Positive Behaviour Support

components of PBS

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Contents
Articles
Challenging behaviour Positive behavior support Anxiety Goal setting SMART criteria Reinforcement Dreyfus model of skill acquisition Four stages of competence 1 3 8 16 22 25 37 39

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 41 42

Article Licenses
License 43

Challenging behaviour

Challenging behaviour
Challenging behaviour is defined as "culturally abnormal behaviour(s) of such intensity, frequency or duration that the physical safety of the person or others is placed in serious jeopardy, or behaviour which is likely to seriously limit or deny access to the use of ordinary community facilities".[1] Challenging behaviour is most often exhibited by people with developmental disabilities, dementia, psychosis and by children, although such behaviours can be displayed by any person.

Types of challenging behaviour

Common types of challenging behaviour include self-injurious behaviour (such as hitting, headbutting, biting), aggressive behaviour (such as hitting others, screaming, spitting, kicking), inappropriate sexualised behaviour (such as public masturbation or groping), behaviour directed at property (such as throwing objects and stealing) and stereotyped behaviours (such as repetitive rocking or echolalia).

Causes of challenging behaviour

Challenging behaviour may be caused by a number of factors, including biological (pain, medication, the need for sensory stimulation), social (boredom, seeking social interaction, the need for an element of control, lack of knowledge of community norms, insensitivity of staff and services to the person's wishes and needs), environmental (physical aspects such as noise and lighting, or gaining access to preferred objects or activities), psychological (feeling excluded, lonely, devalued, labelled, disempowered, living up to people's negative expectations) or simply a means of communication. A lot of the time, challenging behaviour is learned and brings rewards and it is very often possible to teach people new behaviours to achieve the same aims. Behaviour analysts have focused on a developmental model of challenging behaviour.[2] Experience and research suggests that what professionals call "challenging behaviour" is often a reaction to the challenging environments that services or others create around people with developmental disabilities, and a method of communicating dissatisfaction with the failure of services or others to listen for what kind of life makes most sense to the person, especially where services or others create lifestyles and relationships that are centred on what suits them or the service and its staff rather than what suits the person. Challenging behaviour can often be viewed as a behavioural equivalent of a mental health problem. However, research evidence indicates that challenging behaviors and mental health problems are relatively independent conditions.[3] A common principle in behaviour management is looking for the message an individual is communicating through their challenging behaviour: "All behaviour has meaning". This is a core in the functional analysis process. Children communicate through their behaviour, especially those who have not acquired language and vocabulary skills to tell the adult what the problem is. In adults with developmental disabilities certain types of challenging behaviour can predict contact with police and hospital admission.[4]

Challenging behaviour

Behaviour response cycle

Challenging behaviours may be viewed as occurring in a cycle: Trigger Escalation Crisis Recovery

Analysis of this cycle provides a foundation for using a variety of strategies to minimise the triggers of challenging behaviour, teach more appropriate behaviours in response to these triggers, or provide consequences to the challenging behaviour that will encourage a more appropriate response. Behavioural strategies such as Applied Behaviour Analysis, operant conditioning and positive behaviour support use similar approaches to analysing and responding to challenging behaviours.

Notes
[1] Emerson, E. 1995. cited in Emerson, Eric (2001). "Challenging behaviour" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=uxCoJkKlCygC& pg=PA3). Challenging Behaviour: Analysis and Intervention in People with Severe Learning Disabilities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.3. ISBN978-0-521-79444-2. . [2] Roane, Henry S.; Ringdahl, Joel E.; Vollmer, Timothy R.; Whitmarsh, Ernest L.; Marcus, Bethany A. (2007). "A Preliminary Description of the Occurrence of Proto-injurious Behavior in Typically Developing Children". Journal of Early and Intensive Behavioral Intervention 3 (4): 33447. [3] McCarthy, Jane; Hemmings, Colin; Kravariti, Eugenia; Dworzynski, Katharina; Holt, Geraldine; Bouras, Nick; Tsakanikos, Elias (2010). "Challenging behavior and co-morbid psychopathology in adults with intellectual disability and autism spectrum disorders". Research in Developmental Disabilities 31 (2): 3626. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2009.10.009. PMID19954927. [4] Tsakanikos, Elias; Underwood, Lisa; Sturmey, Peter; Bouras, Nick; McCarthy, Jane (2011). "Psychometric properties of the Disability Assessment Schedule (DAS) for behavior problems: An independent investigation". Research in Developmental Disabilities 32 (2): 6538. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.12.004. PMID21208774.

External links
Center for Evidence-Based Practice: Young Children with Challenging Behavior (http://challengingbehavior. fmhi.usf.edu/) Raise the awareness and implementation of positive, evidence-based practices in managing challenging behaviours Behaviour Support Services: (http://www.behavioursupport.org.uk/) Children and Young Adults with learning disabilities Challenging Behaviour specifically related to individuals with severe learning disabilities (http://www. challengingbehaviour.org.uk) The Challenging Behaviour Foundation supporting careers and professionals Support and Training for group and individuals dealing with behavioural issues (http://www.catharsisforu.com)

Positive behavior support

Positive behavior support

Positive behavior support strives to use a system to understand what maintains an individual's challenging behavior. Students' inappropriate behaviors are difficult to change because they are functional; they serve a purpose for the child. These behaviors are supported by reinforcement in the environment. Often adults in the childs environment reinforce his undesired behaviors because the child will receive objects and/or attention because of his behavior. Functional behavior assessment clearly describes a behavior, identifies the contexts (events, times, and situation) that predict when behavior will and will not occur, and identifies consequences that maintain the behavior. It also summarizes and creates a hypothesis about the behavior, and directly observes the behavior and takes data to get a baseline. The positive behavior support process involves goal identification, information gathering, hypothesis development, support plan design, implementation and monitoring. In order for techniques to work in decreasing undesired behavior, they should include: feasibility, desirability, and effectiveness. Strategies are needed that teachers and parents are able and willing to use and that have an impact on the child's ability to participate in community and school activities. Positive behavior support is increasingly being recognized as a strategy that meets these criteria. By changing stimulus and reinforcement in the environment and teaching the child to strengthen deficit skill areas the student's behavior changes in ways that allow him/her to be included in the general education setting. The three areas of deficit skills identified in the article were communication skills, social skills, and self-management skills. Re-directive therapy as positive behavior support is especially effective in the parentchild relationship. Where other treatment plans have failed re-directive therapy allows for a positive interaction between parents and children. Positive behavior support is successful in the school setting because it is primarily a teaching method (Swartz, 1999).

PBS in schools
Schools are required to conduct functional behavioral assessment (FBA) and use positive behavior support with students who are identified as disabled and are at risk for expulsion, alternative school placement, or more than 10 days of suspension. Even though FBA is required under limited circumstances it is good professional practice to use a problem-solving approach to managing problem behaviors in the school setting (Crone & Horner 2003). The use of Positive Behavior Intervention Supports (PBIS) in schools is widespread (Sugai & Horner, 2002). The program offers a primary, secondary, and tertiary level of intervention.[1] A basic tenet of the PBIS approach includes identifying students in one of three categories based on risk for behavior problems. Once identified, students receive services in one of three categories: primary, secondary, or tertiary. To help practitioners with differences in interventions used at each of the levels the professional literature refers to a three-tiered (levels) model (Stewart, Martella, Marchand-Martella, & Benner, 2005; Sugai, Sprague, Horner & Walker, 2000; Tobin & Sugai, 2005; Walker et al., 1996). Interventions are specifically developed for each of these levels with the goal of reducing the risk for academic or social failure. These interventions may be behavioral and or academic interventions incorporating scientifically proven forms of instruction such as direct instruction.[2] The interventions become more focused and complex as one examines the strategies used at each level.[3] Primary prevention strategies focus on interventions used on a school-wide basis for all students (Sugai & Horner, 2002). This level of prevention is considered "primary" because all students are exposed in the same way, and at the same level, to the intervention. The primary prevention level is the largest by number. Approximately 8085% of students who are not at risk for behavior problems respond in a positive manner to this prevention level.[4] Primary prevention strategies include, but are not limited to, using effective teaching practices and curricula, explicitly teaching behavior that is acceptable within the school environment, focusing on ecological arrangement and systems within the school, consistent use of precorrection procedures, using active supervision of common areas, and creating reinforcement systems that are used on a school-wide basis (Lewis, Sugai, & Colvin, 1998; Martella & Nelson, 2003; Nelson, Crabtree, Marchand-Martella & Martella, 1998; Nelson, Martella, & Marchand-Martella,

Positive behavior support 2002). Secondary prevention strategies involve students (i.e., 1015% of the school population) who do not respond to the primary prevention strategies and are at risk for academic failure or behavior problems but are not in need of individual support (Nelson, et al., 2002). Interventions at the secondary level often are delivered in small groups to maximize time and effort and should be developed with the unique needs of the students within the group. Examples of these interventions include social support such as social skills training (e.g., explicit instruction in skill-deficit areas, friendship clubs, check in/check out, role playing) or academic support (i.e., use of research-validated intervention programs and tutoring). Additionally, secondary programs could include behavioral support approaches (e.g., simple Functional Behavioral Assessments [FBA], precorrection, self-management training). Even with the heightened support within secondary level interventions, some students (17%) will need the additional assistance at the tertiary level (Walker et al., 1996). Tertiary prevention programs focus on students who display persistent patterns of disciplinary problems (Nelson, Benner, Reid, Epstein, & Currin, 2002). Tertiary-level programs are also called intensive or individualized interventions and are the most comprehensive and complex.[5] The interventions within this level are strength-based in that the complexity and intensity of the intervention plans directly reflect the complexity and intensity of the behaviors.[6] Students within the tertiary level continue involvement in primary and secondary intervention programs and receive additional support as well. These supports could include use of full FBA, de-escalation training for the student, heightened use of natural supports (e.g., family members, friends of the student), and development of a Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP). Although comprehensive services are important for all students, a critical aspect of the three-tiered model is the identification of students at one of the three levels. One method of identifying students in need of interventions is to analyze office disciplinary referrals (ODR) taken at the school (Irvin et al., 2006). ODRs may be a means of both identifying students' risk level for antisocial behavior and school failure (Walker et al., 1996). Researchers have advocated analyzing this naturally occurring data source as a relatively cheap, effective, and ongoing measurement device for PBS programs (Irvin et al., 2006; Putnam, Luiselli, Handler, & Jefferson, 2003; Sprague et al., 2001; Sugai et al., 2000; Tidwell, Flannery, & Lewis-Palmer, 2003; Walker, Cheney, Stage, & Blum, 2005). ODRs have also been shown to be effective in determining where students fall within a three-leveled model (Sugai et al., 2000), developing professional development as well as helping coordinate school efforts with other community agencies (Tobin & Sugai, 1997; Tobin, Sugai, & Colvin, 2000), predicting school failure in older grades as well as delinquency (Sprague et al., 2001), indicating types of behavior resulting in referrals (Putnam et al., 2003), and determination of the effectiveness of precorrection techniques (Oswald, Safran, & Johanson, 2005). Analyzing discipline referral data can also help school personnel identify where to improve ecological arrangements within a school and to recognize how to increase active supervision in common areas (Nelson, Martella, & Galand, 1998; Nelson et al., 2002).

Functional behavior assessment

Functional behavior assessment (FBA) emerged from applied behavior analysis. It is the first step in individual and cornerstone of a Positive Behavior Support plan.[7] The assessment seeks to describe the behavior and environmental factors and setting events that predict the behavior in order to guide the development of effective support plans. Assessment lays the foundation of PBS. The assessment includes: a description of the problem behavior and its general setting of occurrence identification of events, times and situations that predict problem behavior identification of consequences that maintain behavior identification of the motivating function of behavior collection of direct observational data

Positive behavior support identification of alternative behavior that could replace the child's problem behavior (i.e., what a typical child does). Often this is measured through direct observation or standardized behavioral assessment instruments. In some cases, the problem behavior identified in the functional behavior assessment is further analyzed by conducting a behavior chain analysisin which the sequences of behavior that build up to the problem behavior become the focus. The results of the assessment help in developing the individualized behavior support plan. This outlines procedures for teaching alternatives to the behavior problems, and redesign of the environment to make the problem behavior irrelevant, inefficient, and ineffective. Another avenue of functional behavior assessment is growing in popularityit is called behavior chain analysis. In behavior chain analysis, one looks at the progressive changes of behavior as they lead to problem behavior and then attempts to disrupt this sequence. Whereas FBA is concerned mostly with setting-antecedent-behavior-consequence relations, the behavior chain analysis looks at the progression of behavior, such as first the child may fidget, then he might begin to tease others, then he might start to throw things, and then finally hit another student.

Behavioral strategies available

There are many different behavioral strategies that PBS can use to encourage individuals to change their behavior. Some of these strategies are delivered through the consultation process to teachers.[8] The strong part of functional behavior assessment is that it allows interventions to directly address the function (purpose) of a problem behavior. For example, a child who acts out for attention could receive attention for alternative behavior (contingency management) or the teacher could make an effort to increase the amount of attention throughout the day (satiation). Changes in setting events or antecedents are often preferred by PBS because contingency management often takes more effort. Another tactic especially when dealing with disruptive behavior is to use information from a behavior chain analysis to disrupt the behavioral problem early in the sequence to prevent disruption.[9] Some of the most commonly used approaches are: Modifying the environment, antecedents (such as curriculum) to behavior, or routine Providing an alternative to the undesired behavior (not the same as a reward; it should be an alternative that is readily available to the person. The thought behind this is that the person may, over time, learn to more independently seek out appropriate options rather than the undesired behavior(s).) Tactical ignoring of the behavior Distracting the child Positive reinforcement for an appropriate behavior Changing expectations and demands placed upon the child Teaching the child new skills and behaviors Modification techniques such as desensitization and graded extinction Changing how people around the child react Time-out (child) Medication.

Positive behavior support

Behavior management program

The main keys to developing a behavior management program include: Identifying the specific behaviors to address Establishing the goal for change and the steps required to achieve it Procedures for recognizing and monitoring changed behavior Choosing the appropriate behavioral strategies that will be most effective.

Through the use of effective behavior management at a school-wide level, PBS programs offer an effective method to reduce school crime and violence.[10] To prevent the most severe forms of problem behaviors, normal social behavior in these programs should be actively taught.[11]

Consequential management/contingency management

Consequential management is a positive response to challenging behavior. It serves to give the person informed choice and an opportunity to learn. Consequences must be clearly related to the challenging behavior. For example, if a glass of water was thrown and the glass smashed, the consequence (restitution) would be for the person to clean up the mess and replace the glass. These sorts of consequences are consistent with normal social reinforcement contingencies. Providing choices is very important and staff can set limits by giving alternatives that are related to a behavior they are seeking. It is important that the alternative is stated in a positive way and that words are used which convey that the person has a choice. For example: Coercive approach "If you don't cut that out you'll have to leave the room." Positive approach "You can watch TV quietly or leave the room."

