HORIZON

VARIABLE FREEQUENCY DRIVE (VFD)

(A Theory and Practical guide )

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Table of contents :
1- Mostly used terminology in Motors and VFDs 2-Basics of Motors 3)- Types of Motors 4)Methods of starting of motors The main functions of starters & variable speed drives 5)Basic Principle of VFDs 6) Additional features of variable speed drives 7)Control modes of VFDs 8)Effect of long distance cables on VFDs 9) Types of braking 10) Classification of VFDs based on application 11)PI control

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Before discussing VFD it is necessary to understand some of the basic terminology associated with motor/VFD operation.Many of these terms are familiar to us in some other context. Later in the course we will see how these terms apply to Force Torque In simple terms, a force is a push or a pull. Force may be caused by electromagnetism, gravity, or a combination of physical means. Torque is a twisting or turning force that causes an object to rotate. For example, a force applied to the end of a lever causes a turning effect or torque at the pivot point. Torque () is the product of force and radius (lever distance). = Force x Radius In the English system torque is measured in pound-feet (lb-ft) or pound-inches (lb-in).If 10 lbs of force were applied to a lever 1 foot long, for example, there would be 10 lb-ft of torque. Acceleration An object can change speed. An increase in speed is called acceleration. Acceleration occurs only when there is a change in the force acting upon the object. An object can also change from a higher to a lower speed. This is known as deceleration (negative acceleration). A rotating object, for example, can accelerate from 10 RPM to 20 RPM, or decelerate from 20 HSS : Commited to Quality Education RPM to 10 RPM.

Inertia

as a

Mechanical systems are subject to the law of inertia. The law of inertia states that an object will tend to remain in its current state of rest or motion unless acted upon by an external force.This property of resistance to acceleration/deceleration is referred to as the moment of inertia.The English system of measurement is pound-feet squared (lbft2). If we look at a continuous roll of paper, for example, we know that when the roll is stopped it would take a certain amount of force to overcome the inertia of the roll to get it rolling. The force required to overcome this inertia can come from a source of energy such motor. Once rolling, the paper will continue unwinding until another force acts on it to bring it to a stop.

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Synchronous Speed

The speed of the rotating magnetic field is referred to as synchronous speed (NS). Synchronous speed is equal to 120 times the frequency (F), divided by the number of poles (P). The synchronous speed for a two-pole motor operated at 60 Hz, for example, is 3600 RPM. Synchronous speed decreases as the number of poles increase. Ns = 120 F / P

Slip

There must be a relative difference in speed between the rotor and the rotating magnetic field. If the rotor and the rotating magnetic field were turning at the same speed no relative motion would exist between the two, therefore no lines of flux would be cut, and no voltage would be induced in the rotor. The difference in speed is called slip. Slip is necessary to produce torque. Slip is dependent on load. An increase in load will cause the rotor to slow down or increase slip. A decrease in load will cause the rotor to speed up or decrease slip. Slip is expressed as a percentage and can be determined with the following formula. % SLIP = (Ns-Na) x 100 HSS : Commited to Quality Education --------------------

Variable torque: Motors have a speed torque characteristic that varies as the square of the speed. For example, an 1,800/900-rpm motor that develops 10 hp at 1,800 rpm produces 2.5 hp at 900 rpm. Since some loads, such as centrifugal pumps, fans, and blowers, have a torque requirement that varies as the square or cube of the speed, this motor characteristic is usually adequate. Constant torque: These motors can develop the same torque at each speed, thus power output varies directly with speed. For example, a motor rated at 10 hp at 1,800 rpm produces 5 hp at 900 rpm. These motors are used in applications with constant torque requirements such as mixers, conveyors, and compressors. Constant horsepower: These motors develop the same horsepower at each speed and the torque is inversely proportional to the speed. Typical applications include machine tools such as drills, lathes, and milling machines.

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Line Voltage Voltage (VS) is applied to the stator power leads from the AC power supply. Voltage drops occur due to stator resistance (RS). The resultant voltage (E) represents force (emf) available to produce magnetizing flux and torque. Magnetizing Current Magnetizing current (IM) is responsible for producing magnetic lines of flux which magnetically link with the rotor circuit. Magnetizing current is typically about 30% of rated current. Magnetizing current, like flux (), is proportional to voltage (E) and frequency (F). Working Current The current that flows in the rotor circuit and produces torque is referred to as working current (IW). Working current is a function of the load. An increase in load causes the rotor circuit to work harder increasing working current (IW). A decrease in load decreases the work the rotor circuit does decreasing working current (IW). Stator Current Stator current (IS) is the current that flows in the stator circuit. Stator current can be measured on the supply line and is also referred to as line current. A clamp-on ammeter, for example, is frequently used to measure stator current. The full-load ampere rating on the nameplate of a motor refers to stator current at rated voltage, frequency and load. It is the maximum current the motor can carry without damage. Stator current is the vector sum of working current (IW) and magnetizing current (IM). Typically magnetizing current (IM) remains constant. Working current (IW) will vary with the applied load which causes a corresponding change in stator current (IS). Volts per Hertz A ratio exists between voltage and frequency. This ratio is referred to as volts per hertz (V/Hz). A typical AC motor manufactured for use in the United States is rated for 460 VAC and 60 Hz. The ratio is 7.67 volts per hertz. Not every motor has a 7.67 V/Hz ratio. A 230 Volt, 60 Hz motor, for example, has a 3.8V/Hz ratio . Flux (), magnetizing current (IM), and torque are all dependent on this ratio. Increasing frequency (F) without increasing voltage (E), for example, will cause a corresponding increase in speed. Flux, however, will decrease causing motor torque to decrease. Magnetizing current (IM) will also decrease. A decrease in magnetizing current will cause a corresponding decrease in stator or line (IS) current. These decreases are all related and greatly affect the motors ability to handle a given load.

