a reference for the voltage angle.
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The load ow problem
Types of nodes
What is the mathematical meaning of the slack bus?

The load ow problem
Types of nodes
Ii =
n j=1
Yij Uj
i N n and i = nslack
Power ow calculations September 19, 2011 18 / 33
Solving the problem
Outline
1
September 19, 2011
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Solving the problem
The problem
Known data:
Active power injections in my system at generator nodes Voltages at generator nodes Active and reactive withdrawals (load) at PQ nodes Slack node voltage and angle Impedances (Ybus )
Unknowns:
Rest of P (slack), Q (slack and PV), voltage amplitude (PQ nodes) and voltage angle (all but slack)
Equations
I =Y U S = U I S = U Y U P Q = U Y U
n
(10) (11) (12) (13) (14)

September 19, 2011 20 / 33
Pi Qi = Ui
j=1
Yij Uj
Solving the problem
Gauss-Seidel
Gauss-Seidel
Algorithm
Ii =
n j=1
Yij Uj and Si = Ui Ii give: n 1 Si Ui = Yij Uj Yii Ui j=1

j=i
(15)
This is solved bus by bus, and solutions of previous calculations are lled in directly i n 1 Si (i+1) (i+1) (i) Ui = Yij Uj Yij Uj (16) (i) Yii U i j=1 j=i+1
j=i j=i
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Solving the problem
Gauss-Seidel
Gauss-Seidel
1
For busbar 21 , calculate I2 = Calculate

n j=1 j=2
S2 U2
Y2j Uj
Subtract solution 2 from solution 1 and divide the result by Y22 to obtain a new value for U2 For busbar 3, calculate I3 =
S3 U3
Using the new value of U2 of step 3, calculate
n j=1 j=3
Y3j Uj
Subtract solution 5 from solution 4 and divide the result by Y33 to obtain a new value for U3 Repeat for all busses Compare latest set of voltages with previous and check tolerance: U(i+1) U(i) < ? If not, go to step 1.
7 8
1 when
1 is the reference bus

Power ow calculations September 19, 2011 21 / 33
Solving the problem
Gauss-Seidel
Gauss-Seidel
Convergence and acceleration

The Gauss-Seidel method converges linearly (slow) with system size Each iteration itself requires limited processing power Often, the method is corrected with an acceleration factor (new ) (new ) (old) Ui(acc) = Ui ( 1) Ui = Ui =
(new )
(17) (18) (19)
Ui
(old)
+ Ui
(old)
(old) Ui
(new ) (Ui
(old) Ui )
1<<2 For large systems, often a value of 1.6 is chosen
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Solving the problem
Gauss-Seidel
Gauss-Seidel
Gauss-Seidel properties
A starting vector must be chosen
Often, the starting voltages are set to 10 pu called Flat start
If the voltages are calculated in block (and not replaced after one has calculated the former one), we call the method the Jacobi method.
The Jacobi method has a slower convergence
The Gauss-Seidel method is not often used anymore
September 19, 2011
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Solving the problem
Gauss-Seidel
Gauss-Seidel
Gauss-Seidel properties
A starting vector must be chosen
Often, the starting voltages are set to 10 pu called Flat start
If the voltages are calculated in block (and not replaced after one has calculated the former one), we call the method the Jacobi method.
The Jacobi method has a slower convergence
The Gauss-Seidel method is not often used anymore
September 19, 2011
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Solving the problem
Newton-Raphson power ow
Newton-Raphson method: theory
Solution of equation y = f (x)

Taylor series expansion: df dx d2 f dx 2
y = f [x(0)]+
x=x(0)
1!
[x x(0)]+
x=x(0)
2!
[x x(0)]2 +. . . (20)
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Solving the problem

Taylor series expansion: df dx d2 f dx 2
y = f [x(0)]+
x=x(0)
1!
[x x(0)]+
x=x(0)
2!
[x x(0)]2 +. . . (20)
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Solving the problem

Taylor series expansion: df dx
y = f [x(0)] + Solving this for x: x = x(0) +
x=x(0)
1!
[x x(0)]
(20)
1 df dx
x=x(0)
[y f (x(0))]
(21)
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Solving the problem
f (U, )
(U, ) (U, )0
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Solving the problem
f (U, )0 f (U, )
(U, ) (U, )0
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Solving the problem

derivative f (U, )0 f (U, )
(U, ) (U, )0
September 19, 2011
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Solving the problem