Implementing Positive Behavior Support on a School-Wide Level

The current trend of positive behavior support (PBS) is to use behavioral techniques to achieve cognitive goals. The use of cognitive ideas becomes more apparent when PBS is used on a school-wide setting. A measurable goal for a school may be to reduce the level of violence, but a main goal might be to create a healthy, respectful, and safe learning, and teaching, environment. [12] PBS on a school-wide level is a system that can be used to create the "perfect" school, or at the very least a better school, particularly because before implementation it is necessary to develop a vision for what the school environment should look like in the future. [13] According to Horner et al. (2004), as cited in (Miller, Nickerson, & Jimerson, 2009) implement PBS, the following characteristics require addressing: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
[12]

, once a school decides to

define 3 to 5 school-wide expectations for appropriate behavior; actively teach the school-wide behavioral expectations to all students; monitor and acknowledge students for engaging in behavioral expectations; correct problem behaviors using a consistently administered continuum of behavioral consequences gather and use information about student behavior to evaluate and guide decision making; obtain leadership of school-wide practices from an administrator committed to providing adequate support and resources; and 7. procure district-level support. If adequate support and consistency using a positive behavior support program exists, then over time a schools atmosphere will change for the better. PBS is capable of creating positive changes so pronounced that alumni would mention the differences upon a visit to the school. Such a program is able to create a positive atmosphere and culture in almost any school, but the support, resources, and consistency in using the program overtime must be present[13].

Positive behavior support

References
[1] Tobin, T.J. and Sugai, G. (2005). Preventing Problem Behaviors: Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Level Prevention Interventions for Young Children. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 2 (3), 125144 BAO (http:/ / www. baojournal. com) [2] Stewart, R.M., Martella, R.C., Marchand-Martella, N.E. and Benner, G.J (2005) Three-Tier Models of Reading and Behavior. JEIBI, 2 (3), 115124 BAO (http:/ / www. baojournal. com) [3] Tobin T.J., Lewis-Palmer, T., & Sugai G. (2001) School-Wide And Individualized Effective Behavior Support: An Explanation And An Example. The Behavior Analyst Today, 3 (1), 5175 BAO (http:/ / www. baojournal. com) [4] Mack D. Burke, PhD, Kevin Ayres, MA & Shanna Hagan-Burke, PhD. (2004): Preventing School-Based Antisocial Behaviors with School-Wide Positive Behavioral Support. JEIBI, 1 (1), 6674 BAO (http:/ / www. baojournal. com) [5] Tobin T.J., Lewis-Palmer, T., & Sugai G. (2001) School-Wide And Individualized Effective Behavior Support: An Explanation And An Example. The Behavior Analyst Today, 3 (1), 5175 BAO (http:/ / www. baojournal. com) [6] Tincani, M. (2007). Moving forward: Positive behavior support and applied behavior analysis. The Behavior Analyst Today, 8, 492499. BAO (http:/ / www. baojournal. com) [7] Stewart, R.M., Martella, R.C. Marchand-Martella, N.E. & Benner, G.J. (2005). Three-Tier Models of Reading and Behavior. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 2 (3), 115124 BAO (http:/ / www. baojournal. com) [8] Luiselli, J.K., Putnam, R.F. & Handler, M.W. (2001) Improving Discipline Practices In Public Schools: Description of a Whole-School and District-Wide Model Of Behavior Analysis Consultation. The Behavior Analyst Today, 2 (1), 1825 BAO (http:/ / www. baojournal. com) [9] Walker,H., Colvin, J. & Ramsey., E. (1996). Best practices in treating antisocial behavior in schools [10] Scott, T.M. Gagnon, J.C., and Nelson, C.M. (2008). School-Wide Systems of Positive Behavior Support: A Framework for Reducing School Crime and Violence. Journal of Behavior Analysis of Offender an Victim: Treatment and Prevention, 1 (3), 259272. BAO (http:/ / www. baojournal. com) [11] Hawken, L.S. and Johnston, S.J. (2008). Preventing Severe Problem Behavior in Young Children: The Behavior Education Program. Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Intervention, 4 (3), 599613. BAO (http:/ / www. baojournal. com) [12] Furlong, edited by Rich Gilman, E. Scott Huebner, Michael J.; Nickerson, Amanda B. and Jimerson, Shane R. (2009). Handbook of positive psychology in schools (1st ed. ed.). New York: Routledge. p.293-299. ISBN9780805863628. [13] Rhodes, Virginia; Stevens, Douglas and Hemmings, Annette (15). "Creating Positive Culture in a New Urban High School". High School Journal. Spring 2011 94 (3): 82-94.

External links
Virtuoso Education Consulting LLC (http://www.virtuosoed.com) Professional Development Training on PBS Association for Positive Behavior Support (http://www.apbs.org/main.htm) The US Dept. of Education Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavior Support (http://www.pbis.org/ main.htm) Florida's Positive Behavior Support Project (http://flpbs.fmhi.usf.edu/) The PBIS Compendium (http://pbiscompendium.ssd.k12.mo.us/) The Irish Association for Behavioural Support (http://www.iabs.ie) The Callan Institute for Positive Behaviour Support (http://www.callaninstitute.org) The Behavior Analyst Online (http://www.baojournal.com) Utah's Academic, Behavior, and Coaching Initiative (http://www.updc.org/abc/contact.htm) Learning Together Ltd Positive Behaviour Support (http://www.learning-together.info/pbs.html)

Anxiety

Anxiety
Anxiety

A marble bust of the Roman Emperor Decius from the Capitoline Museum. This portrait "conveys an impression of anxiety and weariness, as of a [1] man shouldering heavy [state] responsibilities." MeSH D001007 [2]

Anxiety (also called angst or worry) is a psychological and physiological state characterized by somatic, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components.[3] It is the displeasing feeling of fear and concern.[4] The root meaning of the word anxiety is 'to vex or trouble'; in either presence or absence of psychological stress, anxiety can create feelings of fear, worry, uneasiness, and dread.[5] However, anxiety should not be confused with fear, it is more of a dreaded feeling about something which appears intimidating and can overcome an individual.[6] Anxiety is considered to be a normal reaction to a stressor. It may help an individual to deal with a demanding situation by prompting them to cope with it. However, when anxiety becomes overwhelming, it may fall under the classification of an anxiety disorder.[7]

Signs and symptoms

Anxiety is a generalized mood that can occur without an identifiable triggering stimulus. As such, it is distinguished from fear, which is an appropriate cognitive and emotional response to a perceived threat. Additionally, fear is related to the specific behaviors of escape and avoidance, whereas anxiety is related to situations perceived as uncontrollable or unavoidable.[8] Another view defines anxiety as "a future-oriented mood state in which one is ready or prepared to attempt to cope with upcoming negative events,"[9] suggesting that it is a distinction between future and present dangers which divides anxiety and fear. In a 2011 review of the literature,[10] fear and anxiety were said to be differentiated in four domains: (1) duration of emotional
A job applicant with a worried facial expression

Anxiety experience, (2) temporal focus, (3) specificity of the threat, and (4) motivated direction. Fear is defined as short lived, present focused, geared towards a specific threat, and facilitating escape from threat; while anxiety is defined as long acting, future focused, broadly focused towards a diffuse threat, and promoting caution while approaching a potential threat. While most everyone has an experience with anxiety at some point in their lives, as it is a common reaction to real or perceived threats of all kinds, most do not develop long-term problems with anxiety. When someone does develop chronic or severe problems with anxiety, such problems are usually classified as being one or more of the specific types of Anxiety Disorders. Anxiety takes several forms: phobia, social anxiety, obsessive-compulsive, and post-traumatic stress.[11] The physical effects of anxiety may include heart palpitations, tachycardia, muscle weakness and tension, fatigue, nausea, chest pain, shortness of breath, headache, stomach aches, or tension headaches. As the body prepares to deal with a threat, blood pressure, heart rate, perspiration, blood flow to the major muscle groups are increased, while immune and digestive functions are inhibited (the fight or flight response). External signs of anxiety may include pallor, sweating, trembling, and pupillary dilation. For someone who suffers anxiety this can lead to a panic attack. Although panic attacks are not experienced by every person who has anxiety, they are a common symptom. Panic attacks usually come without warning and although the fear is generally irrational, the subjective perception of danger is very real. A person experiencing a panic attack will often feel as if he or she is about to die or lose consciousness. Between panic attacks, people with panic disorder tend to suffer from anticipated anxiety- a fear of having a panic attack may lead to the development of phobias.[12] Anxiety is the most common mental illness in America as approximately 40 million adults are affected by it.[11] The emotional effects of anxiety may include "feelings of apprehension or dread, trouble concentrating, feeling tense or jumpy, anticipating the worst, irritability, restlessness, watching (and waiting) for signs (and occurrences) of danger, and, feeling like your mind's gone blank"[13] as well as "nightmares/bad dreams, obsessions about sensations, deja vu, a trapped in your mind feeling, and feeling like everything is scary."[14] The cognitive effects of anxiety may include thoughts about suspected dangers, such as fear of dying. "You may... fear that the chest pains are a deadly heart attack or that the shooting pains in your head are the result of a tumor or aneurysm. You feel an intense fear when you think of dying, or you may think of it more often than normal, or cant get it out of your mind."[15] The behavioral effects of anxiety may include withdrawal from situations which have provoked anxiety in the past.[16] Anxiety can also be experienced in ways which include changes in sleeping patterns, nervous habits, and increased motor tension like foot tapping.[16] The symptoms of anxiety include excessive and ongoing worry and tension, an unrealistic view of problems, restlessness or a feeling of being "edgy", irritability, muscle tension, headaches,sweating, difficulty concentrating, nausea, the need to go to the bathroom frequently, tiredness, trouble falling or staying asleep, trembling, and being easily startled.[17]

Nervous habits such as biting fingernails

Anxiety

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Causes
An evolutionary psychology explanation is that increased anxiety serves the purpose of increased vigilance regarding potential threats in the environment as well as increased tendency to take proactive actions regarding such possible threats. This may cause false positive reactions but an individual suffering from anxiety may also avoid real threats. This may explain why anxious people are less likely to die due to accidents.[18] The psychologist David H. Barlow of Boston University conducted a study that showed three common characteristics of people suffering from chronic anxiety, which he characterized as "a generalized biological vulnerability," "a generalized psychological vulnerability," and "a specific psychological vulnerability."[19] While chemical issues in the brain that result in anxiety (especially resulting from genetics) are well documented, this study highlights an additional environmental factor that may result from being raised by parents suffering from chronic anxiety. Research upon adolescents who as infants had been highly apprehensive, vigilant, and fearful finds that their nucleus accumbens is more sensitive than that in other people when deciding to make an action that determined whether they received a reward.[20] This suggests a link between circuits responsible for fear and also reward in anxious people. As researchers note, "a sense of responsibility, or self agency, in a context of uncertainty (probabilistic outcomes) drives the neural system underlying appetitive motivation (i.e., nucleus accumbens) more strongly in temperamentally inhibited than noninhibited adolescents."[20] Anxiety is also linked and perpetuated by the person's own pessimistic outcome expectancy and how they cope with feedback negativity [21] Neural circuitry involving the amygdala and hippocampus is thought to underlie anxiety.[22] When people are confronted with unpleasant and potentially harmful stimuli such as foul odors or tastes, PET-scans show increased bloodflow in the amygdala.[23][24] In these studies, the participants also reported moderate anxiety. This might indicate that anxiety is a protective mechanism designed to prevent the organism from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors. Although single genes have little effect on complex traits and interact heavily both between themselves and with the external factors, research is underway to unravel possible molecular mechanisms underlying anxiety and comorbid conditions. One candidate gene with polymorphisms that influence anxiety is PLXNA2.[25] Caffeine may cause or exacerbate anxiety disorders.[26][27] A number of clinical studies have shown a positive association between caffeine and anxiogenic effects and/or panic disorder.[28][29][30] Anxiety sufferers can have high caffeine sensitivity.[31][32][33][34][35] For some people, anxiety can be very much reduced by coming off caffeine.[36] Anxiety can temporarily increase during caffeine withdrawal.[37][38][39]

Varieties
In medicine
Anxiety can be a symptom of an underlying health issue such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), heart failure, or heart arrythmia.[40] Abnormal and pathological anxiety or fear may itself be a medical condition falling under the blanket term "anxiety disorder". Such conditions came under the aegis of psychiatry at the end of the 19th century[41] and current psychiatric diagnostic criteria recognize several specific forms of the disorder. Recent surveys have found that as many as 18% of Americans may be affected by one or more of them.[42] Standardized screening tools such as Zung Self-Rating Anxiety Scale, Beck Anxiety Inventory, Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale and HAM-A (Hamilton Anxiety Scale) can be used to detect anxiety symptoms and suggest the need for a formal diagnostic assessment of anxiety disorder.[43] The HAM-A (Hamilton Anxiety Scale) measures the severity of a patient's anxiety, based on 14 parameters, including anxious mood, tension, fears, insomnia, somatic complaints and behavior at the interview.[44]

Anxiety

11

Existential anxiety
Further information: Angst,Existential crisis,andNihilism The philosopher Sren Kierkegaard, in The Concept of Anxiety, described anxiety or dread associated with the "dizziness of freedom" and suggested the possibility for positive resolution of anxiety through the self-conscious exercise of responsibility and choosing. In Art and Artist (1932), the psychologist Otto Rank wrote that the psychological trauma of birth was the pre-eminent human symbol of existential anxiety and encompasses the creative person's simultaneous fear of and desire for separation, individuation and differentiation. The theologian Paul Tillich characterized existential anxiety[45] as "the state in which a being is aware of its possible nonbeing" and he listed three categories for the nonbeing and resulting anxiety: ontic (fate and death), moral (guilt and condemnation), and spiritual (emptiness and meaninglessness). According to Tillich, the last of these three types of existential anxiety, i.e. spiritual anxiety, is predominant in modern times while the others were predominant in earlier periods. Tillich argues that this anxiety can be accepted as part of the human condition or it can be resisted but with negative consequences. In its pathological form, spiritual anxiety may tend to "drive the person toward the creation of certitude in systems of meaning which are supported by tradition and authority" even though such "undoubted certitude is not built on the rock of reality". According to Viktor Frankl, the author of Man's Search for Meaning, when a person is faced with extreme mortal dangers, the most basic of all human wishes is to find a meaning of life to combat the "trauma of nonbeing" as death is near.