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Locked Rotor Torque Locked rotor torque, also referred to as starting torque, is developed when the rotor is held at rest with rated voltage and frequency applied. This condition occurs each time a motor is started. When rated voltage and frequency are applied to the stator there is a brief amount of time before the rotor turns. Locked Rotor Current Locked rotor current is also referred to as starting current. This is the current taken from the supply line at rated voltage and frequency with the rotor at rest. Pull Up Torque Pull up torque is the torque developed during acceleration from start to the point breakdown torque occurs. Breakdown Torque Breakdown torque is the maximum torque a motor develops at rated voltage and speed without an abrupt loss of speed. Full-Load Torque Full-load torque is the torque developed when the motor is operating with rated voltage, frequency and load. Full-Load Current Full-load current is the current taken from the supply line at rated voltage, frequency and load. NEMA Classifications Three-phase AC motors are classified by NEMA as NEMA A, B, C and D. NEMA specifies certain operating characteristics for motors when started by applying rated voltage and frequency (across the line starting). A NEMA B motor, for example, typically requires 600% starting current and 150% starting torque. These considerations do not apply to motors started with an AC drive. NEMA B design motors are the most common and most suitable for use on AC drives. Starting Current When a motor is started, it must perform work to overcome the inertia of the rotor and attached load. The starting current measured on the incoming line (IS) is typically 600% of full-load current when rated voltage and frequency is first applied to a NEMA B motor.

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Horsepower and kilowatts AC motors manufactured in the United States are generally rated in horsepower (HP). Equipment manufactured in Europe is generally rated in kilowatts (KW). Horsepower can be converted to kilowatts with the following formula: KW = .746 x HP For example, a 25 HP motor is equivalent to 18.65 KW. 18.65 KW = .746 x 25 HP Kilowatts can be converted to horsepower with the following formula: HP = 1.341 x KW The power formula for a single-phase system is: KW = (V x I x P.F.) / 1000 The power formula for three-phase power is KW = (V x I x P.F. x 1.732) / 1000

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Basics Of Motors Application of Motors

Nowadays, apart from lighting devices, electric motors represent the largest loads in industry and commercial installations. Their function, to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy, means they are particularly significant in economic terms, and hence, they cannot be ignored by installation or machinery designers, installers or users. There are many types of motor in existence, but 3-phase asynchronous motors, and in particular squirrel cage motors, are the most commonly used in industry and in commercial buildings applications above a certain power level. Moreover, although they are ideal for many applications when controlled by contactor devices, the increasing use of electronic equipment is widening their field of application. This is the case for start/stop control with soft start/soft stop units, and when precise speed adjustment is also necessary with variable speed drives/regulators. However, slip-ring asynchronous motors are used for certain high power applications in industry, and single phase asynchronous motors remain suitable for limited power applications, mainly for buildings applications. The use of synchronous motors, known as brushless or permanent magnet motors, combined with converters is becoming increasingly common in applications requiring high performance levels, in particular in terms of dynamic torque (on starting or on a change of duty), precision and speed range. After presenting the various types of electric motor and their operating principles, this manual describes the technical and operating features of asynchronous motors, covering in particular the main starting devices, speed control and braking methods. It provides a solid grounding for the reader to gain a good understanding of all the problems involved with motor control and protection. This part of manual touches briefly on variable speed control of electric motors.

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Operating principle (Asynchronous motors)

The operating principle of an asynchronous motor is based on the creation of an induced current in a conductor when the conductor cuts the lines of force of a magnetic field, hence the name "induction motor". The combined action of this induced current and the magnetic field creates a motive force on the motor rotor. Let us take the example of a turn with short circuit ABCD, located in magnetic field B, and rotating around an axis xy (see Fig 1 ).If, for example, we rotate the magnetic field clockwise, the turn is subject to a variable flux and becomes the source of an induced electromotive force which causes an induced current I (Faradays law). According to Lenzs law, the direction of the current is such that it opposes the cause that produced it by its electromagnetic action. Both of the conductors are therefore subject to a Lorentz force F (also known as Laplace force), in the opposite direction to its relative displacement in relation to the field coil field. The left hand rule (action of the field on a current, see Figure 2 ) helps demonstrate the direction of the force F applied to each conductor. The thumb points in the direction of the movement field. The index finger indicates the direction of the field. The middle finger points in the direction of the induced current. The turn is therefore subject to a torque that causes it to rotate in the same direction as the coil field, called the rotating field. The turn therefore starts to rotate and the electromotive torque produced balances the resistive torque.

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Construction (asynchronous motors)

A 3-phase squirrel cage asynchronous motor consists of two main parts: a field coil or stator and an armature or rotor.

Stator
This is the fixed part of the motor. A cast iron or light alloy frame surrounds a ring of thin laminations (around 0.5 mm thick) made of silicon steel. The laminations are insulated from one another by oxidation or an insulating varnish. The "lamination" of the magnetic circuit reduces losses via hysteresis and eddy currents. The laminations have slots in them for holding the stator windings that produce the rotating field (three windings for a 3-phase motor). Each winding is made up of a number of coils. The way these coils are joined to one another defines the number of pairs of poles of the motor, and thus the speed of rotation.

