AT

A project of Volunteers in Asia

MlCROFlCHE REFERENCE IJBRARY

. Work and Hand Pump Mamtenance By: John van Winden

Published by:

TOOL Foundation Sarphatistraat 650 1018 AV Amsterdam The Netherlands

Available from: TOOL Foundation Sarphatistraat 660 1018 AV Amsterdam The Netherlands

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RURAL MECHANICS COURSE 1

I,

John van Winden

RURAL MECHANICS

COURSE

Fw, inrprzssion1990 Publisher TOOL roundation Sarphatisuaat 650 1018AV Amsterdam The Netherlands Bra. J. van Winden Bra. J. van Winden,J. Hovinghand R. 0-n

Author Drawings

Tratdhon Taalwerktextpertsbv SC%.% Typesettmg and lay-out Uitgeverij Jan van Arkel Utrecht Krips ReproMeppel Prinung 0 Stichting Kongregatie F.I.C.. Maastricht.1990 No partof this publication may be reproduced any in form, by prin!. phomgmphy.micro film, or any other meanswithout writ&n permissionfrom thepublisher. Whilst everycarehasbeentakento ensurethe accuracyof the information given in this publication. neitherthe publishernor rheauthorcanbe held responsible any damage for resulting from the applicationof thedescribed methods. Any liability in this respeclis excluded. CIP-GEGEVENS IXXINKLIJKE BIBLIOTHEEK. DEN HAAG Winden.Johnvan Rural mechanics course/ [John van Winden; draw. by dre. author... et al.]. - Amsterdam: Sri&in8 TOGL 1: Generalmetalwork, sheetmetalwork and hand pumpmainlenance / [uansl. by: TaalwerkTe-tpeens - III.. tek. bv]. ISBN 90-70857-14-6 S1S0650.2UDC621.01(075.3) Trefw.: leermiddelen mechanische ; technick.

Prefxe
We have decided to publish this edition of _ ; Rural MechanicsCoursein responseto the many requestsfrom peopleinvolved in training for technical vocationsand in general developmentwork. The main aim of this setof booksis to provide technical training information in understandable languageand with illustrations suited to the understandingof those involved. The contentsof thesebooksreflect the rural developmenttaking placein the agricultural sectorin particular, wheremany urgent needs haveto be looked after andsolved in order to achievesounddevelopmentat ah levels. This Rural MechanicsCoursehas been compiled for teachingin Technical Vocation Centresin addition to a Rural Building Course, which deals with sltills such ascarpentry and masonry. We are grateful to the Stichting Brothers F.I.C., Stichting I-OOLfor their technical assistance, Stichting Cebemofor their financial support and the Gennan Volunteer Service for so many volunteerswho havecontributed in no small way to the compilation of thesebooks. It is our sincere wish that the contentsof these books may be of assistance stimulating the in useof appropriatetechniquesto aid agriculture andgeneraldevelopment.
Bro John van Winden F.I.C.

Introductioll

In many situationsradical dnd urgent changes are taking place in rural areasin order to restore land to agriculture, to bring aboutbetter living conditions and securehealth and educational facilitif; - the basis for a healthy economy. Needsarising from thesechangesare not always dealt with lxxause many technical institutions do not provide appropriate technical training gearedto solving problems which have goneunnoticed in the past. It can also be noted thai small co-operative workshops are being startedthesedays in the interestsof a&culture and thesetoo may develop as they deal with the upkeep of small mechanizedfarm implements and diesel enginesusedfor water supply or with making ploughs, handcarts,gardening tools, etc. Integrated and relevant technical training and grouping young peopletogether into co-operative movementsshould be emphasized to ensuresoundagricultural and general development.That is why an attempt hasbeen madeto achieveappropriatetechnical training for rural mechanics,who will contribute in no small way towardsthe necessarydevelopment. Since the technical needsin rural areasare many but do not on the whole needhighly specialisedtechniciansto solve them, the rural mechanic - because training covers a broad his basis- will often be solving problems arising from the introduction of new implementsor tools. The courselastsfour years, almost two years of which are setasidefor so-called on-the-job training. This is practical training provided in various workshopsunder the guidanceof qualitied techniciansas well as a centre instructor who visits the workshop at intervals to seefor himself how the trainees are progressing.During on-the-job training the trainee is rewardedfor his work which may help him later to buy the set of tools he has usedduring his training, so he can start working immediately after completing the coursesuccessfully.