Test and performance anxiety

According to Yerkes-Dodson law, an optimal level of arousal is necessary to best complete a task such as an exam, performance, or competitive event. However, when the anxiety or level of arousal exceeds that optimum, the result is a decline in performance. Test anxiety is the uneasiness, apprehension, or nervousness felt by students who had a fear of failing an exam. Students who have test anxiety may experience any of the following: the association of grades with personal worth; fear of embarrassment by a teacher; fear of alienation from parents or friends; time pressures; or feeling a loss of control. Sweating, dizziness, headaches, racing heartbeats, nausea, fidgeting, and drumming on a desk are all common. Because test anxiety hinges on fear of negative evaluation, debate exists as to whether test anxiety is itself a unique anxiety disorder or whether it is a specific type of social phobia. While the term "test anxiety" refers specifically to students, many workers share the same experience with regard to their career or profession. The fear of failing at a task and being negatively evaluated for failure can have a similarly negative effect on the adult.

Stranger and social anxiety

Humans are, naturally, a social species who generally require social acceptance. Therefore, because of the importance of being accepted among society and conforming to its rules and norms, humans dread the disapproval of others. It is this apprehension of being judged by others that is the basic cause of the anxiety one may feel in a social environment.[46] Anxiety when meeting or interacting with unknown people is a common stage of development in young people. For others, it may persist into adulthood and become social anxiety or social phobia. "Stranger anxiety" in small children is not considered a phobia. In adults, an excessive fear of other people is not a developmentally common stage; it is called social anxiety. According to Cutting,[47] social phobics do not fear the crowd but the fact that they may be judged negatively. Social anxiety varies in degree and severity. Whilst for some people it is characterized by experiencing discomfort or awkwardness during physical social contact (e.g. embracing, shaking hands, etc.), while in other cases it can lead to

Anxiety a fear of interacting with unfamiliar people altogether. There can be a tendency among those suffering from this condition to restrict their lifestyles to accommodate the anxiety, minimizing social interaction whenever possible. Social anxiety also forms a core aspect of certain personality disorders, including Avoidant Personality Disorder.

12

Generalized anxiety
Further information: Generalized anxiety disorderandCognitive behavioral therapy Overwhelming anxiety, if not treated early, can consequently become a generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), which can be identified by symptoms of exaggerated and excessive worry, chronic anxiety, and constant, irrational thoughts. The anxious thoughts and feelings felt while suffering from GAD are difficult to control and can cause serious mental anguish that interferes with normal, daily functioning.[48] The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) includes specific criteria for diagnosing generalized anxiety disorder. The DSM-IV states that a patient must experience chronic anxiety and excessive worry, almost daily, for at least 6 months due to a number of stressors (such as work or school) and experience three or more defined symptoms, including, restlessness or feeling keyed up or on edge, being easily fatigued, difficulty concentrating or mind going blank, irritability, muscle tension, sleep disturbance (difficulty falling or staying asleep, or restless unsatisfying sleep).[49] If symptoms of chronic anxiety are not addressed and treated in adolescence then the risk of developing an anxiety disorder in adulthood increases significantly.[50] Clinical worry is also associated with risk of comorbidity with other anxiety disorders and depression which is why immediate treatment is so important.[50] Generalized anxiety disorder can be treated through specialized therapies aimed at changing thinking patterns and in turn reducing anxiety-producing behaviors. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy (STPP) can be used to successfully treat GAD with positive effects lasting 12 months after treatment.[51] There are also other treatment plans that should be discussed with a knowledgeable health care practitioner, which can be used in conjunction with behavioral therapy to greatly reduce the disabling symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder.

Trait anxiety
Anxiety can be either a short term 'state' or a long term "trait." Trait anxiety reflects a stable tendency to respond with state anxiety in the anticipation of threatening situations.[52] It is closely related to the personality trait of neuroticism. Such anxiety may be conscious or unconscious.[53]

Choice or decision anxiety

Anxiety induced by the need to choose between similar options is increasingly being recognized as a problem for individuals and for organisations:[54][55] "Today were all faced with greater choice, more competition and less time to consider our options or seek out the right advice."[56] In a decision context, unpredictability or uncertainty may trigger emotional responses in anxious individuals that systematically alter decision-making.[57] There are primarily two forms of this anxiety type. The first form refers to a choice in which there are multiple potential outcomes with known or calculable probabilities. A second form refers to the uncertainty and ambiguity related to a decision context in which there are multiple possible outcomes with unknown probabilities.[57]

Anxiety

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Paradoxical anxiety
Paradoxical anxiety is anxiety arising from use of methods or techniques which are normally used to reduce anxiety. This includes relaxation or meditation techniques[58] as well as use of certain medications.[59] In some Buddhist meditation literature, this effect is described as something which arises naturally and should be turned toward and mindfully explored in order to gain insight into the nature of emotion, and more profoundly, the nature of self.[60]

Positive psychology
In Positive psychology, anxiety is described as the mental state that results from a difficult challenge for which the subject has insufficient coping skills.[61]

Treatments
There are a many ways to treat anxiety.

CBT
The most notable treatment for anxiety is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).[62] Cognitive behavioral therapy involves the changing of one's thought by the therapist. Patients are asked to explain their feelings towards certain things or incidents that cause their anxious behavior.[63]

Parental Anxiety Management

Studies show that there are parental variables involved in most cases of anxiety so Parental Anxiety Management(PAM) is also a viable treatment option.[62]

Hypnotherapy treatments
In 1990, hypnotherapy was used to help relieve patients of anxiety, which also proved useful in generalized anxiety, phobias, and posttraumatic stress disorders.[64]

Herbal treatments
There are also many traditional herbal remedies for anxiety that have been used for centuries in many parts of the world. Some of the better-known herbs for anxiety include Kava, Magnolia bark, Phellodendron bark, St. John's Wort, and Passionflower; with the exception of Kava, new research has called the effectiveness of many of these herbs into question.[65]

Caffeine elimination
For some people, anxiety can be very much reduced by coming off caffeine.[66] Anxiety can temporarily increase during caffeine withdrawal.[67][68][39]

Combined treatments
A combination of CBT and Parental Anxiety Management has been proven by psychologists and psychiatrists alike to be more effective than administering these treatments separately.[62]

References
[1] Chris Scarre, Chronicle of the Roman Emperors, Thames & Hudson, 1995. pp.168-169. [2] http:/ / www. nlm. nih. gov/ cgi/ mesh/ 2009/ MB_cgi?field=uid& term=D001007 [3] Seligman, M.E.P., Walker, E.F. & Rosenhan, D.L..Abnormal psychology, (4th ed.) New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. [4] Davison, Gerald C. (2008). Abnormal Psychology. Toronto: Veronica Visentin. p.154. ISBN978-0-470-84072-6.

Anxiety
[5] Bouras, n. and Holt, G. (2007). Psychiatric and Behavioural Disorders in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press: UK. [6] Robin Marantz Henig, "ANXIETY!" (http:/ / go. galegroup. com. myaccess. library. utoronto. ca/ ps/ i. do?id=GALE|A208933596& v=2. 1& u=utoronto_main& it=r& p=AONE& sw=w,), "The New York Times Magazine", August 20, 2012 [7] National Institute of Mental Health (http:/ / www. nimh. nih. gov/ health/ topics/ anxiety-disorders/ index. shtml) Retrieved September 3, 2008. [8] Ohman, A. (2000). Fear and anxiety: Evolutionary, cognitive, and clinical perspectives. In M. Lewis & J. M. Haviland-Jones (Eds.). Handbook of emotions. (pp.573-593). New York: The Guilford Press. [9] Barlow, David H. (November 2002). "Unraveling the mysteries of anxiety and its disorders from the perspective of emotion theory" (http:/ / psycnet. apa. org/ journals/ amp/ 55/ 11/ 1247. pdf). American Psychologist 55 (11): 124763. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.11.1247. PMID11280938. . [10] Sylvers, Patrick; Jamie Laprarie and Scott Lilienfeld (February 2011). "Differences between trait fear and trait anxiety: Implications for psychopathology". Clinical Psychology Review 31 (1): 122137. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.08.004. PMID20817337. [11] Robin Henig "ANXIETY!" (http:/ / query. library. utoronto. ca/ index. php/ search/ q?kw=Anxiety& facet[0]=addFacetValueFilters(ContentType,Journal+ Article),), The New York Times Magazine 4 Oct. 2009: 1(L) [12] Neil R.Carlson, C.Donald Heth "Psychology the Science of Behaviour". Pearson Canada Inc.,Toronto, Ontario, 2010, p.558. [13] Smith, Melinda (2008, June). Anxiety attacks and disorders: Guide to the signs, symptoms, and treatment options. Retrieved March 3, 2009, from Helpguide Web site: http:/ / www. helpguide. org/ mental/ anxiety_types_symptoms_treatment. htm [14] (1987-2008). Anxiety Symptoms, Anxiety Attack Symptoms (Panic Attack Symptoms), Symptoms of Anxiety. Retrieved March 3, 2009, from Anxiety Centre Web site: http:/ / www. anxietycentre. com/ anxiety-symptoms. shtml [15] (1987-2008). Anxiety symptoms - Fear of dying. Retrieved March 3, 2009, from Anxiety Centre Web site: http:/ / www. anxietycentre. com/ anxiety-symptoms/ fear-of-dying. shtml [16] Barker, P. (2003) Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing: The Craft of Care. Edward Arnold, London. [17] "anxiety" (http:/ / www. medicinenet. com/ anxiety/ article). . Retrieved 12 April 2012. [18] Andrews, P. W.; Thomson, J. A. (2009). "The bright side of being blue: Depression as an adaptation for analyzing complex problems". Psychological Review 116 (3): 620654. doi:10.1037/a0016242. PMC2734449. PMID19618990. [19] Barlow, David H.; Durand, Vincent (2008). Abnormal Psychology: An Integrative Approach. Cengage Learning. p.125. ISBN0-534-58156-0. [20] Bar-Haim Y, Fox NA, Benson B, Guyer AE, Williams A, Nelson EE, Perez-Edgar K, Pine DS, Ernst M. (2009). Neural correlates of reward processing in adolescents with a history of inhibited temperament. Psychol Sci. 20(8):1009-18. PMID 19594857 [21] Gu, R.,Huang, Y., Luo., Y. Anxiety and Feedback negativity.(2010).Psychophysiology, 47, 961967. [22] Rosen JB, Schulkin J (1998). "From normal fear to pathological anxiety". Psychol Rev 105 (2): 32550. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.105.2.325. PMID9577241. [23] Zald, D.H.; Pardo, JV (1997). "Emotion, olfaction, and the human amygdala: amygdala activation during aversive olfactory stimulation". Proc Nat'l Acad Sci (USA) 94 (8): 411924. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.8.4119. PMC20578. PMID9108115. [24] Zald, D.H.; Hagen, M.C.; & Pardo, J.V (1 February 2002). "Neural correlates of tasting concentrated quinine and sugar solutions" (http:/ / jn. physiology. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 87/ 2/ 1068). J. Neurophysiol 87 (2): 106875. PMID11826070. . [25] Wray NR, James MR, Mah SP, Nelson M, Andrews G, Sullivan PF, Montgomery GW, Birley AJ, Braun A, Martin NG (March 2007). "Anxiety and comorbid measures associated with PLXNA2" (http:/ / archpsyc. ama-assn. org/ cgi/ pmidlookup?view=long& pmid=17339520). Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 64 (3): 31826. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.64.3.318. PMID17339520. . [26] Scott, Trudy (2011). The Antianxiety Food Solution: How the Foods You Eat Can Help You Calm Your Anxious Mind, Improve Your Mood, and End Cravings (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WTpZzTruKMgC& pg=PA59& lpg=PA59& dq=Caffeine+ can+ cause+ anxiety& source=bl& ots=rSRMgQ6XvR& sig=Rx8MRUaVg0rYLLo0wYirzyjesHM& hl=en& sa=X& ei=7oVzUISSCear2AXTrIHgBQ& ved=0CFoQ6AEwBg#v=onepage& q=Caffeine can cause anxiety& f=false). New Harbinger Publications. p.59. ISBN1572249269. . Retrieved October 7, 2012. [27] Winston AP (2005). "Neuropsychiatric effects of caffeine". Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 11 (6): 432439. doi:10.1192/apt.11.6.432. [28] Hughes RN (June 1996). "Drugs Which Induce Anxiety: Caffeine" (http:/ / www. psychology. org. nz/ cms_show_download. php?id=766). New Zealand Journal of Psychology 25 (1): 3642. doi:10.1016/S0278-6915(02)00096-0. PMID12204388. . [29] Vilarim MM, Rocha Araujo DM, Nardi AE (August 2011). "Caffeine challenge test and panic disorder: a systematic literature review". Expert Rev Neurother 11 (8): 118595. doi:10.1586/ern.11.83. PMID21797659. [30] . doi:10.1586/ern.11.83. PMID21797659. [31] . doi:10.1016/0165-1781(85)90078-2. http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ pii/ 0165178185900782. [32] . http:/ / ajp. psychiatryonline. org/ article. aspx?Volume=145& page=632& journalID=13. [33] . http:/ / archpsyc. jamanetwork. com/ article. aspx?articleid=495937. [34] . doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2006.12.001. PMID17445520. [35] . 35. http:/ / www. nature. com/ npp/ journal/ v35/ n9/ pdf/ npp201071a. pdf. [36] . http:/ / journals. cambridge. org/ action/ displayAbstract?fromPage=online& aid=4996824. [37] Prasad, Chandan (2005). Nutritional Neuroscience (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=mUCx9kec_3sC& pg=PA351& lpg=PA351& dq=Anxiety+ increases+ caffeine+ withdrawal& source=bl& ots=IOFZOl8pFF& sig=Gn6iHuNLfRcGXQjAtbCm1sJvd4E& hl=en& sa=X&