Rotor
This is the moving part of the motor. Like the magnetic circuit of the stator, it is made up of a stack of thin laminations insulated from one another, forming a keyed cylinder on the motor shaft. Two different technologies can be used for this part, which separate asynchronous motors into two distinct families: those with a squirrel cage rotor and those with a wound rotor which are referred to as slip-ring.

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Construction (Synchronous motors)

Like the asynchronous motor, the synchronous motor consists of a stator and a rotor separated by the air gap. It differs from the asynchronous motor in that the flux in the air gap is not due to a component of the stator current: it is created by magnets or by the field coil current provided by an external DC source energizing a winding placed in the rotor.

Stator
The stator consists of a housing and a magnetic circuit generally comprising silicon steel laminations and a 3-phase coil similar to that of an asynchronous motor supplied with 3-phase AC to produce a rotating field.

Rotor
The rotor carries field magnets or coils through which a direct current flows and which create interposed North and South poles. Unlike asynchronous machines, the rotor rotates with no slip at the speed of the rotating field. There are therefore two different types of synchronous motor: magnet motors and wound rotor motors With magnet motors, the motor rotor is fitted with permanent magnets (see Fig. 10 ) (generally rare earth magnets), in order to achieve increased field strength in a small volume. The stator has three-phase windings. These motors can tolerate significant overload currents in order to achieve high-speed acceleration. They are always used with a variable speed drive, and these motor-drive assemblies are intended for specific markets such as robots or machine tools, for which smaller motors, acceleration is essential. The second type of synchronous machine has a wound coil, and is a reversible machine that can operate as either a generator (alternator) or a motor. For many years these machines have been mainly used as alternators. Their use as motors was virtually confined to applications where it was necessary to drive loads at fixed speed despite relatively wide variations in their resistive torque. Operating characteristics The motor torque of the synchronous machine is proportional to the voltage at its terminals, whereas that of the asynchronous machine is proportional to the square of that voltage. Unlike the asynchronous motor, it can work with a power factor equal to one or very close to it. The synchronous motor therefore has a number of advantages over the asynchronous motor with regard to its ability to be powered via the constant voltage/frequency line supply: -- The speed of the motor is constant, regardless:of the load. to Quality Education HSS Commited -- It can supply reactive power and increase the power factor of an installation. -- It can withstand relatively large voltage drops (around 50% due to its over-excitation properties) without stalling.

However, the synchronous motor supplied directly by the constant voltage/frequency line supply has two disadvantages: -- It has starting difficulties. If the motor is not combined with a variable speed drive, starting must be performed at noload, either by DOL starting for small motors, or using a starting motor that drives it at a speed close to synchronous speed before direct connection to the line supply. -- It may stall if the resistive torque exceeds its maximum electromagnetic torque. In this case, the entire start process must be repeated. .

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DC motors
Separate field excitation DC motors are still sometimes used for driving machines at variable speed. These motors are very easy to miniaturize, and essential for very low powers and low voltages. They are also particularly suitable, up to high power levels (several megawatts), for speed variation with simple, uncomplicated electronic technologies for high performance levels (variation range commonly used from 1 to 100). Their characteristics also enable accurate torque regulation, when operating as a motor or as a generator. Their nominal rotation speed, which is independent of the line supply frequency, is easy to adapt by design to suit all applications. They are however less rugged than asynchronous motors and much more expensive, in terms of both hardware and maintenance costs, as they require regular servicing of the commutator and the brushes. Construction A DC motor is composed of the following parts: # Field coil or stator - This is a non-moving part of the magnetic circuit on which a winding is wound in order to produce a magnetic field. The electro-magnet that is created has a cylindrical cavity between its poles. # Armature or rotor-This is a cylinder of magnetic laminations that are insulated from one another and perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder. The armature is a moving part that rotates round its axis, and is separated from the field coil by an air gap. Conductors are evenly distributed around its outer surface. # Commutator and brushes The commutator is integral with the armature. The brushes are fixed. They rub against the commutator and thus supply power to the armature conductors. Operating principle When the field coil is energized, it creates a magnetic field (excitation flux) in the air gap, in the direction of the radii of the armature. This magnetic field "enters" the armature from the North pole side of the field coil and "exits" the armature from the South pole side of the field coil. When the armature is energized, currents pass through the conductors located under one field coil pole (on the same side of the brushes) in the same direction and are thus, according to Laplace's law, subject to a force. The conductors located under the otherCommited to Quality Educationsame intensity in the opposite HSS : pole are subject to a force of the direction. The two forces create a torque which causes the motor armature to rotate (

Operating principle
When the field coil is energized, it creates a magnetic field (excitation flux) in the air gap, in the direction of the radii of the armature. This magnetic field "enters" the armature from the North pole side of the field coil and "exits" the armature from the South pole side of the field coil. When the armature is energized, currents pass through the conductors located under one field coil pole (on the same side of the brushes) in the same direction and are thus, according to Laplace's law, subject to a force. The conductors located under the other pole are subject to a force of the same intensity in the opposite direction. The two forces create a torque which causes the motor armature to rotate

When the motor armature is powered by a DC or rectified voltage supply U, it produces back emf E whose value is E = U RI RI represents the ohmic voltage drop in the armature. The back emf E is linked to the speed and the excitation by the equation E = k in which: -- k is a constant specific to the motor -- is the angular speed -- is the flux

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This equation shows that at constant excitation the back emf E (proportional to ) is an image of the speed.