RURALMECMMCSCOURSE

--

Rural mxhanics cciurse

A set of four bookshas beencompiled to accompanythe four-year coursefor rural mechanics: 1 - Generalmetal wotk, sheetmetalwork and handpumpmaintenance 2 - Blacksmithing, welding andsoldering 3 - Maintenanceand repair of stationarydiesel engines 4 - Technical drawing While eachof thesebooks coversthe full material of onecourse,a lot of additional information neededbesidesthe contentsof one particular book will be found in anotherbook. So it is difficult to usejust one of thesebooks without consulting the others.The text on the propertiesof metals,for example,is to be found in the generalmetal work book. But this information is also neededwhen you are dealing with other subjects,such asdiesel engines,blacksmithing etc. As mentionedabove,this courseis madeup in such a way that most of the practicalscan be carried out with a limited set of tools. You wiIl however notice that extra equipmentor tools are neededsometimesand thesemust he available in the Vocational Centres workshop. It is believedandhopedthat Gh the formation of co-operativestheseaddition& tools andequipmentwill be a:\Glablein the workshopsbecause, though they aremore expensive,they can be owned by the group, The main aim of this course is that the trainee, besidesacquiring a good formative background,will learn to mastersuchskiUsas: - working with and maintaining all thl: tools explained - blacksmithing to such a degreethat he will be able to shapediKerent metalsto the required implements,tools, etc. - Eptig, maintaining and mstallitig hand waterpumps - dismantling, repairing and assembling stationarydiesel engines - sketchingor drawing simple items in orthographic,oblique and isometric form; readingengineor machine manuals. This set of bookscan be usedpartly in the classroombut must also be usedduring workshop practice,where the reality of what can he seenwill add greatly to the text and

ihstrations in the books. Praaical exercises recommended the 6books be varied since in can thr practical naturr of tnis c,otu~:,alls for articles to be made which can be useddirectl!. by people who may order them But care should be taken that, though production may be necessary one reasonor another,all the for skills which must be masteredare incorporated in eachpractic& so as to ensuresoundtraining. It is very important to study the proposed timetable given in each book to ensurethat all skills are given the necessaryattemion. Apart from the pros,Tess made by eachtrainee, the time recommended eachskill may v-j as for well. Someskills take more time to master than others. You will note the absencein this course of the sciencewhich may be impottant in explaining the diesel engine in particular. Providing this backgroundtheory is however beyond the scopeof the course. But if the needarises,the relevant scienceshould bc included during part of the relatedsubject time. This Rural Mechanics Courseis the result of many years obse.rvationandexperimentation with different t&niques. The contentshave frequently beenrev&d to serveall those interestedin rural development,and it is hoped this coursewill be wed in many technical vocation centresand communities.It is also the sincerewish of the founderr of t)iit course that the traineesshould feel on comp :n of their training that they ate able to ZG _ ne persl~nallyto the developmentci the L .ti areas,which is of such importanceto any gene& development.