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Anxiety
ei=pH5zUNzOGIrcrAGLpIDABg& ved=0CD4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=Anxiety increases caffeine withdrawal& f=false). CRC Press. p.351. ISBN0415315999. . Retrieved October 7, 2012. [38] Nehlig, Astrid (2004). Coffee, Tea, Chocolate, and the Brain (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=r_XsYYsmF68C& pg=PA136& lpg=PA136& dq=Anxiety+ increases+ caffeine+ withdrawal& source=bl& ots=2DILdRxQKb& sig=EjY5EGc7Svqwcfi9xocQeTEOHzU& hl=en& sa=X& ei=pH5zUNzOGIrcrAGLpIDABg& ved=0CHIQ6AEwCA#v=onepage& q=Anxiety increases caffeine withdrawal& f=false). CRC Press. p.136. ISBN0415306914. . Retrieved October 7, 2012. [39] Juliano LM, Griffiths RR (2004). "A critical review of caffeine withdrawal: empirical validation of symptoms and signs, incidence, severity, and associated features" (http:/ / neuroscience. jhu. edu/ griffiths papers/ CaffwdReview. 2004. pdf). Psychopharmacology (Berl.) 176 (1): 129. doi:10.1007/s00213-004-2000-x. PMID15448977. . [40] NPS Prescribing Practice Review 48: Anxiety disorders (http:/ / www. nps. org. au/ health_professionals/ publications/ prescribing_practice_review/ current/ prescribing_practice_review_48), National Prescribing Service (Australia) [41] Berrios GE (1999). "Anxiety Disorders: a conceptual history". J Affect Disord 56 (23): 8394. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(99)00036-1. PMID10701465. [42] Kessler RC, Chiu WT, Demler O, Merikangas KR, Walters EE (June 2005). "Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication" (http:/ / archpsyc. ama-assn. org/ cgi/ content/ full/ 62/ 6/ 617). Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62 (6): 61727. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617. PMC2847357. PMID15939839. . [43] Zung WWK. A rating instrument for anxiety disorders. Psychosomatics. 1971; 12: 371-379 PMID 5172928 [44] Psychiatric Times. Clinically Useful Psychiatric Scales: HAM-A (Hamilton Anxiety Scale) (http:/ / www. psychiatrictimes. com/ clinical-scales/ anxiety/ ). Accessed on March 6, 2009. [45] Tillich, Paul, (1952). The Courage To Be, New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08471-4 [46] Stefan G. Hofmann, Patricia M. DiBartolo, Social Anxiety (Second Edition), Academic Press, San Diego, 2010, Pages xix-xxvi, ISBN 9780123750969, 10.1016/B978-0-12-375096-9.00028-6. July 2012. (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ pii/ B9780123750969000286) (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science/ article/ pii/ B9780123750969000286) [47] Cutting, P., Hardy, S. and Thomas, B. 1997 Mental Health Nursing: Principles and Practice Mosby, London. [48] Generalized anxiety disorder: People who worry about everything--and nothing in particular--have several treatment options. (2011). Harvard Mental Health Letter, 27(12), 1-3. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. [49] Andrews, G., Hobbs, M. J., Borkovec, T. D., Beesdo, K., Craske, M. G., Heimberg, R. G., & ... Stanley, M. A. (2010). Generalized worry disorder: a review of DSM-IV generalized anxiety disorder and options for DSM-V. Depression & Anxiety (1091-4269), 27(2), 134-147. doi:10.1002/da.20658 [50] Ellis D, Hudson J. The Metacognitive Model of Generalized Anxiety Disorder in Children and Adolescents. Clinical Child & Family Psychology Review [serial online]. June 2010;13(2):151-163. Available from: Academic Search Premier, Ipswich, MA. Accessed September 29, 2011. [51] Salzer, S., Winkelbach, C., Leweke, F., Leibing, E., & Leichsenring, F. (2011). Long-Term Effects of Short-Term Psychodynamic Psychotherapy and Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy in Generalized Anxiety Disorder: 12-Month Follow-Up. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 56(8), 503-508. Retrieved from EBSCOhost. [52] Schwarzer, R. (December 1997). "Anxiety" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070920115547/ http:/ / www. macses. ucsf. edu/ Research/ Psychosocial/ notebook/ anxiety. html). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. macses. ucsf. edu/ Research/ Psychosocial/ notebook/ anxiety. html) on 2007-09-20. . Retrieved 2008-01-12. [53] Giddey, M. and Wright, H. Mental Health Nursing: From first principles to professional practice Stanley Thornes Ltd. UK. [54] Downey, Jonathan (April 27, 2008). "Premium choice anxiety" (http:/ / women. timesonline. co. uk/ tol/ life_and_style/ women/ the_way_we_live/ article3778818. ece). The Times (London). . Retrieved April 25, 2010. [55] Gates, Kathy. Reduce Anxiety About Decision Making (http:/ / www. selfgrowth. com/ articles/ Gates26. html), Selfgrowth.com [56] Is choice anxiety costing british 'blue chip' business? (http:/ / www. uk. capgemini. com/ news-centre/ news/ pr1487/ ), Capgemini, Aug 16, 2004 [57] Hartley, Catherine A.; Elizabeth A. Phelps (2012). "Anxiety and Decision-Making". Biological Psychiatry 72 (2): 113118. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.12.027. [58] Bourne, Edmund J. (2005). The anxiety & phobia workbook (4th ed.). New Harbinger Publications. p.369. ISBN1-57224-413-5. [59] Heide, Frederick J.; Borkovec, T. D. (1983). "Relaxation-Induced Anxiety: Paradoxical Anxiety Enhancement Due to Relaxation Training". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 51 (2): 17182. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.51.2.171. PMID6341426. [60] Gunaratana, Henepola. "Mindfullness in Plain English - The threefold Guidance" (http:/ / www. urbandharma. org/ udharma4/ mpe9. html). . [61] Csikszentmihalyi, M., Finding Flow, 1997 [62] Lippincott, Williams. "Anxiety." Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics 31.8 (2010): 92. Print. [63] "cognitive-Behavioral therapy" CareNotes. Truven Health Analytics Inc. (2012) [64] Smith, W. H., "Hypnosis in the Treatment of Anxiety", Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, Vol 54, 209-16 (http:/ / go. galegroup. com. myaccess. library. utoronto. ca/ ps/ i. do?id=GALE|A229529967& v=2. 1& u=utoronto_main& it=r& p=ITOF& sw=w,) [65] Saaed, Bloch, Antonacci. "Herbal and dietary supplements for treatment of anxiety disorders." American Family Physician (2007): 547-56 "Abstract:Herbal and dietary supplements for treatment of anxiety disorders." (http:/ / www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov/ pubmed/ 17853630). . Retrieved 14 August 2012. [66] . http:/ / journals. cambridge. org/ action/ displayAbstract?fromPage=online& aid=4996824.

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[67] Prasad, Chandan (2005). Nutritional Neuroscience (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=mUCx9kec_3sC& pg=PA351& lpg=PA351& dq=Anxiety+ increases+ caffeine+ withdrawal& source=bl& ots=IOFZOl8pFF& sig=Gn6iHuNLfRcGXQjAtbCm1sJvd4E& hl=en& sa=X& ei=pH5zUNzOGIrcrAGLpIDABg& ved=0CD4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=Anxiety increases caffeine withdrawal& f=false). CRC Press. p.351. ISBN0415315999. . Retrieved October 7, 2012. [68] Nehlig, Astrid (2004). Coffee, Tea, Chocolate, and the Brain (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=r_XsYYsmF68C& pg=PA136& lpg=PA136& dq=Anxiety+ increases+ caffeine+ withdrawal& source=bl& ots=2DILdRxQKb& sig=EjY5EGc7Svqwcfi9xocQeTEOHzU& hl=en& sa=X& ei=pH5zUNzOGIrcrAGLpIDABg& ved=0CHIQ6AEwCA#v=onepage& q=Anxiety increases caffeine withdrawal& f=false). CRC Press. p.136. ISBN0415306914. . Retrieved October 7, 2012.

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External links
Anxiety (http://www.dmoz.org/Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Anxiety/Support_Groups/) at the Open Directory Project Social Anxiety (http://www.dmoz.org/Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Anxiety/Social_Anxiety/) at the Open Directory Project

Goal setting
Goal setting involves establishing specific, measurable, achievable, realistic and time-targeted (S.M.A.R.T ) goals. Work on the theory of goal-setting suggests that it's an effective tool for making progress by ensuring that participants in a group with a common goal are clearly aware of what is expected from them. On a personal level, setting goals helps people work towards their own objectivesmost commonly with financial or career-based goals. Goal setting features as a major component of personal development literature: Goal setting theory was developed by Edwin A. Locke in the 1960s. His first article on goal setting theory was Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives which was published in 1968. This article laid the foundation for goal setting theory and established the positive relationship between clearly identified goals and performance. It is considered an open theory, so as new discoveries are made it is modified. Studies have shown that specific and high goals lead to a higher level of performance than easy or general goals. As long as the individual accepts the goal, has the ability to attain it, and does not have conflicting goals, there is a positive linear relationship between goal difficulty and task performance[1] Goals are a form of motivation that set the standard for self-satisfaction with performance[1] Achieving the goal one has set for oneself is a measure of success. Being able to meet job challenges is a way one measures success in the workplace. The key moderators of goal setting are feedback, which people need in order to track their progress; commitment to the goal, which is enhanced by self-efficacy and viewing the goal as important; task complexity, to the extent that task knowledge is harder to acquire on complex tasks; and situational constraints[1]. "Goals provide a sense of direction and purpose" (Goldstein, 1994, p.96). "Goal setting capitalize on the human brain's amazing powers: Our brains are problem-solving, goal-achieving machines." "Goals convert the strategic objectives into specific performance targets. Effective goals clearly state what, when, and who and are specifically measurable." [2]

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Concept
Goals that are difficult to achieve and specific tend to increase performance more than goals that are not.[3] A goal can become more specific through quantification or enumeration (should be measurable), such as by demanding "...increase productivity by 50%," or by defining certain tasks that must be completed. Setting goals affects outcomes in four ways:[4] 1. Choice: goals narrow attention and direct efforts to goal-relevant activities, and away from perceived undesirable and goal-irrelevant actions. 2. Effort: goals can lead to more effort; for example, if one typically produces 4 widgets an hour, and has the goal of producing 6, one may work more intensely towards the goal than one would otherwise. 3. Persistence: Someone becomes more prone to work through setbacks if pursuing a goal. 4. Cognition: Goals can lead individuals to develop and change their behavior.

Goal setting in business

In business, goal setting encourages participants to put in substantial effort. Also, because every member has defined expectations for their role, little room is left for inadequate effort to go unnoticed. Managers cannot constantly drive motivation, or keep track of an employees work on a continuous basis. Goals are therefore an important tool for managers, since goals have the ability to function as a self-regulatory mechanism that acquires an employee a certain amount of guidance Shalley, 1995[5] and Locke and Latham (2002)[6] have distilled four mechanisms through which goal setting can affect individual performance: 1. 2. 3. 4. Goals focus attention toward goal-relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities. Goals serve as an energizer: Higher goals induce greater effort, while low goals induce lesser effort. Goals affect persistence; constraints with regard to resources affect work pace. Goals activate cognitive knowledge and strategies that help employees cope with the situation at hand.

Goalperformance relationship
Locke et al. (1981) examined the behavioral effects of goal-setting, concluding that 90% of laboratory and field studies involving specific and challenging goals led to higher performance than did easy or no goals.[7] While some managers believe it is sufficient to urge employees to do their best, Locke and Latham have a contradicting view on this. The authors state that people who are told to do their best don't. Doing your best has no external referent, which makes it useless in eliciting specific behavior. To elicit some specific form of behavior from others, it is important that this person has a clear view of what is expected from him/her. A goal is thereby of vital importance because it facilitates an individual in focusing their efforts in a specified direction. In other words, goals canalize behavior (Cummings & Worley p.368). However when goals are established at a management level and thereafter solely laid down, employee motivation with regard to achieving these goals is rather suppressed (Locke & Latham, 2002 p.705). To increase motivation, employees not only must be allowed to participate in the goal setting process, but the goals must be challenging as well. (Cummings & Worley p.369)

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Moderators
Through an understanding of the effect of goal setting on individual performance organizations are able to use goal setting to benefit organizational performance. Locke and Latham have therefore indicated three moderators that indicate goal setting success:[8] Goal commitment People perform better when they are committed to achieving certain goals. Goal commitment is dependent on: 1. The importance of the expected outcomes of goal attainment and; 2. Self-efficacy one's belief that he is able to achieve the goals; 3. Commitment to others promises or engagements to others can strongly improve commitment Feedback Keep track of performance to allow employees to see how effective they have been in attaining the goals. Without proper feedback channels it is impossible to adapt or adjust to the required behavior. Goal setting and feedback[9] go hand in hand. Without feedback, goal setting is unlikely to work. Providing feedback on short-term objectives, helps to sustain motivation and commitment to a goal. Besides, feedback should be provided on the strategies followed to achieve the goals and the final outcomes achieved as well. Feedback on strategies to obtain goal is very important, especially for complex work, because challenging goals put focus on outcomes rather than on performance strategies, so they impair performance. Proper feedback is also very essential, and the following hints may help for providing a good feedback: Create a positive context for feedback. Use constructive and positive language. Focus on behaviours and strategies. Tailor feedback to the needs of the individual worker. Make feedback a two-way communication process.

Advances in technology can facilitate providing feedback. Systems analysts have designed computer programs that track goals for numerous members of an organization. Such computer systems may maintain every employees goals, as well as their deadlines. Separate methods may check the employees progress on a regular basis, and other systems may require perceived slackers to explain how they intend to improve. Task complexity More difficult goals require more cognitive strategies and well-developed skills. The more difficult the tasks, the smaller the group of people who possess the necessary skills and strategies. From an organizational perspective it is thereby more difficult to successfully attain more difficult goals since resources become more scarce.

Deriving Goal Setting Using Temporal Motivation Theory

Locke and Latham (2004) note that goal setting theory lacks "the issue of time perspective".[10] Taking this into consideration, Steel and Konig (2006) utilize their Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT) to account for goal setting's effects, and suggest new hypotheses regarding a couple of its moderators: goal difficulty and proximity.[11] The effectiveness of goal setting can be explained by two aspects of TMT: the principle of diminishing returns and temporal discounting.[11] Similar to the expression "the sum of the parts can be greater than the whole", a division of a project into several, immediate, subgoals appears to take advantage of these two elements.[11]

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Limitations
Goal-setting theory has limitations. In an organization, a goal of a manager may not align with the goals of the organization as a whole. In such cases, the goals of an individual may come into direct conflict with the employing organization. Without aligning goals between the organization and the individual, performance may suffer. Moreover, for complex tasks, goal-setting may actual impair performance. In these situations, an individual may become preoccupied with meeting the goals, rather than performing tasks. Some people feel that one possible drawback of goal setting is that implicit learning may be inhibited. This is because goal setting may encourage simple focus on an outcome without openness to exploration, understanding or growth.