The torque is linked to the field coil flux and the current in the armature by the equation: T = k I If the flux is reduced, the torque decreases. There are two methods for increasing the speed. --- Either increase the back emf E, and thus the supply voltage at constant excitation: this is known as "constant torque" operation. --- Or decrease the excitation flux, and thus the excitation current, while keeping the supply voltage constant: this is known as "reduced flux or "constant power" operation. This operation requires the torque to decrease as the speed increases.

Various types of DC motor # Parallel excitation (separate or shunt)

The coils, armature and field coil are connected in parallel or supplied via two sources with different voltages in order to adapt to the characteristics of the machine (e.g.: armature voltage 400 volts and field coil voltage 180 volts).

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The direction of rotation is reversed by inverting one or other of the windings, generally by inverting the armature voltage due to the much lower time constants. Most bidirectional speed drives for DC motors operate in this way.

# Series wound --The design of this motor is similar to that of the separate field excitation motor. The field coil is
connected in series to the armature coil, hence its name. The direction of rotation can be reversed by inverting the polarities of the armature or the field coil. This motor is mainly used for traction, in particular on trucks supplied by battery packs. In railway traction the old TGV (French high-speed train) motor coaches used this type of motor. More recent coaches use asynchronous motors.

#Compound wound (series-parallel excitation) --This technology combines the qualities of the series wound motor
and the shunt wound motor. This motor has two windings per field coil pole. One is connected in parallel with the armature. A low current (low in relation to the working current) flows through it. The other is connected in series. It is an added flux motor if the ampere turns of the two windings add their effects. Otherwise it is a negative flux motor. But this particular mounting method is very rarely used as it leads to unstable operation with high loads.

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Methods of starting the Motors

The most common way of starting asynchronous motors is directly on the line (DOL) or Star-Delta supply. This technique is often suitable for a wide variety of machines. However, it sometimes brings with it restrictions that can be inconvenient for some applications, and even incompatible with the functions required from the machine: The inrush current on start-up can interfere with the operation of other devices connected on the same line supply. Mechanical shocks during starting that cannot be tolerated by the machine or may endanger the comfort and safety of users. Acceleration and deceleration cannot be controlled. Speed cannot be controlled. Starters and variable speed drives are able to counter these problems. Electronic technology has made them more flexible and has extended their field of application.

Brief history
Originally, rheostatic starters, mechanical drives and rotating sets (Ward Leonard in particular) were used for starting electric motors and controlling their speed. Later, electronic starters and drives came to the fore as a modern, cost effective, reliable and maintenance-free solution for industrial applications. An electronic drive or starter is an energy converter, which modulates the electrical energy supplied to the motor. Electronic starters are used solely for asynchronous motors. They are a type of voltage controller. Variable speed drives ensure gradual acceleration and deceleration and enable speed to be matched precisely to operating conditions. Controlled rectifier type variable speed drives are used to supply power to DC motors and frequency inverters are used for AC motors. Historically, drives for DC motors appeared first. Reliable and cost-effective frequency inverters appeared as a result of advances in power electronics and microelectronics. Modern frequency inverters can be used to supply power to standard asynchronous motors with performance levels similar to those of the best DC variable speed drives. Some manufacturers even offer asynchronous motors with electronic variable speed drives housed in a custom-made terminal box. This solution is HSS : Commited to Quality Education designed for reduced power assemblies (only a few kW).

The main functions of electronic starters and variable speed drives

Controlled acceleration Motor speed rise is controlled using a linear or S acceleration ramp. This ramp is usually adjustable and therefore enables a speed rise time that is appropriate for the application to be selected. Speed control A variable speed drive cannot be a regulator at the same time. This means that it is a rudimentary system where the control principle is developed on the basis of the electrical characteristics of the motor using power amplification but without a feedback loop and is described as open loop. The speed of the motor is defined by an input value (voltage or current) known as the reference or set point. For a given reference value, this speed may vary depending on disturbances (variations in supply voltage, load, temperature). The speed range is defined in relation to the nominal speed. Speed regulation A speed regulator is a controlled drive (see Fig. 1 ). It features a control system with power amplification and a feedback loop and is described as closed loop. The speed of the motor is defined by a reference.The value of the reference is continuously compared with a feedback signal, which is an image of the motor speed. This signal is supplied either by a tachogenerator or by a pulse generator connected at the motor shaft end. If a deviation is detected following speed variation, the values applied to the motor (voltage and/or frequency) are automatically corrected in order to restore the speed to its initial value. The feedback control renders the speed virtually impervious to disturbances. The precision of a regulator is usually expressed as a % of the nominal value of the value to be controlled.