(U, )1
(U, ) (U, )0
f (U, )1
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Solving the problem

f (U, )2 (U, )1 (U, ) (U, )2 (U, )0
f (U, )1
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Solving the problem
Solution for multivariable nonlinear equations

y1 = f1 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) y2 = f2 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) . . . y3 = fn (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
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Solving the problem

y1 y2 . . . yn f1 (x1 (0), x2 (0), . . . , xn (0)) f2 (x1 (0), x2 (0), . . . , xn (0)) . . . fn (x1 (0), x2 (0), . . . , xn (0)) f1 f1 f1 x1 x2 xn x1 x1 (0) f2 f2 f2 x2 x2 (0) x1 x2 xn . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . xn xn (0) fn fn fn x1 x2 xn
= +
(22)
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Solving the problem

Summarized, we can write the following: y = f [x(0)] + J(0) [x x(0)] or solving for x: x = x(0) + J(0)1 [y f (x(0))] or in its recursive form: xi+1 = xi + J1 [y f (xi )] i (25) (24) (23)
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Solving the problem
Newton-Raphson and load ow

Remember
Ii = Si =
n j=1 Yij Ui Ii
Uj
Equivalents
Si = f (Ui ) is equivalent to y = f (x) Ui+1 = Ui + Ji [S f (Ui )] S is here the specied complex power at any busbar f (Ui ) is here the specied complex power at any busbar Si = Ji Ui+1 (27) (26)
You normally know the active and reactive power injections in each node (load and generation) You want to know the complex voltages at the nodes
Solving the problem

Si = Ui
n j=1
Yij Uj
and
i = 1, . . . , n
Newton-Raphson in rectangular coordinates

n
Pi = Ui Qi = Ui
Uj (Gij cos(i j ) + Bij sin(i j ))

j=1 n
(28)
Uj (Gij sin(i j ) Bij cos(i j ))

j=1
(29)
Newton-Raphson in polar coordinates

n
Pi = Ui
j=1
Uj Yij cos(i j ij )
n
(30)
Qi = Ui
j=1
Uj Yij sin(i j ij )
(31)
note: Yij = Gij + Bij = |Yij |ij

Solving the problem
Pi = Pi, Qi = Qi, Pi,

scheduled
scheduled scheduled
Pi, Qi,
calc calc
PQ and PV PQ
(32) (33)
and Qi,
scheduled
are known from the input data
Pi, calc and Qi, calc are obtained from the calculation in rectangular or polar coordinates
September 19, 2011
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Solving the problem

Putting it in one equation
Writing the power ow equations (both rectangular and polar) in the form of equation (25): (i) P P U (i) (i) U P = (34) U Q Q Q U U U
J((U,)(i1) )
Or written in a simplied form: (i) P H = Q M
N L
(i)
U U
(i)
(35)
J((U,)(i1) )
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Solving the problem

Equation explained
i = i
(i+1)
(i) (i)
Ui = Ui
(i+1)
Ui
Voltages and angles (i + 1) are updated after each iteration and used for the following step J is the Jacobian, and forms the derivative (tangent, gradient) of the power ow equations P Q U and U simplify the equations and results in fewer U U computations There are n 1 equations for P There are n #pv 1 equations for Q The Jacobian is a square matrix (2 n #pv 2) (2 n #pv 2) The Jacobian is a sparse matrix (Special techniques can be used when numerical calculations are performed)
Solving the problem

Equation explained
i = i
(i+1)
(i) (i)
Ui = Ui
(i+1)
Ui
Voltages and angles (i + 1) are updated after each iteration and used for the following step J is the Jacobian, and forms the derivative (tangent, gradient) of the power ow equations P Q U and U simplify the equations and results in fewer U U computations There are n 1 equations for P Why? There are n #pv 1 equations for Q Why? The Jacobian is a square matrix (2 n #pv 2) (2 n #pv 2) The Jacobian is a sparse matrix (Special techniques can be used when numerical calculations are performed)
Solving the problem
Full equations (polar form): o-diagonal

Pi = Hij j Pi Uj = Nij Uj Qi = Mij j Qi Uj = Lij Uj = Uj Ui Yij sin(i j ij ) = Uj Ui Yij cos(i j ij ) = Uj Ui Yij cos(i j ij ) = Uj Ui Yij sin(i j ij )
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Solving the problem

Full equations (polar form): diagonal n
Pi = Hii = Ui i Uj Yij sin(i j ij ) + Ui2 Yii sin(ij )
j=1 n
Pi Ui = Nii = Ui Ui
Uj Yij cos(i j ij ) Ui2 Yii cos(ij )

j=1 n
Qi = Mii = Ui i Qi Ui = Lii = Ui Ui
Uj Yij cos(i j ij ) + Ui2 Yii cos(ij )

j=1 n
Uj Yij sin(i j ij ) + Ui2 Yii sin(ij )

j=1
Notice the symmetry Notice that the o-diagonal elements are also in the diagonal elements M = N for o-diagonal elements
Solving the problem
Figure: Sparsity of the Jacobian matrix shown