Employee motivation
The more employees are motivated, the more they are stimulated and interested in accepting goals. These success factors are interdependent. For example the expected outcomes of goals are positively influenced when employees are involved in the goal setting process. Not only does participation increase commitment in attaining the goals that are set, participation influences self-efficacy as well. In addition to this feedback is necessary to monitor one's progress. When this is left aside, an employee might think (s)he is not making enough progress. This can reduce self-efficacy and thereby harm the performance outcomes in the long run.[12] Goal-commitment, the most influential moderator, becomes especially important when dealing with difficult or complex goals. If people lack commitment to goals, they lack motivation to reach them. To commit to a goal, one must believe in its importance or significance. Attainability: individuals must also believe that they can attain or at least partially reach a defined goal. If they think no chance exists of reaching a goal, they may not even try. Self-efficacy:[13] the higher someones self-efficacy regarding a certain task, the more likely they will set higher goals, and the more persistence they will show in achieving them.

Developments in Goal Setting Theory

Goal Choice Self-efficacy, past performance and various other social factors influence goal setting[1]. Failure to meet previous goals often leads to setting lower (and more likely achievable) goals. Learning Goals There times when having specific goals is not the best option; this is the case when the goal requires new skills or knowledge. Tunnel vision is a consequence of specific goals; if one is too focused on attaining a specific goal they ignore the need to learn new skills or acquire new information[1]. In situations like this, the best option is to set a learning goal. A learning goal is a generalized goal to achieve knowledge in a certain topic or field, but it can ultimately lead to better performance in specific goals related to the learning goals[1]. Locke and Latham attribute this response to metacognition. They believe that a learning goal facilitates or enhances metacognitionnamely, planning, monitoring, and evaluating progress toward goal attainment"[1]. This is necessary in environments with little or no guidance and structure. Although jobs typically have set goals, individual goals and achievement can benefit from metacognition. Framing How goals are viewed influences performance. When one feels threatened and or intimidated by a high goal they perform poorer than those who view the goal as a challenge[1]. The framing of a goal as a gain or a loss influences ones eventual performance[1]. Affect

Goal setting Realization of goals has an effect on feelings of success and satisfaction. Achieving goals has a positive effect, and failing to meet goals has negative consequences[1]. However, the affect of goals is not exclusive to one realm. Success in ones job can compensate for feelings of failure in ones personal life[1]. Group Goals The relationship between group goals and individual goals influences group performance; when goals are compatible there is a positive effect, but when goals are incompatible the effects can be detrimental to the groups performance[1]. There is another factor at work in groups, and that is the sharing factor; a positive correlation exists between sharing information within the group and group performance[1]. In the case of group goals, feedback needs to be related to the group, not individuals, in order for it to improve the groups performance[1]. Goals and Traits On a basic level the two types of goals are learning goals and performance goals. Each possesses different traits associated with the kind of goal that is selected[1]. 1.) Learning goals Tasks where skills and knowledge can be acquired 2.) Performance goals Avoid tasks where error and judgment are possible Select tasks that are easy to accomplish and will make one appear successful A more complex trait-mediation study is the one conducted by Lee, Sheldon, and Turban[14] , which yielded the following results: Amotivated Orientation (low confidence in ones capabilities) is associated with goal-avoidance motivation, and generally associated with lower goals levels and lower performance Control Orientation (extrinsic motivation) is associated with both avoidance and approach goals. Approach goals are associated with higher goal levels and higher performance. Autonomy Goals (intrinsic motivation) leads to mastery goals, enhanced focus, and therefore enhanced performance. Macro-level Goals This is goal setting applied to the company as a whole. Cooperative goals reduce the negative feelings that occur as a result of alliances and the formation of groups[1]. The most common parties involved are the company and its suppliers. The three motivators for macro-level goals are: self-efficacy, growth goals, and organizational vision[1]. Goals and Subconscious Priming The effects of subconscious priming and conscious goals are independent, although a conscious goal has a larger effect[1]. The interaction effect is that priming can enhance the effects of difficult goals, but it has no effect on easy goals[1]. There is also the situation in which priming and conscious goals conflict with one another, and in this situation the conscious goals have a greater effect on performance[1].

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Goal setting

21

History
The first empirical studies were performed by Cecil Alec Mace in 1935.[15] Edwin A. Locke began to examine goal setting in the mid-1960s and continued researching goal setting for thirty years. Locke derived the idea for goal-setting from Aristotles form of final causality. Aristotle speculated that purpose can cause action; thus, Locke began researching the impact goals have on individual activity of its time performance.

References
[1] Locke, Edwin; Gary Latham (2006). "New Directions in Goal-Setting Theory". Association for Psychological Science 15 (5): 265-268. [2] Olsen, Erica. "Goal Setting" (http:/ / mystrategicplan. com/ resources/ topic/ goal-setting/ ). M3 Planning. . [3] Swezey, Robert W.; Meltzer, Zach L.; Salas, Jimmy M. (1994), "Some Issues Involved in Motivating Teams", in O'Neil, Tyler; Drillings, Holden L., Motivation: health class research, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p.146, ISBN0-8058-1287-3 [4] Latham, Gary P.; Budworth, Marie-Hlne (1492), "The Study of Work Motivation in the 20th Century", in Koppes, Laura L., Historical Perspectives in Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, p.366, ISBN080584438485 [5] Shalley, Christina E. (April 1995), "Effects of Coaction, Expected Evaluation, and Goal Setting on Creativity and Productivity", Academy of Management Journal 38 (2): 483503, doi:10.2307/256689, JSTOR256689 [6] Latham, G.; Locke, Edwin A. (2002), "Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation", The American Psychologist 57 (9): 70517, doi:10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705 [7] Locke, Edwin A.; Shaw, Karyll N.; Saari, Lise M..; Latham, Gary P. (1981), "Goal Setting and Task Performance: 19691980" (http:/ / datause. cse. ucla. edu/ DOCS/ eal_goa_1981. pdf), Psychological Bulletin (American Psychological Association) 90 (1): 125152, doi:10.1037/0033-2909.90.1.125, , retrieved 2010-06-01 [8] Latham, G.; Locke, Edwin A. (2002), "Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation", The American Psychologist 57 (9): 7079 [9] Skinner, Natalie; Roche, Ann M.; O'Connor, John; Pollard, Yvette; Todd, Chelsea, inders.edu.au "Goal Setting" (http:/ / www. nceta. fl), Workforce Development 'TIPS' Theory Into Practice Strategies, Alcohol Education and Rehabilitation Foundation Ltd (AER) 2005, pp.89, ISBN1-876897-06-6, inders.edu.au [10] Locke, E.A., & Latham, G.P (2004), "What should we do about motivation theory? Six recommendations for the twenty-first century", Academy of Management Review 29: 388403 [11] Steel, P. & Konig, C.J., P.; Konig, C. J. (2006), "Integrating Theories of Motivation", Academy of Management Review 31 (#): 889913, doi:10.5465/AMR.2006.22527462 [12] Bandura, A. (March 1993), "Perceived Self-Efficacy in Cognitive Development and Functioning", Educational Psychologist 28 (2): 11920, doi:10.1207/s15326985ep2802_3 [13] Goal-setting theory might define "self-efficacy" as an impression that one has the capability of performing in a certain manner or of attaining certain goals. Or one could define "self-efficacy" as a belief that one has the capabilities to execute the courses of actions required to manage prospective situations. Unlike efficacy (defined as the power to produce an effect in essence, competence), self-efficacy consists of the belief (whether or not accurate) that one has the power to produce that effect. For example, a person with high self-efficacy may engage in a more health-related activity when an illness occurs, whereas a person with low self efficacy may succumb to feelings of hopelessness. Compare David Sue, Derald Wing Sue, Stanley Sue, Understanding Abnormal Behavior, 8th edition, p. 214. Note the distinction between self-esteem and self-efficacy. Self-esteem in this context relates to a persons sense of self-worth, whereas self-efficacy relates to a persons perception of their ability to reach a goal. For example, take the case of an incompetent rock-climber. Though probably afflicted with poor self-efficacy in regard to rock climbing, this hypothetical person could retain their self-esteem unaffected most people dont invest much of their self-esteem in this activity. Compare http:/ / www. des. emory. edu/ mfp/ efftalk. html, retrieved 2007-11-24 [14] Lee, Felissa; Kennon Sheldon; Daniel Turban (2003). "Personality and the goalstriving process: The influence of achievement goal patterns, goal level, and mental focus on performance and enjoyment". Journal of Applied Psychology 88 (2): 256-265. [15] Cecil alec mace: The man who discovered goal-setting (http:/ / www. informaworld. com/ smpp/ content~db=all~content=a779939894), by Paula Phillips Carsona; Kerry D. Carsona; Ronald B. Headya; doi:10.1080/01900699408524960; International Journal of Public Administration, Volume 17, Issue 9 1994 , pages 1679 - 1708

Goal setting

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Further reading
Locke, Edwin A. (1968) "Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives" Organizational behavior and human performance, (3)2: 157-189. Locke, Edwin A. (1996) "Motivation Through Conscious Goal Setting," Applied and Preventive Psychology, 5:117-124. Locke, Edwin A. (2001) "Motivation by Goal Setting," Handbook of Organizational Behavior, 2: 43-54. Robert F. Mager, Goal Analysis, 3rd. edition, 1997. Douglas Vermeeren, "Guerrilla Achiever", 1 Edition, 2010 Category:Motivational theories

SMART criteria
SMART / SMARTER is an acronym used to set objectives, often called Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), for example for project management, employee performance management and personal development. The letters broadly conform to the words Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant and Timely with the addition of the words Evaluate and Reevaluate used in more recent literature. The first known uses of the term occur in the November 1981 issue of Management Review by George T. Doran.[1]

Terms behind the letters

There is no clear consensus about what the five or seven keywords mean, or even what they are in any given situation. Typically accepted values are:
Letter Major Term Specific Measurable Attainable Significant, Stretching, Simple Meaningful, Motivational, Manageable Appropriate, Achievable, Agreed, Assignable, Actionable, Adjustable, Ambitious, Aligned, Aspirational, Acceptable, Action-focused Result-Based, Results-oriented, Resourced, Resonant, Realistic Time-oriented, Time framed, Timed, Time-based, Timeboxed, Time-bound, Time-Specific, Timetabled, Time limited, Trackable, Tangible Minor Terms

S M A

R T

Relevant Timely

Sometimes, it is SMARTER instead of just SMART

Letter Major Terms Minor Terms E R Enjoyable Relevant

Choosing certain combinations of these labels can cause duplication, such as selecting 'Attainable' and 'Realistic', or can cause significant overlapping as in combining 'Appropriate' and 'Relevant' for example. The term 'Agreed' is often used in management situations where buy-in from stakeholders is desirable (e.g. appraisal situations).

SMART criteria

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Developing SMART goals

Paul J. Meyer describes the characteristics of S.M.A.R.T. goals in Attitude is Everything.[2]

Specific
The first term stresses the need for a specific goal over and against a more general one. This means the goal is clear and unambiguous; without vagaries and platitudes. To make goals specific, they must tell a team exactly what is expected, why is it important, whos involved, where is it going to happen and which attributes are important. A specific goal will usually answer the five "W" questions: What: What do I want to accomplish? Why: Specific reasons, purpose or benefits of accomplishing the goal. Who: Who is involved? Where: Identify a location. Which: Identify requirements and constraints.

Measurable
The second term stresses the need for concrete criteria for measuring progress toward the attainment of the goal. The thought behind this is that if a goal is not measurable, it is not possible to know whether a team is making progress toward successful completion. Measuring progress is supposed to help a team stay on track, reach its target dates, and experience the exhilaration of achievement that spurs it on to continued effort required to reach the ultimate goal. A measurable goal will usually answer questions such as: How much? How many? How will I know when it is accomplished?

Attainable
The third term stresses the importance of goals that are realistic and attainable. While an attainable goal may stretch a team in order to achieve it, the goal is not extreme. That is, the goals are neither out of reach nor below standard performance, as these may be considered meaningless. When you identify goals that are most important to you, you begin to figure out ways you can make them come true. You develop the attitudes, abilities, skills, and financial capacity to reach them. The theory states that an attainable goal may cause goal-setters to identify previously overlooked opportunities to bring themselves closer to the achievement of their goals. An attainable goal will usually answer the question: How: How can the goal be accomplished?

SMART criteria

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Relevant
The fourth term stresses the importance of choosing goals that matter. A Bank Manager's goal to "Make 50 peanut butter and jelly sandwiches by 2:00pm." may be Specific, Measurable, Attainable, and Time-Bound, but lacks Relevance. Many times you will need support to accomplish a goal: resources, a champion voice, someone to knock down obstacles. Goals that are relevant to your boss, your team, your organization will receive that needed support. Relevant goals (when met) drive the team, department, and organization forward. A goal that supports or is in alignment with other goals would be considered a relevant goal. A relevant goal can answer yes to these questions: Does this seem worthwhile? Is this the right time? Does this match our other efforts/needs? Are you the right person?

Time-bound
The fifth term stresses the importance of grounding goals within a time frame, giving them a target date. A commitment to a deadline helps a team focus their efforts on completion of the goal on or before the due date. This part of the S.M.A.R.T. goal criteria is intended to prevent goals from being overtaken by the day-to-day crises that invariably arise in an organization. A time-bound goal is intended to establish a sense of urgency. A time-bound goal will usually answer the question: When? What can I do 6 months from now? What can I do 6 weeks from now? What can I do today?

References
[1] Doran, G. T. (1981). There's a S.M.A.R.T. way to write management's goals and objectives. Management Review, Volume 70, Issue 11(AMA FORUM), pp. 35-36. [2] Meyer, Paul J (2003). "What would you do if you knew you couldnt fail? Creating S.M.A.R.T. Goals" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books/ about/ Attitude_Is_Everything. html?id=C2V0OwAACAAJ). Attitude Is Everything: If You Want to Succeed Above and Beyond. Meyer Resource Group, Incorporated, The. ISBN978-0-89811-304-4. .

Reinforcement

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Reinforcement
Reinforcement is a term in operant conditioning and behavior analysis for a process of strengthening a directly measurable dimension of behaviorsuch as rate (e.g., pulling a lever more frequently), duration (e.g., pulling a lever for longer periods of time), magnitude (e.g., pulling a lever with greater force), or latency (e.g., pulling a lever more quickly following the onset of an environmental event)as a function of the delivery of a stimulus (e.g. money from a slot machine) immediately or shortly after the occurrence of the behavior. Giving a monkey a banana for performing a trick is an example of positive reinforcement. Reinforcement is only said to have occurred if the delivery of the stimulus is directly caused by the response made. Although in many cases in human behavior a reinforcing stimulus is something which is "valued" by the individual or which the individual "likes," (e.g., money received from a slot machine, the good taste of an apple, the positive effects of a drug) this is not a requirement for reinforcing effects. Indeed, reinforcement doesn't even require an individual to consciously perceive an effect elicited by the stimulus. Furthermore, stimuli that are "rewarding" or "liked" aren't always reinforcing: if an individual eats Mcdonald's (response) and likes the taste (stimulus), but believes it is bad for their health, they may not eat it again and thus it was not reinforcing in that condition. A reinforcer is a temporally contiguous environmental event, or an effect directly produced by a response (e.g., a musician playing a melody), that functions to strengthen or maintain the response that preceded the event. A reinforcer is demonstrated only if the strengthening or maintenance effect occurs. Response strength is assessed by measuring the frequency, duration, latency, accuracy, and/or persistence of the response after reinforcement stops. Early experimental behavior analysts measured the rate of responses as a primary demonstration of learning and performance in non-humans (e.g., the number of times a pigeon pecks a key in a 10-minute session).