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Controlled deceleration When a motor is switched off, it decelerates solely on the basis of the resistive torque of the machine (natural deceleration). Electronic starters and drives can be used to control deceleration via a linear or S ramp, which is usually independent of the acceleration ramp. This ramp can be adjusted in order to produce a time for deceleration from the steady state speed to an intermediate speed or zero speed: if the required deceleration is faster than the natural deceleration, the motor must develop a resistive torque that can be added to the resistive torque of the machine. This is described as electrical braking, which can be achieved either by restoring energy to the line supply or via dissipation in a braking resistor. If the required deceleration is slower than the natural deceleration, the motor must develop a motor torque greater than the resistive torque of the machine and continue to drive the load until the motor comes to a stop. Reversal of operating direction The majority of todays drives support this function as standard. The order of the motor supply phases is inverted automatically either by inverting the input reference, or via a logic command on a terminal, or via information transmitted via a line supply connection. Braking to a standstill This type of braking stops a motor without actually controlling the deceleration ramp. For starters and variable speed drives for asynchronous motors, this is achieved economically by injecting direct current into the motor with a special power stage function. As all the mechanical energy is dissipated in the machine rotor, this braking can only be intermittent. On a drive for a DC motor, this function will be provided by connecting a resistor to the armature terminals. Built-in protection Modern drives generally provide thermal protection for motors and self-protection. A microprocessor uses the current measured and speed data (if motor ventilation depends on its speed of rotation) to calculate the temperature rise of the motor and sends an alarm signal or trigger signal in the event of an excessive temperature rise. Drives, and in particular frequency inverters, are also often fitted with protection against: Short-circuits between phases and between phase and ground Over voltages and voltage drops HSS : Commited to Quality Education Phase unbalance Single-phase operation

Structure of electronic starters and drives

Structure Electronic starters and variable speed drives comprise two modules, which are usually housed in a single enclosure (see Fig. ): A control module, which manages the operation of the device A power module, which supplies power to the motor in the form of electrical energy The control module On modern starters and drives, all functions are controlled by a microprocessor, which uses the settings, the commands sent by an operator or by a processing unit and the results of measurements such as speed, current, etc. Along with dedicated circuits (ASICs), the microprocessors calculation functions have made it possible to perform extremely highperformance control algorithms and in particular to recognize the parameters of the machine being driven. The microprocessor uses this information to manage the deceleration and acceleration ramps, for speed control and current limiting as well as to control power components. Protection and safety measures are processed by dedicated circuits (ASICs) or circuits integrated in power modules (IPMs). Speed limits, ramp profiles, current limits and other settings are defined using the integrated keypads, or via PLCs (over fieldbuses) or PCs. Similarly, the various commands (run, stop, brake, etc.) can be sent via HMIs, PLCs or PCs. Operating parameters and alarm and fault data can be displayed using indicators, electroluminescent diodes, segment displays or LCDs. Alternatively they can be displayed remotely to supervisors via fieldbuses. Relays, which are usually programmable, provide the following data: Fault (line supply, thermal, product, sequence, overload, etc.) Monitoring (speed threshold, pre-alarm, end of starting) The voltages required for all measurement and control circuits are supplied via a power supply that is integrated into the drive and electrically isolated from the line supply. The power module The main components of the power module are: Power components (diodes, thyristors, IGBTs, etc.) Interfaces for measuring voltages and/or currents In most cases, a fan unit

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Frequency inverter for asynchronous motor General principle

The frequency inverter, which is powered at fixed voltage and frequency via the line supply, provides a variable voltage and frequency AC power supply to the motor as appropriate for its speed requirements. Constant flux must be maintained in order to facilitate the supply of power to an asynchronous motor at constant torque regardless of speed. This requires the voltage and frequency to increase simultaneously in equal proportions. Composition The power circuit comprises a rectifier and an inverter, which uses the rectified voltage to produce a variable amplitude voltage and frequency (see Fig). In order to meet the requirements of the EC (European Community) directive and associated standards, a line supply filter is installed upstream of the rectifier bridge. The rectifier is usually fitted with a diode rectifier bridge and a filter circuit comprising one or more capacitors depending on the power rating. A limitation circuit controls the current on drive start-up. Some converters use a thyristor bridge to limit the inrush current of these filter capacitors, which are loaded to a value that is approximately equal to the peak value of the line supply sine wave (approx. 560 V at 400 V three-phase). Note: Although discharge circuits are fitted, these capacitors may retain a dangerous voltage once the line voltage has been disconnected. Work must only be carried out on this type of product by trained personnel with knowledge of the essential precautions to be taken (additional discharge circuit or knowledge of waiting periods). The inverter bridge connected to these capacitors uses six power semiconductors (usually IGBTs) and associated freewheel diodes. This type of drive is designed to power asynchronous cage motors. A frequency inverter can be used to create a miniature electrical supply network providing a variable voltage and frequency capable of supplying power to a single motor or to several motors in parallel. It comprises: A rectifier with filter capacitor An inverter with 6 IGBTs and 6 diodes A chopper, which is connected to a braking resistor (usually external to the product) c

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IGBT transistor control circuits A control unit based around a microprocessor, which is used to control the inverter Internal sensors for measuring the motor current, the DC voltage at the capacitor terminals and in some cases the voltages at the terminals of the rectifier bridge and the motor as well as all values required to control and protect the motor-drive unit. A power supply for low-level electronic circuits.This power supply is provided by a switching circuit connected to the filter capacitor terminals in order to make use of this energy reserve. drives use this feature to avoid the effects of transient line supply fluctuations, thereby achieving remarkable performance levels on line supplies subject to significant disturbances.