RURMMECHAMCSCOUI?SE

r Rural mechanicsmme a
and timetable

---

lay-out

Fcur year training course :a- Full Centre~.ining: workshop practica& t :a4ethrory, technicai drawing andrelated Two years= 80 weeks subjects. b Partly Centretraining: trade theory, technical drawing, related subjects. Pmcticalstake place outside the Vocational Centre. One year= 40 weeks c - On-the-jobtraining: practicals takeplace outsideth _Vocatior II Centre. (Practicalsarehowever contmlled by ierxe staff and mark ate awardedfor any One year = 4l, we&s progressmade.)
-

Three-year centre thmetabk for trade theorv a - Gene-a!metal work b - Weiding and soldering j 240 hours c - Blacksmithing d - Sheetmetalwork I 220 hours e - Stationary diesel engines 20 hours f Waterpumpsand supply Total theory time:
480 hours

Total vocational training time Four years= 160weeks Weekly timetabLet;~. related subjects and practicais 4 hours a - Trade theory 1','2 hours b - Te&nical drawing 2 hours c Mathematics: 2 hours d - Language 212 hours e - Other reiatedsubjects 12 Total relatedsubjects Totai hours workshop practice 28 Total training time in centre
40

hours hours hours

Four-year timetable, workshop practical. One full yearreservedfor Centre workshop practice: a - Generalmetal work b - Blacksmithing c - Welding andSoldering 112Ohours d - Sheetmetalwork One fug yearreservedfor Centre workshop practice: a - Stationarydiesel engines b - Agricultural machinery 1XHlhouts c - Waterpumpsand water supply 120hours Two full yearsreservedfor on-the-,job training: 1120hours a - One year partly practicals b - One year full on-the-job iraining outsidethe Centre. (Careshould be taken that the time is evenly divided for practical training in 1740hours all skills.) IRURAL YECHAWS COURSE 5

--

---pm

7
.-

General metal work and sheet metal work

The needsin rural areaswhit!= demand appropriatetechnical assistance becoming are a matterof urgency for sounddevelopment. Especially thosepeople going into modem agriculture needhelp - provided by people who haveundergonethe appropriatetechnical training. The Rural MechanicsCourse,cf which this book is a part, offers technical training which will answersomeof the current needs.During the coursethe trainee will haveF limited set nf tools andequipment.That is why, d&g the practical exercises.imagination andma&+ should be encouragedin the trainee,as well as soundjdgcment about when andhow to repair with the meansavailable and when to ask for assistance from specialistcraftsmen. As an introduction to the whole Rural MechanicsCourseit is advisableto follow first the iutroductions offered in this book, which cover: - Metallurgy - Tools, ,equipmentand their maintenance - Working with tools andequipment - Sheetmetal work and tools - Watersupply and hand pump maintenance Metallurgy In metalhtrgy. a lot of attention and practical work should be devotedfo the identification of metals,because extensive useis madeof scrap metal andthe original material usedfor equipmentor machinery to be repairedor maintainedis not always known. Fwrthe practical testson metalexplained in this book it is advisableto haveon hand original piecesof known identity and properties.The sound,sparksor appearance of the original piecescan then be comparedwith the piecesto be tested.The scopeof this coursedoesnot ex,tendto explaining many different metals,becausespecialmachineparts can never be madein the xural workshop. Working with tools and equipment In rural areasmuch of the work hasto be done in difficult circumstancesandon a wide range of articles.As a lot of the implementsor equipmentusedare of complicatedshapeor construction,it is essentialthat the trainee receivesthorough training on how to work with the twls and equipmentavailable,

exploring all the possibilities of what ,-ance done wilh one and the sametool and how to ma)..-additional tools to help get the job done. Though working with a limited range of tools. must be encouraged,the Centre should have someadditional tools or equipment. This is necessaryto show the traineehow to work with them and thzrsencouragehim to buy additionnal equipment at a later stage;this may be possible if he works in a co-operative workshop, becauseail the membersmay be in a position to raise enoughcapital between thern. Water supply and hand pumps It is a recognisedfact that the correct functioning of a wafer pump and supply systemis essentialfor life and work in rural areas.Mechanics working in theseareas should know how to maintain, repair and install a water pump andunderstandits operation. Towards the end of this book the text and illustrations are gearedto masteriflg the skill of installation, repair and maintenanceof someof the most commonly usedhand pumps. Practical training should include work on a real borehole,becausedropping the cylinder or pipe should be experiencedin reality. It is advisableto have small groups working together at one time. Onetrainee should be appointedleader of the group and he alone gives instructions under supervision of the instructor in charge. If the areawhere the Centreis located usesa different type of water pump from those explained in this book, it is a good idea to adaptthe text and illustrations. To ensurethe supply of clean, uncontaminated water it is aIso a good idea to invite a medical practioner to explain the advantagesof ciean water and show the effectsof using water contaminatedas a result of carelr;sswork on a well or a borehole.