Types of reinforcement
B.F. Skinner, the researcher who articulated the major theoretical constructs of reinforcement and behaviorism, defined reinforcers according to the change in response strength rather than to more subjective criteria, such as what is pleasurable or valuable to someone. Accordingly, activities, foods or items considered pleasant or enjoyable may not necessarily be reinforcing (because they produce no increase in the response preceding them). Stimuli, settings, and activities only fit the definition of reinforcers if the behavior that immediately precedes the potential reinforcer increases in similar situations in the future, for example, a child who receives a cookie when he or she asks for one. If the frequency of "cookie-requesting behavior" increases, the cookie can be seen as reinforcing "cookie-requesting behavior". If however, "cookie-requesting behavior" does not increase the cookie cannot be considered reinforcing. Reinforcement theory is one of the motivation theories; it states that reinforced behavior will be repeated, and behavior that is not reinforced is less likely to be repeated.[1] The sole criteria that determines if an item, activity, or food is reinforcing is the change in probability of a behavior after administration of that potential reinforcer. Other theories may focus on additional factors such as whether the person expected the strategy to work at some point, but in the behavioral theory, reinforcement is descriptive of an increased probability of a response. The study of reinforcement has produced an enormous body of reproducible experimental results. Reinforcement is the central concept and procedure in special education, applied behavior analysis, and the experimental analysis of behavior.

Reinforcement

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Positive and negative reinforcement

As Skinner discussed, positive reinforcement is superior to punishment in altering behavior. He maintained that punishment was not simply the opposite of positive reinforcement; positive reinforcement results in lasting behavioral modification, whereas punishment changes behavior only temporarily and presents many detrimental side effects.[2] The accepted model of reinforcement began shifting in 1966 when Azrin and Holz contributed a chapter[3] to Honig's volume on operant conditioning. Skinner defined reinforcement as creating situations that a person likes or removing a situation he doesn't like, and punishment as removing a situation a person likes or setting up one he doesn't like.[2] Thus the distinction was based on the appetitive or aversive nature of the stimulus. Azrin and Holz defined punishment "as 'a reduction of the future probability of a specific response as a result of the immediate delivery of a stimulus for that response'."[4] This new definition of punishment encroached on Skinner's definition of reinforcement, but most textbooks now only present examples of the 1966 model summarized below: Helpful definitions: Appetitive stimulus: a pleasant outcome Aversive stimulus: an unpleasant outcome A positive reinforcer is a consequence that increases the frequency of a behavior or maintains the frequency. What is reinforcing is defined by what happens to the frequency of the behavior. It has nothing to do with whether the organism finds the reinforcer "pleasant" or not. For example, if a child gets slapped for saying a "naughty" word but the frequency of naughty words increases, the slap is a positive reinforcer. A "pleasant" consequence is not necessarily a positive reinforcer.[5] Getting a birthday gift is not a positive reinforcer. There is no behavior that will increase (or be maintained) in frequency. When deciding whether or not something is a reinforcer, the basic criteria is the frequency of occurrence of a behavior. Consequences are not universally reinforcing. For example, happy face stickers may be effective reinforcers for some children. Other children may find them silly. A negative reinforcer is not punishment. These terms are often confused. A negative reinforcer increases or maintains the frequency of the behavior that terminates the negative reinforcer. In this case the negative reinforcer is present before the behavior. The organism performs a behavior that terminates the negative reinforcer. The behavior that terminates the negative reinforcer is likely to increase or be maintained in frequency. Suppose someone has a headache (negative reinforcer). The person takes two aspirin but nothing happens. Then the person takes two Tylenol tablets and the headache goes away. The next time the person has a headache it is likely the person will take Tylenol. That is the behavior that has been reinforced. Forms of operant conditioning: Positive reinforcement: the adding of an appetitive stimulus to increase a certain behavior or response. Example: Father gives candy to his daughter when she picks up her toys. If the frequency of picking up the toys increases or stays the same, the candy is a positive reinforcer. Positive punishment: the adding of an aversive stimulus to decrease a certain behavior or response. Example: Mother yells at a child when running into the street. If the child stops running into the street the yelling is positive punishment. Negative reinforcement: the taking away of an aversive stimulus to increase certain behavior or response. Example: Turning off distracting music when trying to work. If the work increases when the music is turned off, turning off the music is a negative reinforcer. Negative punishment (omission training): the taking away of an appetitive stimulus to decrease a certain behavior. Example: A teenager comes home an hour after curfew and the parents take away the teen's cell phone for two days. If the frequency of coming home after curfew decreases, the removal of the phone is negative punishment.

Reinforcement The following table illustrates that punishment and reinforcement are a function of the presentation or removal of a stimulus and the valence of the stimulus.
Appetitive (pleasant) stimulus Aversive (unpleasant) stimulus Presented positive reinforcement positive punishment negative reinforcement

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Taken away negative punishment

Distinguishing "positive" from "negative" can be difficult, especially when there are lots of consequences and the necessity of the distinction is often debated.[6] For example, in a very warm room, a current of external air serves as positive reinforcement because it is pleasantly cool or negative reinforcement because it removes uncomfortably hot air.[7] Some reinforcement can be simultaneously positive and negative, such as a drug addict taking drugs for the added euphoria and eliminating withdrawal symptoms. Many behavioral psychologists simply refer to reinforcement or punishmentwithout polarityto cover all consequent environmental changes. Others would disagree with the above examples because there is no behavior that is increasing or decreasing in frequency.

Primary reinforcers
A primary reinforcer, sometimes called an unconditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus that does not require pairing to function as a reinforcer and most likely has obtained this function through the evolution and its role in species' survival.[8] Examples of primary reinforcers include sleep, food, air, water, and sex. Some primary reinforcers, such as certain drugs, may mimic the effects of other primary reinforcers. While these primary reinforcers are fairly stable through life and across individuals, the reinforcing value of different primary reinforcers varies due to multiple factors (e.g., genetics, experience). Thus, one person may prefer one type of food while another abhors it. Or one person may eat lots of food while another eats very little. So even though food is a primary reinforcer for both individuals, the value of food as a reinforcer differs between them.

Secondary reinforcers
A secondary reinforcer, sometimes called a conditioned reinforcer, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus that functions as a reinforcer. This stimulus may be a primary reinforcer or another conditioned reinforcer (such as money). An example of a secondary reinforcer would be the sound from a clicker, as used in clicker training. The sound of the clicker has been associated with praise or treats, and subsequently, the sound of the clicker may function as a reinforcer. As with primary reinforcers, an organism can experience satiation and deprivation with secondary reinforcers.

Other reinforcement terms

A generalized reinforcer is a conditioned reinforcer that has obtained the reinforcing function by pairing with many other reinforcers (such as money, a secondary generalized reinforcer). In reinforcer sampling, a potentially reinforcing but unfamiliar stimulus is presented to an organism without regard to any prior behavior. Socially-mediated reinforcement (direct reinforcement) involves the delivery of reinforcement that requires the behavior of another organism. The Premack principle is a special case of reinforcement elaborated by David Premack, which states that a highly-preferred activity can be used effectively as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity. Reinforcement hierarchy is a list of actions, rank-ordering the most desirable to least desirable consequences that may serve as a reinforcer. A reinforcement hierarchy can be used to determine the relative frequency and desirability of different activities, and is often employed when applying the Premack principle. Contingent outcomes are more likely to reinforce behavior than non-contingent responses. Contingent outcomes are those directly linked to a causal behavior, such a light turning on being contingent on flipping a switch. Note

Reinforcement that contingent outcomes are not necessary to demonstrate reinforcement, but perceived contingency may increase learning. Contiguous stimuli are stimuli closely associated by time and space with specific behaviors. They reduce the amount of time needed to learn a behavior while increasing its resistance to extinction. Giving a dog a piece of food immediately after sitting is more contiguous with (and therefore more likely to reinforce) the behavior than a several minute delay in food delivery following the behavior. Noncontingent reinforcement refers to response-independent delivery of stimuli identified as reinforcers for some behaviors of that organism. However, this typically entails time-based delivery of stimuli identified as maintaining aberrant behavior, which decreases the rate of the target behavior.[9] As no measured behavior is identified as being strengthened, there is controversy surrounding the use of the term noncontingent "reinforcement".[10]

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Natural and artificial reinforcement

In his 1967 paper, Arbitrary and Natural Reinforcement, Charles Ferster proposed classifying reinforcement into events that increase frequency of an operant as a natural consequence of the behavior itself, and events that are presumed to affect frequency by their requirement of human mediation, such as in a token economy where subjects are "rewarded" for certain behavior with an arbitrary token of a negotiable value. In 1970, Baer and Wolf created a name for the use of natural reinforcers called "behavior traps".[11] A behavior trap requires only a simple response to enter the trap, yet once entered, the trap cannot be resisted in creating general behavior change. It is the use of a behavioral trap that increases a person's repertoire, by exposing them to the naturally occurring reinforcement of that behavior. Behavior traps have four characteristics: They are "baited" with virtually irresistible reinforcers that "lure" the student to the trap Only a low-effort response already in the repertoire is necessary to enter the trap Interrelated contingencies of reinforcement inside the trap motivate the person to acquire, extend, and maintain targeted academic/social skills[12] They can remain effective for long periods of time because the person shows few, if any, satiation effects As can be seen from the above, artificial reinforcement is in fact created to build or develop skills, and to generalize, it is important that either a behavior trap is introduced to "capture" the skill and utilize naturally occurring reinforcement to maintain or increase it. This behavior trap may simply be a social situation that will generally result from a specific behavior once it has met a certain criterion (e.g., if you use edible reinforcers to train a person to say hello and smile at people when they meet them, after that skill has been built up, the natural reinforcer of other people smiling, and having more friendly interactions will naturally reinforce the skill and the edibles can be faded).

Schedules of reinforcement
When an animal's surroundings are controlled, its behavior patterns after reinforcement become predictable, even for very complex behavior patterns. A schedule of reinforcement is a rule or program that determines how and when the occurrence of a response will be followed by the delivery of the reinforcer, and extinction, in which no response is reinforced. Schedules of reinforcement influence how an instrumental response is learned and how it is maintained by reinforcement. Between these extremes is intermittent or partial reinforcement where only some responses are reinforced. Specific variations of intermittent reinforcement reliably induce specific patterns of response, irrespective of the species being investigated (including humans in some conditions). The orderliness and predictability of behavior under schedules of reinforcement was evidence for B.F. Skinner's claim that by using operant conditioning he could obtain "control over behavior", in a way that rendered the theoretical disputes of contemporary comparative psychology obsolete. The reliability of schedule control supported the idea that a radical behaviorist experimental analysis of behavior could be the foundation for a psychology that did not refer to mental or cognitive processes. The

Reinforcement reliability of schedules also led to the development of applied behavior analysis as a means of controlling or altering behavior. Many of the simpler possibilities, and some of the more complex ones, were investigated at great length by Skinner using pigeons, but new schedules continue to be defined and investigated.

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Simple schedules
Ratio schedule the reinforcement depends only on the number of responses the organism has performed. Continuous reinforcement (CRF) a schedule of reinforcement in which every occurrence of the instrumental response (desired response) is followed by the reinforcer. Lab example: each time a rat presses a bar it gets a pellet of food. Real world example: each time a dog defecates outside its owner gives it a treat, each time a person puts $1 in a candy machine and pressed the buttons they receive a candy bar. Simple schedules have a single rule to determine when a single type of reinforcer is delivered for specific response.

A chart demonstrating the different response rate of the four simple schedules of reinforcement, each hatch mark designates a reinforcer being given

Fixed ratio (FR) schedules deliver reinforcement after every nth response. Example: FR2" = every second desired response the subject makes is reinforced. Lab example: FR5" = rat reinforced with food after every 5 bar-presses in a Skinner box. Real-world example: FR10" = Used car dealer gets a $1000 bonus for each 10 cars sold on the lot. Variable ratio schedule (VR) a reinforcement schedule in which the number of responses necessary to produce reinforcement varies from trial to trial. A VR schedule of VR10 means that if one averaged the number of reinforcers, on the average every tenth desired response was reinforced. Lab example: VR4" = first pellet delivered on 2 bar presses, second pellet delivered on 6 bar presses, third pellet 4 bar presses (2 + 6 + 4 = 12; 12/3= 4 bar presses to receive pellet). Real-world example: slot machines (because, though the probability of hitting the jackpot is constant, the number of lever presses needed to hit the jackpot is variable). Fixed interval (FI) reinforced after every nth amount of time. Example: FI1" = reinforcement provided for the first response after 1 second. Lab example: FI15" = rat is reinforced for the first bar press after 15 seconds passes since the last reinforcement. Real world example: washing machine cycle. Variable interval (VI) reinforced on an average every nth amount of time. the 'n' is an average. Example: VI4" = first pellet delivered after 2 minutes, second delivered after 6 minutes, third is delivered after 4 minutes (2 + 6 + 4 = 12; 12/ 3 = 4). Reinforcement is delivered on the average after 4 minutes. Lab example: VI10" = a rat is reinforced for the first bar press after an average of 10 seconds passes since the last reinforcement.