Speed control The output voltage is generated by switching the rectified voltage using pulses with a duration, and therefore a width, which is modulated so that the resulting alternating current will be as sinusoidal as possible (see ). This technique, known as PWM (Pulse Width Modulation), conditions regular rotation at low speed and limits temperature rises. The modulation frequency selected is a compromise: it must be high enough to reduce current ripple and acoustic noise in the motor without significantly increasing losses in the rectifier bridge and in the semiconductors. Built-in protection The drive provides self-protection and protects HSS the motor against excessive temperature rises : Commited to Quality Education by disabling it until the temperature falls back to

Built-in protection The drive provides self-protection and protects the motor against excessive temperature rises by disabling it until the temperature falls back to an acceptable level. It also provides protection against any type of disturbance or problem that may affect the operation of the unit, such as over voltages or under voltages or the loss of an input or output phase. In some ratings, the rectifier, the inverter, the chopper, the control and protection against short-circuits are housed in a single IPM.

Additional functions of variable speed drives

Dialog options In order to ensure that the motor operates correctly, the drives are fitted with a number of sensors for monitoring the voltage, the motor currents and the thermal state of the motor. This information, which is essential for the drive, can be useful for operation. The latest drives and starters feature dialog functions based on fieldbuses. This provides a means of generating information that is used by a PLC and a supervisor to control the machine. The PLC also uses the same channel to provide control information in the same way. The information transmitted includes: ---- Speed references ---- Run or stop commands ---- Initial drive settings or modifications of these settings during operation ---- The drive status (run, stop, overload, fault) ---- Alarms ---- The motor status (speed, torque, current, temperature) These dialog options are also used in connection with a PC in order to simplify settings on start-up (download) or to archive initial settings.

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Built-in functions In order to be compatible for use in a large number of applications, the drives feature a significant number of adjustments and settings, including: -- Acceleration and deceleration ramp times -- Ramp profiles (linear, S or U) -- Ramp switching, which can be used to obtain two acceleration or deceleration ramps in order, for example, to permit a smooth approach -- Reduction of the maximum torque controlled using a logic input or a reference -- Jog operation -- Management of brake control for lifting applications -- Choice of preset speeds -- The presence of summed inputs, which can be used to sum speed references -- Switching of references present at the drive input -- The presence of a PI regulator for simple servo control (speed or flow rate for example) -- Automatic stop following loss of line supply enabling the motor to brake -- Automatic catching a spinning load with detection of motor speed for catch on the fly -- Thermal protection of the motor using an image generated in the drive -- Option to connect PTC thermal sensors integrated into the motor -- Skipping of the machine resonance frequency, the critical speed is skipped in order to prevent operation at this frequency -- Time-delayed locking at low speed in pumping applications where the fluid is used to lubricate the pump and prevent seizing These functions are increasingly being included as standard on sophisticated drives

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Control Modes
The VFD has four modes of operation: Linear voltage/frequency Quadratic voltage/frequency Flux Current Control Sensorless vector frequency control Closed loop vector control (440 with encoder option card) Linear Voltage/Frequency The VFD can operate utilizing a standard V/Hz curve. Using a 460 VAC, 60 Hz motor as an example, constant volts per hertz is supplied to the motor at any frequency between 0 and 60 Hz. This is the simplest type of control and is suitable for general purpose applications.

Quadratic Operation A second mode of operation is referred to as a quadratic voltage/frequency curve. This mode provides a V/Hz curve that matches the torque requirements of simple fan and pump applications. Flux Current Control Stator current (IS) is made up of active and reactive current.The reactive current component of stator current produces the rotating magnetic field. The active current produces work. Motor nameplate data is entered into the drive. The drive estimates motor magnetic flux based on the measured reactive stator current and the entered nameplate data. Proprietary internal computer algorithms attempt to keep the estimated magnetic flux constant. If the motor nameplate information has been correctly entered and the drive properly set up, the flux current control mode will usually provide better dynamic performance than simple V/Hz control. Flux current control automatically adapts the drive output to the load. The motor is always operated at optimum efficiency. Speed remains reliably constant even under varying load conditions.

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Sensorless Vector Control In the past, the dynamic response of a DC motor was generally considered significantly better than an AC motor. An AC motor, however, is less expensive and requires less maintenance than a DC motor. Using a complex mathematical motor model and proprietary internal computer algorithms vector control is able to exert the necessary control over an AC motor so that its performance is equal to that of a DC motor. Vector control, flux vector, and field orientation are terms that describe this specialized control technique of AC drives. Vector control systems facilitate independent control of flux producing and torque producing elements in an induction motor. Sensorless vector control calculates rotor speed based on the motor model, calculated CEMF, inverter output voltage, and inverter output current. This results in improved dynamic performance compared to other control methods.When motor speed is calculated at very low speeds, based on a small CEMF and known corrections for stator resistance, slight variations in stator resistance and other parameters will have an effect on speed calculation. This makes vector control without a tachometer impractical below a few hertz.

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Effect of long Distance cables to Motor

All motor cables have line-to-line and line-to-ground capacitance. The longer the cable, the greater the capacitance. Some types of cables, such as shielded cable or cables in metal conduit, have greater capacitance. Spikes occur on the output of all PWM drives because of the charging current of the cable capacitance. Higher voltage (460 VAC) and higher capacitance (long cables) result in higher current spikes. Voltage spikes caused by long cable lengths can potentially shorten the life of the inverter and the motor. The maximum distance between a motor and the VFD, when unshielded cable is used, is 100 meters (328 feet). If shielded cable is used, or if cable is run through a metal conduit, the maximum distance is 50 meters (164 feet).