GENERAL METAL WORK

Tools are aidsfor manufacturing products.A distinction can be madebetween: - Hand tools All possibletools meant for hand useare called handtools. Hand tools are divided into tn reducingtools, assemblytools and auxiliary tools.
- Measuring and marking tools

Measuring andmarking tools areusedfor measuringandmarking sizesand angles. We distinguish betweenreadableand non-readablemeasuringtools. Also included in this group are tools which are neededfor marking off the workpiece. Maintenance of tools tland tools require little maintenance. Measuring and marking tools are an exception to this. Clean them regularly with a little oil to prevent rust fotination. Never storemeasuringand marking tools among other tools. When working at the bench keep measuringtools apart from other tools. Safety in tool we Keep your tools clean and treat them with care. Always emu-e that the handlesam properly fitted and are free from splits. Sharpencutting tools regularly andremove burrs from the headsof chisels,drifts, centre punchesetc. This can preventserioushand and eye injuries,

GENEFtAl METAL WORK

The rural workshop

Introduction With the introduction of apprenticeship training andthen of co- olxrative movements, many rural workshops are appearingin villages and medium sized towns to help peoplewith their needsfor householdand farming equipment and also with the repair and maintenanceof their tools. Co-operativesare uauall:~in a position to set up a good workshop and certain criteria have to be followed for a good lay-out of these ..vorkshops. will %d someof these You criteria below, including workshop organ&don, storageof materialsand fuels and safetyregulations. Orgamisation Organisationand cleanliness arethe basis of good, efficient and safe work. All craftsmen should play an active role in achieving the aim of having work, tools and equipmentwelI organisedand keeping everything tidy and clean. Clear visible signs should makeclients and visitors awareof the consequences involved in entexingthe workshop. Workbench A rural mechanicsworkbench consistsmostly of a steel frame and a wooden top which should be thick enough to withstand work pressure,seeFig. 1. The height of the workbench is usually between76 cm and 84 cm, but the ideal height is when the top of the vice (fitted on the bench) is level with the mechanics elbow. SeeFig. 2. The benchvice must be properly fixed to the workbenchtop with nuts and bolts. The vice should project far enough over the edgeof the benchto allow vertical clamping of workpieces.SeeFig. 3. The front edgeof the top has an angle iron fitted to protect the edge.SeeFigs. 3-A and 4-A. Always place the tools on top of the bench in a neat way, easy to pick up andprotectedagainst damage.SeeFig. 4. Storage of tools It is advisableto have a special storefor tools. In this storethere should be a toolboard on which the !sy-out and shapeof eachtool is drawn or painted so that you can see immediately if a tool is missing. This toolboard should be checkedafter work. Make surethe toolstore is locked properly after leaving the workplace. lol 10
THE RURALWORKSHOP

Storage of materials
Materials shouid be storedin a dry and S~CUE place. All materialsshould be well arranged according to type, size and purpose.Nuts, bolts etc. should be kept in boxes and electrodesin a waterproof box. Partsof equipmentor machinesshould be kept in special clapboards together with the technical.dataaboutequipment an3 machinery. A record should be kept of a!1materials available. This record is valuable for ordering new materialsin good rime. Storage af fuels Fuel should be kept in a separatestoresome distanceaway from me actual workplace.As fuels are flammableand explosions are possible, it is important to have a well designedfuel storewith enough ventilation xated in a placewhich cannot he reachedby ,dshfire. Fuelsshouid be storedoff the ground in solid containers.