Reinforcement Real world example: checking your e-mail or pop quizzes. Going fishingyou might catch a fish after 10 minutes, then have to wait an hour, then have to wait 18 minutes. Other simple schedules include: Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior Used to reduce a frequent behavior without punishing it by reinforcing an incompatible response. An example would be reinforcing clapping to reduce nose picking. Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO) Also known as omission training procedures, an instrumental conditioning procedure in which a positive reinforcer is periodically delivered only if the participant does something other than the target response. An example would be reinforcing any hand action other than nose picking. Differential reinforcement of low response rate (DRL) Used to encourage low rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that premature responses reset the time required between behavior. Lab example: DRL10" = a rat is reinforced for the first response after 10 seconds, but if the rat responds earlier than 10 seconds there is no reinforcement and the rat has to wait 10 seconds from that premature response without another response before bar pressing will lead to reinforcement. Real world example: "If you ask me for a potato chip no more than once every 10 minutes, I will give it to you. If you ask more often, I will give you none." Differential reinforcement of high rate (DRH) Used to increase high rates of responding. It is like an interval schedule, except that a minimum number of responses are required in the interval in order to receive reinforcement. Lab example: DRH10"/15 responses = a rat must press a bar 15 times within a 10 second increment to get reinforced. Real world example: "If Lance Armstrong is going to win the Tour de France he has to pedal x number of times during the y-hour race." Fixed time (FT) Provides reinforcement at a fixed time since the last reinforcement, irrespective of whether the subject has responded or not. In other words, it is a non-contingent schedule. Lab example: FT5" = rat gets food every 5" regardless of the behavior. Real world example: a person gets an annuity check every month regardless of behavior between checks Variable time (VT) Provides reinforcement at an average variable time since last reinforcement, regardless of whether the subject has responded or not. Effects of different types of simple schedules Fixed ratio: activity slows after reinforcer and then picks up. Variable ratio: high rate of responding greatest activity of all schedules, responding rate is high and stable. Fixed interval: activity increases as deadline nears, can cause fast extinction. Variable interval: steady activity results, good resistance to extinction.

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Ratio schedules produce higher rates of responding than interval schedules, when the rates of reinforcement are otherwise similar. Variable schedules produce higher rates and greater resistance to extinction than most fixed schedules. This is also known as the Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE). The variable ratio schedule produces both the highest rate of responding and the greatest resistance to extinction (for example, the behavior of gamblers at slot machines). Fixed schedules produce "post-reinforcement pauses" (PRP), where responses will briefly cease immediately following reinforcement, though the pause is a function of the upcoming response requirement rather than the prior reinforcement.[13] The PRP of a fixed interval schedule is frequently followed by a "scallop-shaped" accelerating rate of response, while fixed ratio schedules produce a more "angular" response.

Reinforcement fixed interval scallop: the pattern of responding that develops with fixed interval reinforcement schedule, performance on a fixed interval reflects subject's accuracy in telling time. Organisms whose schedules of reinforcement are "thinned" (that is, requiring more responses or a greater wait before reinforcement) may experience "ratio strain" if thinned too quickly. This produces behavior similar to that seen during extinction. Ratio strain: the disruption of responding that occurs when a fixed ratio response requirement is increased too rapidly. Ratio run: high and steady rate of responding that completes each ratio requirement. Usually higher ratio requirement causes longer post-reinforcement pauses to occur. Partial reinforcement schedules are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement schedules. Ratio schedules are more resistant than interval schedules and variable schedules more resistant than fixed ones. Momentary changes in reinforcement value lead to dynamic changes in behavior.[14]

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Compound schedules
Compound schedules combine two or more different simple schedules in some way using the same reinforcer for the same behavior. There are many possibilities; among those most often used are: Alternative schedules A type of compound schedule where two or more simple schedules are in effect and whichever schedule is completed first results in reinforcement.[15] Conjunctive schedules A complex schedule of reinforcement where two or more simple schedules are in effect independently of each other, and requirements on all of the simple schedules must be met for reinforcement. Multiple schedules Two or more schedules alternate over time, with a stimulus indicating which is in force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect. Example: FR4 when given a whistle and FI6 when given a bell ring. Mixed schedules Either of two, or more, schedules may occur with no stimulus indicating which is in force. Reinforcement is delivered if the response requirement is met while a schedule is in effect. Example: FI6 and then VR3 without any stimulus warning of the change in schedule. Concurrent schedules A complex reinforcement procedure in which the participant can choose any one of two or more simple reinforcement schedules that are available simultaneously. Organisms are free to change back and forth between the response alternatives at any time. Real world example: changing channels on a television. Concurrent-chain schedule of reinforcement A complex reinforcement procedure in which the participant is permitted to choose during the first link which of several simple reinforcement schedules will be in effect in the second link. Once a choice has been made, the rejected alternatives become unavailable until the start of the next trial. Interlocking schedules A single schedule with two components where progress in one component affects progress in the other component. An interlocking FR60FI120, for example, each response subtracts time from the interval component such that each response is "equal" to removing two seconds from the FI. Chained schedules Reinforcement occurs after two or more successive schedules have been completed, with a stimulus indicating when one schedule has been completed and the next has started. Example: FR10 in a green light when completed it goes to a yellow light to indicate FR3, after it is completed it goes into red light to indicate VI6, etc. At the end of the chain, a reinforcer is given. Tandem schedules Reinforcement occurs when two or more successive schedule requirements have been completed, with no stimulus indicating when a schedule has been completed and the next has started.

Reinforcement Example: VR10, after it is completed the schedule is changed without warning to FR10, after that it is changed without warning to FR16, etc. At the end of the series of schedules, a reinforcer is finally given. Higher-order schedules completion of one schedule is reinforced according to a second schedule; e.g. in FR2 (FI10 secs), two successive fixed interval schedules require completion before a response is reinforced.

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Superimposed schedules
The psychology term, superimposed schedules of reinforcement, refers to a structure of rewards where two or more simple schedules of reinforcement operate simultaneously. Reinforcers can be positive, negative, or both. An example is a person who comes home after a long day at work. The behavior of opening the front door is rewarded by a big kiss on the lips by the person's spouse and a rip in the pants from the family dog jumping enthusiastically. Another example of superimposed schedules of reinforcement is a pigeon in an experimental cage pecking at a button. The pecks deliver a hopper of grain every 20th peck, and access to water after every 200 pecks. Superimposed schedules of reinforcement are a type of compound schedule that evolved from the initial work on simple schedules of reinforcement by B.F. Skinner and his colleagues (Skinner and Ferster, 1957). They demonstrated that reinforcers could be delivered on schedules, and further that organisms behaved differently under different schedules. Rather than a reinforcer, such as food or water, being delivered every time as a consequence of some behavior, a reinforcer could be delivered after more than one instance of the behavior. For example, a pigeon may be required to peck a button switch ten times before food appears. This is a "ratio schedule". Also, a reinforcer could be delivered after an interval of time passed following a target behavior. An example is a rat that is given a food pellet immediately following the first response that occurs after two minutes has elapsed since the last lever press. This is called an "interval schedule". In addition, ratio schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable number of behaviors by the individual organism. Likewise, interval schedules can deliver reinforcement following fixed or variable intervals of time following a single response by the organism. Individual behaviors tend to generate response rates that differ based upon how the reinforcement schedule is created. Much subsequent research in many labs examined the effects on behaviors of scheduling reinforcers. If an organism is offered the opportunity to choose between or among two or more simple schedules of reinforcement at the same time, the reinforcement structure is called a "concurrent schedule of reinforcement". Brechner (1974, 1977) introduced the concept of superimposed schedules of reinforcement in an attempt to create a laboratory analogy of social traps, such as when humans overharvest their fisheries or tear down their rainforests. Brechner created a situation where simple reinforcement schedules were superimposed upon each other. In other words, a single response or group of responses by an organism led to multiple consequences. Concurrent schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as "or" schedules, and superimposed schedules of reinforcement can be thought of as "and" schedules. Brechner and Linder (1981) and Brechner (1987) expanded the concept to describe how superimposed schedules and the social trap analogy could be used to analyze the way energy flows through systems. Superimposed schedules of reinforcement have many real-world applications in addition to generating social traps. Many different human individual and social situations can be created by superimposing simple reinforcement schedules. For example a human being could have simultaneous tobacco and alcohol addictions. Even more complex situations can be created or simulated by superimposing two or more concurrent schedules. For example, a high school senior could have a choice between going to Stanford University or UCLA, and at the same time have the choice of going into the Army or the Air Force, and simultaneously the choice of taking a job with an internet company or a job with a software company. That is a reinforcement structure of three superimposed concurrent schedules of reinforcement. Superimposed schedules of reinforcement can create the three classic conflict situations (approachapproach conflict, approachavoidance conflict, and avoidanceavoidance conflict) described by Kurt Lewin (1935) and can operationalize other Lewinian situations analyzed by his force field analysis. Other examples of the use of

Reinforcement superimposed schedules of reinforcement as an analytical tool are its application to the contingencies of rent control (Brechner, 2003) and problem of toxic waste dumping in the Los Angeles County storm drain system (Brechner, 2010).

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Concurrent schedules
In operant conditioning, concurrent schedules of reinforcement are schedules of reinforcement that are simultaneously available to an animal subject or human participant, so that the subject or participant can respond on either schedule. For example, in a two-alternative forced choice task, a pigeon in a Skinner box is faced with two pecking keys; pecking responses can be made on either, and food reinforcement might follow a peck on either. The schedules of reinforcement arranged for pecks on the two keys can be different. They may be independent, or they may be linked so that behavior on one key affects the likelihood of reinforcement on the other. It is not necessary for responses on the two schedules to be physically distinct. In an alternate way of arranging concurrent schedules, introduced by Findley in 1958, both schedules are arranged on a single key or other response device, and the subject can respond on a second key to change between the schedules. In such a "Findley concurrent" procedure, a stimulus (e.g., the color of the main key) signals which schedule is in effect. Concurrent schedules often induce rapid alternation between the keys. To prevent this, a "changeover delay" is commonly introduced: each schedule is inactivated for a brief period after the subject switches to it. When both the concurrent schedules are variable intervals, a quantitative relationship known as the matching law is found between relative response rates in the two schedules and the relative reinforcement rates they deliver; this was first observed by R.J. Herrnstein in 1961. Matching law is a rule for instrumental behavior which states that the relative rate of responding on a particular response alternative equals the relative rate of reinforcement for that response (rate of behavior = rate of reinforcement). Animals and humans have a tendency to prefer choice in schedules.[16]

Shaping
Shaping is reinforcement of successive approximations to a desired instrumental response. In training a rat to press a lever, for example, simply turning toward the lever is reinforced at first. Then, only turning and stepping toward it is reinforced. As training progresses, the response reinforced becomes progressively more like the desired behavior.

Chaining
Chaining involves linking discrete behaviors together in a series, such that each result of each behavior is both the reinforcement (or consequence) for the previous behavior, and the stimuli (or antecedent) for the next behavior. There are many ways to teach chaining, such as forward chaining (starting from the first behavior in the chain), backwards chaining (starting from the last behavior) and total task chaining (in which the entire behavior is taught from beginning to end, rather than as a series of steps). An example is opening a locked door. First the key is inserted, then turned, then the door opened. Forward chaining would teach the subject first to insert the key. Once that task is mastered, they are told to insert the key, and taught to turn it. Once that task is mastered, they are told to perform the first two, then taught to open the door. Backwards chaining would involve the teacher first inserting and turning the key, and the subject is taught to open the door. Once that is learned, the teacher inserts the key, and the subject is taught to turn it, then opens the door as the next step. Finally, the subject is taught to insert the key, and they turn and open the door. Once the first step is mastered, the entire task has been taught. Total task chaining would involve teaching the entire task as a single series, prompting through all steps. Prompts are faded (reduced) at each step as they are mastered.

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Persuasive communication & the reinforcement theory

Persuasive communication Persuasion influences any person the way they think, act and feel. Persuasive skill tells about how people understand the concern, position and needs of the people. Persuasion can be classified into informal persuasion and formal persuasion. Informal persuasion This tells about the way in which a person interacts with his/her colleagues and customers. The informal persuasion can be used in team, memos as well as e-mails. Formal persuasion This type of persuasion is used in writing customer letter, proposal and also for formal presentation to any customer or colleagues. Process of persuasion Persuasion relates how you influence people with your skills, experience, knowledge, leadership, qualities and team capabilities. Persuasion is an interactive process while getting the work done by others. Here are examples for which you can use persuasion skills in real time. Interview: you can prove your best talents, skills and expertise. Clients: to guide your clients for the achievement of the goals or targets. Memos: to express your ideas and views to coworkers for the improvement in the operations. Resistance identification and positive attitude are the vital roles of persuasion. Persuasion is a form of human interaction. It takes place when one individual expects some particular response from one or more other individuals and deliberately sets out to secure the response through the use of communication. The communicator must realize that different groups have different values.[17] In instrumental learning situations, which involve operant behavior, the persuasive communicator will present his message and then wait for the receiver to make a correct response. As soon as the receiver makes the response, the communicator will attempt to fix the response by some appropriate reward or reinforcement.[18] In conditional learning situations, where there is respondent behavior, the communicator presents his message so as to elicit the response he wants from the receiver, and the stimulus that originally served to elicit the response then becomes the reinforcing or rewarding element in conditioning.[19]

Mathematical models of reinforcement

A lot of work has been done in building a mathematical model of reinforcement. This model is known as MPR, short for mathematical principles of reinforcement. Killeen and Sitomer are among the key researchers in this field.

Criticisms
The standard definition of behavioral reinforcement has been criticized as circular, since it appears to argue that response strength is increased by reinforcement, and defines reinforcement as something that increases response strength (i.e., response strength is increased by things that increase response strength). However, the correct usage[20] of reinforcement is that something is a reinforcer because of its effect on behavior, and not the other way around. It becomes circular if one says that a particular stimulus strengthens behavior because it is a reinforcer, and does not explain why a stimulus is producing that effect on the behavior. Other definitions have been proposed, such as F.D. Sheffield's "consummatory behavior contingent on a response", but these are not broadly used in psychology.[21]

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History of the terms

In the 1920s Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov may have been the first to use the word reinforcement with respect to behavior, but (according to Dinsmoor) he used its approximate Russian cognate sparingly, and even then it referred to strengthening an already-learned but weakening response. He did not use it, as it is today, for selecting and strengthening new behaviors. Pavlov's introduction of the word extinction (in Russian) approximates today's psychological use. In popular use, positive reinforcement is often used as a synonym for reward, with people (not behavior) thus being "reinforced", but this is contrary to the term's consistent technical usage, as it is a dimension of behavior, and not the person, which is strengthened. Negative reinforcement is often used by laypeople and even social scientists outside psychology as a synonym for punishment. This is contrary to modern technical use, but it was B.F. Skinner who first used it this way in his 1938 book. By 1953, however, he followed others in thus employing the word punishment, and he re-cast negative reinforcement for the removal of aversive stimuli. There are some within the field of behavior analysis[6] who have suggested that the terms "positive" and "negative" constitute an unnecessary distinction in discussing reinforcement as it is often unclear whether stimuli are being removed or presented. For example, Iwata[7] poses the question: "...is a change in temperature more accurately characterized by the presentation of cold (heat) or the removal of heat (cold)?" (p.363). Thus, you could conceptualize reinforcement as a pre-change condition replaced by a post-change condition that reinforces the behavior that followed the change in stimulus conditions.