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Types of Braking
Coast-to-Stop To stop an AC motor in single-quadrant operation voltage and frequency can simply be removed and the motor allowed to coast to a stop. This is similar to putting a car in neutral, turning off the ignition and allowing the car to coast to a stop. Controlled Deceleration Another way is to use a controlled deceleration. Voltage and frequency are reduced gradually until the motor is at stop. This would be similar to slowly removing your foot from the accelerator of a car. The amount of time required to stop a motor depends on the inertia of the motor and connected load. The more inertia the longer it will take to stop. DC Injection Braking The DC injection braking mode stops the rotating magnetic field and applies a constant DC voltage to the motor windings, helping stop the motor. Up to 250% of the motors rated current can be applied. This is similar to removing your foot from the accelerator and applying the brakes to bring the car to a stop quickly. Compound Braking Compound braking uses a combination of the controlled deceleration ramp and DC injection braking. The drive monitors bus voltage during operation and triggers compound braking when the bus exceeds a set threshold point. As the motor decelerates to a stop a DC voltage is periodically applied to the motor windings. The excess energy of the bus is dissipated in the motor windings. This is similar to alternately applying the brakes to slow a car, then allowing the mechanical inertia of the engine to slow the vehicle until the car is brought to a stop.

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Application of Variable Frequency Drives

When applying an AC drive and motor to an application it is necessary to know the horsepower, torque, and speed characteristics of the load. The following chart shows typical characteristics of various loads.

Loads generally fall into one of three categories: Constant Torque The load is essentially the same throughout the speed range. Hoisting gear and belt conveyors are examples. Variable Torque The load increases as speed increases. Pumps and fans are examples. Constant Horsepower The load decreases as speed increases. Winders and rotary cutting machines are examples.

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Constant Torque Applications

constant torque load implies that the torque required to keep the load running is the same throughout the speed range. It must be remembered that constant torque refers to the motors ability to maintain constant flux (). Torque produced will vary with the required load. Peak torques in excess of 100% can occur at any speed, including zero speed. One example of a constant torque load is a conveyor similar to the one shown below. Conveyors can be found in all sorts of applications and environments, and can take many styles and shapes. Conveyors are made up of belts to support the load, various pulleys to support the belt, maintain tension, and change belt direction, and idlers to support the belt and load.

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The speed and horsepower of an application must be known when selecting a motor and drive. Given the velocity in feet per minute (FPM) of the conveyor belt, the diameter in inches of the driven pulley, and the gear ratio (G) between the motor and driven pulley, the speed of the motor can be determined. The following formula is used to calculate conveyor speed. If, for example, the maximum desired speed of a conveyor is 750 FPM, the driven pulley is 18 in diameter, and the gear ratio between the motor and driven pulley is 4:1, the maximum speed of the motor is 638.3 RPM. It would be difficult to find a motor that would operate at exactly this speed. An AC drive can be used with an eight-pole motor (900 RPM). This would allow the conveyor to be operated at any speed between zero and the desired maximum speed of 750 FPM. Another advantage to using AC drives on a conveyor is the ability to run different sections of the conveyor at different speeds. A bottle machine, for example, may have bottles bunched close together for filling and then spread out for labeling. Two motors and two drives would be required. One motor would run the filling section at a given speed and a second motor would run the labeling section slightly faster spreading the bottles out.

Motor Speed

Horsepower Calculating motor horsepower is complicated

with many variables, which is beyond the scope of this course. Someone with knowledge of, and experience with conveyor operation would be required to accurately calculate the required horsepower. The horsepower required to drive a conveyor is the effective tension (Te) times the velocity (V) of the belt in feet per HSS : Commited to Quality Education minute, divided by 33,000.

Effective tension (Te) is determined by several forces: Gravitational weight of the load Length and weight of belt Friction of material on the conveyor Friction of all drive components and accessories - pulley inertia - belt/chain weight - motor inertia - friction of plows - friction of idlers Acceleration force when new material is added to conveyor If the effective tension of a conveyor were calculated to be 2000 pounds and the maximum speed is 750 FPM, then the required horsepower is 45.5. Starting torque of a conveyor can be 1.5 to 2 times full load torque. A motor capable of driving a fully loaded conveyor may not be able to start and accelerate the conveyor up to speed. AC drives can typically supply 1.5 times full load torque for starting. An engineer may need to choose a larger motor and drive in order to start and accelerate the conveyor.

Torque, HP, and Speed The speed on a conveyor is increased by increasing

the AC drive frequency (F) to the motor. Torque (T) is affected by flux () and working current (IW). The drive will maintain constant flux by keeping the voltage and frequency ratio constant. To do this the drive increases voltage and frequency in proportion. During acceleration working current will increase, however, causing a corresponding increase in torque. Once at its new speed the working current and torque will be the same as its old speed. The conveyor cannot be operated above the rated frequency ofthe motor (60 Hz) without losing available torque. Since torque is proportional to (volts/Hz)2 any increase in speed will cause available torque to decrease by the square. As a result, the motor will be unable to supply rated torque. Horsepower (HP) is affected by torque HSS : Commited to Quality Education and speed. There will be a corresponding increase in horsepower as speed (RPM) increases

Variable Torque Applications

A variable torque load implies that torque and horsepower increase with an increase in speed. Overloads, as a rule of thumb, are not possible at lower speeds. Peak torques are typically limited to rated torque. Fans and pumps are examples of variable torque. A pump used on a chilled water system is shown below. Variable Torque Pumps There are several types of pumps. The most common pump is the end-suction centrifugal pump illustrated below. There are variations of the centrifugal pump. Turbine and propeller pumps are examples. This section deals with variable torque loads. The faster a centrifugal pump turns, the more fluid it pumps and the more torque it requires. It should be noted that not all pumps are variable torque. Reciprocating, positive displacement pumps are constant torque. Horsepower Calculating horsepower for a pump application is an involved process that requires someone with a thorough knowledge of the application and pumps. The following information is for illustration only. There are three related horsepower calculations involved in pump applications: liquid, mechanical and electrical.