Solving the problem

Numerical aspects
Iterative process until mismatch is below threshold (max(P(i) ; Q(i) ) = < limit ) Quadratic convergence Major computational eort is calculating the inverse of the Jacobian The Jacobian is sparse, so special techniques can be used (less storage) Ordering schemes can increase speed Convergence is not guaranteed A good starting point is needed
Flat start? Previous outcome DC load ow as starting point
Simplications exist
Solving the problem

(U, ) (U, )0
September 19, 2011
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Solving the problem

(U, ) (U, )0
September 19, 2011
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Solving the problem
Simplied Newton-Raphson
Decoupled load ow
In a power system with mostly inductive lines, the power ow equations can be decoupled. (ij 90 )
Active power is related to the angle between nodes Reactive power is related to the voltage
P Q
(i)
H M
N L
(i)
U U
(i)
(36)
J((U,)(i1) )
Advantages and disadvantages

+ Two small inverses instead of one big + Faster as only 2 n3 calculations are needed, and not (2 n)3 = 8 n3 - The two subsystems may converge dierently - Convergence rate is slightly reduced - Not often used nowadays
Solving the problem
Decoupled load ow
In a power system with mostly inductive lines, the power ow equations can be decoupled. (ij 90 )
Active power is related to the angle between nodes Reactive power is related to the voltage
P Q
(i)
H 0 0 L
(i)
U U
(i)
(37)
J((U,)(i1) )
Advantages and disadvantages

+ Two small inverses instead of one big + Faster as only 2 n3 calculations are needed, and not (2 n)3 = 8 n3 - The two subsystems may converge dierently - Convergence rate is slightly reduced - Not often used nowadays
Solving the problem
Decoupled load ow
(U, ) (U, )0 Approximation
September 19, 2011
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Solving the problem
Fast decoupled load ow

In decoupled load ow, a new reduced Jacobian is determined during each iteration Of each new Jacobian, the inverse needs to be calculated Fast decoupled does not calculate a new Jacobian for each iteration P(i) = [B ] (i+1) Q U
(i)
(38) (39)
= [B ] Ui+1
B and B are real, sparse and constant matrices Only series elements are involved (no shunts) If the system has high R/X -ratio, large voltage angle deviations or voltages which seriously dier from 1 pu, convergence problems can arise Slower convergence (more iterations) but each iteration is much faster
Solving the problem
Fast decoupled load ow

(U, ) (U, )0 Approximation
September 19, 2011
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Solving the problem
DC load ow
If we consider the system to be lossless (Y = B) And voltages to be around 1.0 pu (U = 0) Voltage angles between busses are small (sin(i j ) (i j ) and cos(i j ) 1) One equation of Newton-Raphson:
n
P = Ui
j=1
Uj (Gij cos(i j ) + Bij sin(i j )) [P] = [B ] []
(40) (41)
B is real Linear system One calculation, no iterations Easy for optimizations Not correct (approximation)
Software
Outline
1
September 19, 2011
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Software
Power ow software
Demos + try at home
Free available (open source)
Matpower (matlab based): http://www.pserc.cornell.edu/matpower/ PSAT (matlab based): http://www.power.uwaterloo.ca/~fmilano/psat.htm InterPSS (Java based): http://www.interpss.org/
Professional software
PSS/E Eurostag DigSilent Powerworld (demo at http://www.powerworld.com/downloads.asp)
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State estimation
Outline
1
September 19, 2011
29 / 33
State estimation
State estimation
Known and unknown variables in the real power system
Lines, cables, transformers, location of generation and load all known and constant in time Voltages, currents, actual generation and load (at that moment), position of power switches, tap-changer settings,. . . mostly unknown or variable Measurements:
P, Q: Generation and load, some lines Voltage: |U| every substation. only with PMU (phasor measurement unit) Tap-changer settings Incomplete Measurement errors
September 19, 2011
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State estimation
State estimation
State estimation: what?