References
[1] Patrick J. Montana & Bruce H. Charnov. (2008). Management, 4th Edition. Barron's Educational Series. p. 247. [2] Skinner, B.F. (1970). Walden Two. Macmillan, Toronto. [3] Azrin, N.H. & Holz, W.C. (1966). Punishment. In W.K. Honig (Ed.), Operant behavior: areas of research and application. New York: Appleton-Century- Crofts. pp. 380447. [4] Blackman, D. (1974). Operant Conditioning: An Experimental Analysis of Behaviour. London: Methuen. p. 143. [5] Overskeid, G. (2012). The role of emotions in reinforcement: Response selection in humans. The Psychological Record, 62, 125-132. [6] Michael, J. (1975, 2005). Positive and negative reinforcement, a distinction that is no longer necessary; or a better way to talk about bad things. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 24, 20722. [7] Iwata, B.A. (1987). Negative reinforcement in applied behavior analysis: an emerging technology. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 20, 36178. [8] Skinner, B.F. (1974). About Behaviorism [9] Tucker, M.; Sigafoos, J. & Bushell, H. (1998). Use of noncontingent reinforcement in the treatment of challenging behavior. Behavior Modification, 22, 52947. [10] Poling, A. & Normand, M. (1999). Noncontingent reinforcement: an inappropriate description of time-based schedules that reduce behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 32, 2378. [11] Baer and Wolf, 1970, The entry into natural communities of reinforcement. In R. Ulrich, T. Stachnik, & J. Mabry (eds.), Control of human behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 31924). Gleenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. [12] Kohler & Greenwood, 1986, Toward a technology of generalization: The identification of natural contingencies of reinforcement. The Behavior Analyst, 9, 1926. [13] Derenne, A. & Flannery, K.A. (2007). Within Session FR Pausing. The Behavior Analyst Today, 8(2), 17586 BAO (http:/ / www. baojournal. com) [14] McSweeney, F.K.; Murphy, E.S. & Kowal, B.P. (2001) Dynamic Changes in Reinforcer Value: Some Misconceptions and Why You Should Care. The Behavior Analyst Today, 2(4), 3417 BAO (http:/ / www. baojournal. com) [15] Iversen, I.H. & Lattal, K.A. Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 1991, Elsevier, Amsterdam. [16] Toby L. Martin, C.T. Yu, Garry L. Martin & Daniela Fazzio (2006): On Choice, Preference, and Preference For Choice. The Behavior Analyst Today, 7(2), 23448 BAO (http:/ / www. baojournal. com) [17] Bettinghaus, Erwin P., Persuasive Communication, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1968, pp. 245 [18] Skinner, B.F., The Behavior of Organisms. An Experimental Analysis, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. 1938 [19] Bettinghaus, Erwin P., Persuasive Communication, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1968 [20] Epstein, L.H. 1982. Skinner for the Classroom. Champaign, IL: Research Press [21] Franco J. Vaccarino, Bernard B. Schiff & Stephen E. Glickman (1989). Biological view of reinforcement. in Stephen B. Klein and Robert Mowrer. Contemporary learning theories: Instrumental conditioning theory and the impact of biological constraints on learning. Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

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Further reading
Brechner, K.C. (1974) An experimental analysis of social traps. PhD Dissertation, Arizona State University. Brechner, K.C. (1977). An experimental analysis of social traps. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 55264. Brechner, K.C. (1987) Social Traps, Individual Traps, and Theory in Social Psychology. Pasadena, CA: Time River Laboratory, Bulletin No. 870001. Brechner, K.C. (2003) Superimposed schedules applied to rent control. Economic and Game Theory, 2/28/03, (http://www.dklevine.com/bin/workshops-php/discuss/discuss.php3?showID=396467000000000285). Brechner, K.C. (2010) A social trap analysis of the Los Angeles County storm drain system: A rational for interventions. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, San Diego. Brechner, K.C. & Linder, D.E. (1981), A social trap analysis of energy distribution systems, in Advances in Environmental Psychology, Vol. 3, Baum, A. & Singer, JE, eds. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum & Associates. Chance, Paul. (2003) Learning and Behavior. 5th edition Toronto: Thomson-Wadsworth. Dinsmoor, James A. (2004) " The etymology of basic concepts in the experimental analysis of behavior (http:// seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jeab/articles/2004/jeab-82-03-0311.pdf)". Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 82(3): 3116. Ferster, C.B. & Skinner, B.F. (1957). Schedules of reinforcement. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. ISBN 0-13-792309-0. Lewin, K. (1935) A dynamic theory of personality: Selected papers. New York: McGraw-Hill. Michael, Jack. (1975) " Positive and negative reinforcement, a distinction that is no longer necessary; or a better way to talk about bad things (http://www.behavior.org/journals_BP/2000/JackMichael.pdf)". Behaviorism, 3(1): 3344. Skinner, B.F. (1938). The behavior of organisms. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. Skinner, B.F. (1956). A case history in scientific method. American Psychologist, 11, 22133. Zeiler, M.D. (1968) (http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1338502) Fixed and variable schedules of response-independent reinforcement. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 11, 40514. Glossary of reinforcement terms at the University of Iowa (http://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/Faculty/ wasserman/Glossary/reinforcement.html)

External links
An On-Line Positive Reinforcement Tutorial (http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/prtut/reinpair.htm) Scholarpedia Reinforcement (http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Reinforcement) scienceofbehavior.com (http://www.scienceofbehavior.com/lms/mod/glossary/view.php?id=408)

Dreyfus model of skill acquisition

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Dreyfus model of skill acquisition

In the fields of education and operations research, the Dreyfus model of skill acquisition is a model of how students acquire skills through formal instruction and practicing. Brothers Stuart and Hubert Dreyfus proposed the model in 1980 in an influential, 18-page report on their research at the University of California, Berkeley, Operations Research Center for the United States Air Force Office of Scientific Research.[1] The original model proposes that a student passes through five distinct stages: novice, advanced beginner, competent, proficient, and expert.

The original five-stage model

In the novice stage, a person follows rules as given, without context, with no sense of responsibility beyond following the rules exactly. Competence develops when the individual develops organizing principles to quickly access the particular rules that are relevant to the specific task at hand; hence, competence is characterized by active decision making in choosing a course of action. Proficiency is shown by individuals who develop intuition to guide their decisions and devise their own rules to formulate plans. The progression is thus from rigid adherence to rules to an intuitive mode of reasoning based on tacit knowledge. Michael Eraut summarized the five stages of increasing skill as follows:[2] 1. Novice "rigid adherence to taught rules or plans" no exercise of "discretionary judgment" 2. Advanced beginner limited "situational perception" all aspects of work treated separately with equal importance 3. Competent "coping with crowdedness" (multiple activities, accumulation of information) some perception of actions in relation to goals deliberate planning formulates routines

4. Proficient holistic view of situation prioritizes importance of aspects "perceives deviations from the normal pattern" employs maxims for guidance, with meanings that adapt to the situation at hand

5. Expert transcends reliance on rules, guidelines, and maxims "intuitive grasp of situations based on deep, tacit understanding" has "vision of what is possible" uses "analytical approaches" in new situations or in case of problems

Dreyfus model of skill acquisition

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A sixth stage for innovation

During in-depth interviews carried out 1987-1990 with Hubert and Stuart Dreyfus by Oxford professor Bent Flyvbjerg, Flyvbjerg problematized(!) the fact that the Dreyfus model in its original form does not account for innovation, i.e., how new skills come into being and outcompete old ones. This lack in the original model makes it relatively undynamic and unable to grasp skill acquisition in full, according to Flyvbjerg, who proposed as a remedy a sixth stage for innovation.[3] Flyvbjerg also questioned the way phronesis (practical wisdom) seemed to be conflated with techne (craft) in Hubert and Stuart Dreyfus's thinking about skills.[4] At first the Dreyfus brothers rejected additional stages to the five-stage model on the grounds that they did not understand innovation.[5] In 1990, Flyvbjerg published an evaluation and extension of the model including a sixth stage for innovation.[6] Later, Hubert Dreyfus embraced both a sixth and a seventh stage taking into account innovation and practical wisdom in the Dreyfus model of skill acquisition.[7]

Example uses of the model

Assessing progress in the development of skills. Helping to define a desired level of competence. Supporting progress in the development of skills, by understanding the learning needs and styles of learning at different levels of skill acquisition. Helping to determine when a learner is ready to teach others.

References
[1] Dreyfus, Stuart E.; Dreyfus, Hubert L. (February 1980). A Five-Stage Model of the Mental Activities Involved in Directed Skill Acquisition (http:/ / www. dtic. mil/ cgi-bin/ GetTRDoc?AD=ADA084551& Location=U2& doc=GetTRDoc. pdf). Washington, DC: Storming Media. . Retrieved June 13, 2010. [2] Cheetham, Graham; Chivers, Geoff (2005). Professions, Competence and Informal Learning (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=xwyqLR-mG4cC& pg=PA162& dq='''Dreyfus+ Model+ of+ Skill+ Acquisition'''#PPA162,M1). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. p.337. ISBN1-84376-408-3. . Reprinted from Eraut, Michael (1994). Developing Professional Knowledge and Competence. London: Falmer Press. p.124. ISBN0-7507-0330-X. [3] Flyvbjerg, Bent, 1990, Rationalitet, intuition og krop i menneskets lreproces: Fortolkning og evaluering af Hubert og Stuart Dreyfus' model for indlring af frdigheder (Rationality, Intuition, and Body in Human Learning: An Interpretation and Evaluation of the Hubert and Stuart Dreyfus Skill Acquisition Model). Aalborg: Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University. [4] Flyvbjerg, Bent, 1991, "Sustaining Non-Rationalized Practices: Body-Mind, Power, and Situational Ethics. An Interview with Hubert and Stuart Dreyfus." (http:/ / www. sbs. ox. ac. uk/ centres/ bt/ directory/ Documents/ 91DreyfusDreyfusInterviewPRINT SUSTAININGNONRATIONALIZEDPRACTICESBODYMINDPOWERANDSITUATIONALETHICS. pdf) Praxis International, vol. 11, no. 1, April, pp. 93-113. [5] Flyvbjerg, Bent, 1990, Rationalitet, intuition og krop i menneskets lreproces: Fortolkning og evaluering af Hubert og Stuart Dreyfus' model for indlring af frdigheder (Rationality, Intuition, and Body in Human Learning: An Interpretation and Evaluation of the Hubert and Stuart Dreyfus Skill Acquisition Model) (http:/ / files. me. com/ flyvbjerg/ i9qwp5). Aalborg: Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University. [6] Flyvbjerg, Bent, 1990, Rationalitet, intuition og krop i menneskets lreproces: Fortolkning og evaluering af Hubert og Stuart Dreyfus' model for indlring af frdigheder (Rationality, Intuition, and Body in Human Learning: An Interpretation and Evaluation of the Hubert and Stuart Dreyfus Skill Acquisition Model) (http:/ / files. me. com/ flyvbjerg/ i9qwp5). Aalborg: Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University. [7] Dreyfus, Hubert L., 2008, On the Internet. London: Routledge.

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Further reading
Benner, Patricia (2004). "Using the Dreyfus Model of Skill Acquisition to Describe and Interpret Skill Acquisition and Clinical Judgment in Nursing Practice and Education" (http://bst.sagepub.com/cgi/content/ abstract/24/3/188). Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society 24 (3): 18819. doi:10.1177/0270467604265061. Eriksen, Jrgen W. (2010). "Should Soldiers Think before They Shoot?" (http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ abs/10.1080/15027570.2010.510861). Journal of Military Ethics 9 (3): 195218. doi:10.1080/15027570.2010.510861.

External links
Table of the Dreyfus Levels (http://www.sld.demon.co.uk/dreyfus.pdf/)

Four stages of competence

In psychology, the four stages of competence, or the "conscious competence" learning model, relates to the psychological states involved in the process of progressing from incompetence to competence in a skill.

History
Initially described as Four Stages for Learning Any New Skill, the theory was developed at the Gordon Training International by its employee Noel Burch in the 1970s.[1] It has since been frequently attributed to Abraham Maslow, although the model does not appear in his major works.[2] The Four Stages of Learning provides a model for learning. It suggests that individuals are initially unaware of how little they know, or unconscious of their incompetence. As they recognize their incompetence, they consciously acquire a skill, then consciously use that skill. Eventually, the skill can be done without consciously being thought through, and the individual is said to have unconscious competence. [3] Several elements, including helping someone 'know what they don't know' or recognize a blind spot, can be compared to some elements of a Johari window, although Johari deals with self-awareness, while the four stages of competence deals with learning stages.

The four stages

1. Unconscious incompetence The individual does not understand or know how to do something and does not necessarily recognize the deficit. They may deny the usefulness of the skill. The individual must recognise their own incompetence, and the value of the new skill, before moving on to the next stage.[2] The length of time an individual spends in this stage depends on the strength of the stimulus to learn.[3] 2. Conscious incompetence Though the individual does not understand or know how to do something, he or she does recognize the deficit, as well as the value of a new skill in addressing the deficit. The making of mistakes can be integral to the learning process at this stage.[4] 3. Conscious competence The individual understands or knows how to do something. However, demonstrating the skill or knowledge requires concentration. It may be broken down into steps, and there is heavy conscious involvement in executing the new skill.[3] 4. Unconscious competence

Four stages of competence The individual has had so much practice with a skill that it has become "second nature" and can be performed easily. As a result, the skill can be performed while executing another task. The individual may be able to teach it to others, depending upon how and when it was learnt.

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Fifth stage
The model is expanded by some users to include a fifth stage, which is not part of the original model from Gordon Training International. The exact composition of this stage varies between authors. Some refer to reflective ability, or "conscious competence of unconscious competence", as being the fifth stage, while others use the fifth stage to indicate complacency.[2]

References
[1] "Learning a New Skill is Easier Said than Done" (http:/ / www. gordontraining. com/ free-workplace-articles/ learning-a-new-skill-is-easier-said-than-done/ ). Gordon Training International. . [2] "Conscious competence learning model matrix - unconscious incompetence to unconscious competence" (http:/ / www. businessballs. com/ consciouscompetencelearningmodel. htm). Business Balls. . [3] Flower J (1999). "In the Mush" (http:/ / web. ebscohost. com/ ehost/ detail?sid=76453646-9f0d-418e-b185-7716247addf5@sessionmgr111& vid=1& hid=123& bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ==#db=mnh& AN=10387273). Physician Exec 25 (1): 646. PMID10387273. . [4] "The Four Stages of Learning" (http:/ / processcoaching. com/ fourstages. html). Process Coaching Center. .

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