THE RURAL WORKSHOP

Wwkshop lay-out
Yeforedesigning a workshopyou should consider:durability, workability and safety. Thefollowing are a few guu: i+ines for designings workshop. - The worhnop should be of a convenient leng:h, width dnd height to be able to handle long pieces,basedin generalon a length of 600 cm. - There should be adequate light and ventilation. - Foundation,footing andfloor should be madeof lasting materialswhich are water andheat resistant. - There should be ampleroom for the safe storageof tools and materials. - There should he a separate store for fuel and .a c. - % iorkshop should be well sited with due regardfor prevailing *::indsand rain. TLe length preferably in the East/West direction. - The roof construction should be resistantto stormsand rain. Thorough attachmentof the roof construction to the walls or pillars is a must and deservesspecialattention. - Ask for qualified advicp when designing a workshop.The lay-out shown below may alsohelp you.

honey comb wall

working space

THE RURAL WQRKSHOP

13

Mined iron ore

crushing washing roasting blast furnace

Iron ore is mined in various parts 01 the world. It containsiron oxide, stones,sandand clay. Iron oxide is a reaction of pure iron with To extract the pure iron from iron ore, the lumps are crushed,washedand heatedto get rid of all componentswhich can produce gases at a later stage.SeeFig. 1 for the processflow. Years ago, many blacksmithsin the north of Ghanamined their own iron ore, which is found in small quantities in laterite soil.
%w~

cupola steel

grey cast iron

14

MElaLLURGY

Blast furnace
The next phasein manufacturingiron is to extractthe pure iron from the iron ore. This is donein the blast furnace,a cross-sectionof *whichyou can seein Fig. 1. The approximate height of such a blast furnace is 30 metres. A mixture of iron, coke and limestone is dumpedinto the furnaceat the top, see Fig. 1-A. The actual melting zoneof the iron is in the shadedarea1-B. The coke provides fuel to maintain Lheheatat approximately2000 degrees Celsius. At the sametime however the coke addssomecarbon to the pure iron. The pig iron produced thereforecontainssome4 to 4.5 percentcarbon. Carhonis a componentyou find in coke, charcoal,pencil leadsetc. It is black and hasa majorfunction in the production of steel, which is somethingyou will learn about at a later stage. The limestonecombinesall the dirt - such as sand,clay arid stones- into a iayer called slag. The slag floats on top of the liquid iron and can be removedfrom time to time through hole I-C. Hot air is blown into *hefurnace with blowers (shownin 1-D) mountedon the outside of the furnace.This air is neededto bum the coke and can leavethe furnacetogetherwith ail g<ases through the top of the furnace. The liquid iron sinks down to the bottom of the furnaceand is tappedout through hole 1-E. The liquid iron is tappedoff and channelled into pig beds,seeFig. 2.

c -----.--

MErALLURGY

15

Nature of pig iron

While in the blast furnace, the iron absorbs among other things an amount of carbon. Carbon is presentin the coke just as it is in hmoal and in pencil leadsetc. The carbon presentin the iron after processingin the blast furnace may be in its natural stateas~ruphite and is normally dispersedthroughout the metal in the form of small flakes, seeFig. I. It may also be presentin the form of a chemical composition of iron and carbon called cementire, see Fig. 2. This depends mainly on the cooling of the metal. If the cooling is slow, the carbon will settle between the crystals asgraphite flakes. If the cooling is rapid, the carbon is trapped inside the crystals, so most of it is mixed up and presentas cementite. As you will understand,cementite is in a highly stressed condition when the carbon is trappedinside it and therefore makesthe metal very hard andbrittle. When the metal is cooled normally, the fracture of the metal has a greyish-f,:zk appearance the graphite carbon can easiIy and be discerned.This metal is called grey pig iron, see Fig. 1. When the metal is cooled rapidly, the fracture of the metal has a whiter appearance, showing that there is leasfree carbon and when all or nearly all the carbon is combined with the iron the metal is called while pig iron, see Fig. 2. Cementiteis a very hard substanceandthe greaterthe amountof combined carbonthe h.arderthe iron will be. Observation If you observeFig. I. you will understandthat this piece of iron is not strong. A fracture can occur easily, foilowing the line of the graphite flakes. Another problem is that the flakes and the iron am both very soft and weak. Observing the white pig iron in Fig. 2, you see the carbon is trappedin each crystal. Cementitemakesthe crystal very hard.