Monitoring or supplementing data for load ow Many measurements in the system Determining measurement errors, estimate and (statistically) analyze If needed, certain measurements should be rejected Least Squares approach Another Youtube video: least squares Has to be solved iteratively for power systems
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State estimation
State estimation
Weighted least-square method
(measurements z, with errors e, h(x) is the true model of the state x) z1 h1 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) e1 z h (x , x , . . . , xn ) e2 z= 2 = 2 1 2 z3 h3 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) + e3 = h(x) + e (42) z4 h4 (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) e4 With errors having a zero average, and each independent we get a covariance matrix R: 2 1 0 0 2 0 2 0 R= . (43) . . .. . . . . . . . 2 0 0 n R is the inverse of what we could call the weighting matrix R = inv (W)
September 19, 2011
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State estimation
State estimation
Solving the state estimation
The expected values are: 1 x1 x2 T = x = H W H HT W z = G1 HT W z ... G xn (44) = G1 HT W (H x + e) x =G x
1
(45) H We
T
(H W H) x + G
G
(46) (47)
= H z x
September 19, 2011
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State estimation
State estimation: simple example
Figure: Example network
September 19, 2011
31 / 33
State estimation

We want to know x1 and x2 , which are voltages U1 and U2 Two amp`remeters measuring z1 = 9.01 A and z2 = 3.02 A e
U1 = 16.0233 V and U2 = 8.0367 V
Two voltmeters measuring z3 = 6.98 V and z4 = 5.01 V

U1 = 15.93 V and U2 = 8.05 V
The system equations can be written as: z1 z2 z3 z4

measurements
= = = =
x1 1 x1 8 3 8 x1 1 8 x1
5 8
+ + +
1 8 5 8 1 8 3 8
x2 x2 x2 x2
+ + + +
e1 e2 e3 e4
errors
(48)
true values from model
September 19, 2011
31 / 33
State estimation

We want to know x1 and x2 , which are voltages U1 and U2 Two amp`remeters measuring z1 = 9.01 A and z2 = 3.02 A e
U1 = 16.0233 V and U2 = 8.0367 V U1 = 15.93 V and U2 = 8.05 V Conict Conict
1 8 5 8 1 8 3 8
Two voltmeters measuring z3 = 6.98 V and z4 = 5.01 V The system equations can be written as: z1 z2 z3 z4
measurements
= = = =
x1 1 x1 8 3 8 x1 1 8 x1
5 8
+ + +
x2 x2 x2 x2
+ + + +
e1 e2 e3 e4
errors
(48)
true values from model
September 19, 2011
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State estimation
Calculating the expected values x

We take the following weighting matrix (1/sigma): W = diag([100, 100, 50, 50]) The most probable values for U1 and U2 are 16.00719 and 8.02614 resp. 0.00877 0.00456 The expected error will be: = e 0.02596 0.00070
September 19, 2011
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State estimation

Measurement 4 changes
z4 = 4.4 instead of z4 = 5.01 The best estimate for the voltages: U1 = 15.86807 and U2 = 7.75860 0.06228 0.15438 In that case, the expected error will be: = e 0.05964 0.49298
When the expected error is too high, measurements can/should be disregarded Statistical test are needed to determine when errors are high
September 19, 2011
31 / 33
State estimation

Measurement 4 changes
z4 = 4.4 instead of z4 = 5.01 The best estimate for the voltages: U1 = 15.86807 and U2 = 7.75860 0.06228 0.15438 In that case, the expected error will be: = e 0.05964 0.49298
When the expected error is too high, measurements can/should be disregarded Statistical test are needed to determine when errors are high The weight matrix also has a serious inuence on the results
September 19, 2011
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State estimation
State estimation for power ow calculations
State estimator calculates voltage magnitudes and relative phase angles of the system buses Redundancy in input data With errors on all measurement data Non-DC circuit non-linear equations: h = h(x) Iterative solutions (as in the Newton-Raphson method) are needed The principle is the same
September 19, 2011
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State estimation
References
Power System Analysis; Grainger, John J. and Stevenson, William D., Jr. Computational Mehods for Electric Power Systems; Crow, Mariesa Power System Load Flow Analysis; Powell, Lynn
September 19, 2011
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Load Flow

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Power ow calculations

Dirk Van Hertem Hakan Ergun Priyanko Guha Thakurta

DVH, HE, PGT (KUL/ESAT/ELECTA)

September 19, 2011

DVH, HE, PGT (KUL/ESAT/ELECTA)

September 19, 2011

Introduction: load or power ow

Load ow and power ow are synonyms

DVH, HE, PGT (KUL/ESAT/ELECTA)

September 19, 2011

Introduction: load or power ow

Why is load ow important?

DVH, HE, PGT (KUL/ESAT/ELECTA)

September 19, 2011

Introduction: load or power ow

DVH, HE, PGT (KUL/ESAT/ELECTA)

September 19, 2011

Introduction: load or power ow

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