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Hydraulic Head Hydraulic head is the difference in hydraulic pressure between two points, which actually includes elevation, pressure and velocity. An increase in pump speed would cause increases in pressure and velocity which increases the hydraulic head. Liquid Horsepower Liquid horsepower is the hydraulic power transferred to the pumped liquid. The following formula can be used to calculate liquid energy. Liquid Energy in ft-lb = Total Head x (Gallons x Weight) Water weighs 8.34 pounds per gallon. If 50 gallons of water per minute were required to be moved through 100 feet of head the energy required would be 41,700 ft-lb/minute. 100 feet x (50 gallons x 8.34) = 41,700 ft-lb/minute If the pumps speed were increased so that 100 gallons of water were being pumped through 100 feet of head the energy would be 83,400 ft-lb/minute. Twice the energy would be required. The hydraulic head would, in actuality, also increase. 100 feet x (100 gallons x 8.34) = 83,400 ft-lb/minute The common method of expression is horsepower. One horsepower is equal to 33,000 ft-lb/minute. Therefore, 41,700 ft-lb/minute is 1.26 HP and 83,400 ft-lb/minute is 2.53 HP. Mechanical Horsepower Mechanical horsepower is the horsepower input to the pump and is equal to the liquid horsepower divided by the pumps efficiency. If the liquid horsepower is 2.53 and the pump is 75% efficient the brake horsepower is 3.4 HP.

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Electrical Horsepower Electrical horsepower is the horsepower required to run the motor driving the pump and is equal to the mechanical horsepower divided by the motors efficiency. If the motor is 90% efficient the electrical horsepower is 3.78 HP. It can be seen that with an increase of pump speed there is a corresponding increase in electrical horsepower. Torque, HP, and Speed The speed on a pump is increased by increasing the AC drive frequency (F) to the motor. Torque (T) is affected by flux () and working current (IW). The drive will maintain appropriate flux by adjusting the voltage and frequency ratio dependent on speed. During acceleration, working current will increase causing a corresponding increase in torque. In this application, torque increases in proportion to the speed squared. This is due to the increase in hydraulic head as the pump works harder to pump more fluid. Horsepower increases in proportion to the speed cubed due to an increase of torque and speed. The pump cannot be operated above the rated frequency of the motor (60 Hz) because the drive will no longer be able to provide constant flux. As a result, the motor will be unable to supply rated torque. The loads torque requirements increase while the motors ability to supply torque decreases. Fans This same principle applies to fan applications. The horsepower of a fan is determined by dividing the product of air flow (in cubic feet per minute) and pressure by the product of the constant 6356 and fan efficiency. Increasing the speed of the fan increases air flow and pressure, requiring the motor to work harder (IW increases). Torque and horsepower increase

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Constant Horsepower Applications

Constant horsepower applications require a constant force as radius changes. A lathe, for example, starts out with a certain diameter object. As the object is cut and shaped the diameter is reduced. The cutting force must remain constant. Another example of a constant horsepower application is a winder where radius increases as material is added to a roll and decreases as material is removed. Relationship of Speed ,Torque and Horse power: Applications, such as lathes, that are driven in a continuous circular motion are sometimes referred to as spindle drives. Horsepower will remain constant in a spindle drive application. The surface speed in feet per minute (FPM) is equal to 2 times the radius (in feet) of the material times the speed in RPM. Surface speed will remain constant as the material is shaped and the radius reduced. Torque is equal to force times radius. Horsepower is equal to torque times speed. Multimotor Applications Many applications require more than one motor. In some instances, one drive can supply two or more motors. When this happens, the current rating of the motors added together cannot be greater than the current rating of the drive. Other applications require multiple motors and drives. A spinning machine for producing synthetic fibers, is one example of a multimotor, multidrive application. Various motors run the extruder, spinning pumps, preparation rolls, godets, traversing devices and winders. One drive may supply all the spinning pump motors or all the motors or individual motor control for each pump or may be used.

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PI-Controller PI-controllers are commonly used in drive technology. In our example the desired speed and actual speed are input to a summation point. The two signals are opposite in polarity. When the actual speed is equal to the desired speed the deviation, which is input into the PI-controller, is zero (0). Whenever desired speed and actual speed are different there is a deviation. Changes in load on the motor, for example, can affect motor speed. A sudden increase in load would cause the motor to slow down. This would decrease the feedback from actual speed and the deviation would become more positive. It is also possible that the application may require the motor to slow down or speed up. Until the motor reaches the new desired speed there will be a deviation.

The PI-controllers job is to make speed corrections quickly with a minimal amount of overshoot and oscillation. Parameter (gain) and parameter (time) are used to tune the PI-controllers performance. The end result should be a fast response time with about a 43% initial overshoot. The motor should then settle in to the new desired speed.

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