16

MElMLUffiY

Cupola/cast iron
Pig iron asproducedin the blast furnaceis the crude form uf raw material from which different gradesof cast iron and steelare made. Cast iron is madeby a refining processof pig iron in a so-calledcup&, similar to the blast furnace, seeFig. I. A cupola is approximately 8 to 10 metreshigh. At the top of the cupola there is a platform from which the cupola is filled, l-A, with iayers of broken pig iron, coke and limestone. Somescrapiron and old cast iron are addedto the mix -e to obtain the correct percentage of carbon .;uired. - Pig iron containsapprox. 4.5% carbon - Scrapmetalcontains approx. 0.2% carbon - Old castiron contains approx. 3.5% carbon - The whole new mixture then producesan iron with approx. 3.5% carbon. Coke andlimestonehave the samefunction as in the blast furnace.The hot air is blown in through the holes 1-B and the slag is removed through hole 1-C. After the whole mixture has melted down, the hot liquid entersthe receiver l-D, from whereit can be tappedoff through hole 1-E. A pilot hole 1-F in the receiver makesit possibletc watch the process. Properties and usesof white and grey cast iron Cast iron is a very useful material usedfor castings.Its main advantagesarethat it is cheapto produce,has a low melting temperatureof 1150to 1200 C andcan easily be filed. cut and shaped. The fluidity of the grey cast iron, when in molten condition, makesit possibleto useit for castingsof parts such as machinebodies and other components. Grey pig iron can be converted into white or grey castIron, the quality dependingon the speedof cooling and the alloy used. If for somereasona strong quality of castiron 1srequired,white cast iron can be used because, through its alloy, it is much stronger and harderthan the grey cast iron. Cast iron cannotbe hardenedor resisttension. You cannotuse it, for example,asa beamfor a bridge. The pressureon top will createso much tensionunderneaththat the beamwill crack. SeeFig. 2. Cast iron is brittle and may breakwhen you hammerit or drop it. Cast iron is very useful for machineparts or componentswherethere is compressionor where vibration hasto be absorbed.

METALLURGY

17

Castings
Castingscan be madefrom steel, aluminium, cast iron, bronze etc. Casting can be done in different ways; the most common is casting in sand. For example, when you have to cast a product as shown in Fig. 1, you first have to make a wooden pattern of this produc!, that should be slightly larger than the actual product, because the metal shrinks during cooling. The pattern is placedin a steel or wooden flask (the drag), seeFig. 2. The flask is then filled with sandand compactedand levelled at the top. The flask is then carefully turned over and placed on a board. Another flask (the cope) filled with sandis placedon top of the first flask, seeFig. 3-X. Two taperedholes am madeas shown in Fig. 3. Hole 3-A is called the sprue and is used to pour the hot pig iron into the mould. A secondhole is madein the position shown in 3-B. which is called the open riser. This open riser is usedto add somemore metal to top up the mould and to let air and gasesescape.After making the holes, the cope is taken off again and a connecting channelis made from the sprueto the mould; this hole is called the gate, see3-c. The wooden pattern is taken out carefully and the whole inside is cleaned.Then the cope is replacedand the hot metal poured in. 3

18

YEMLLURGY

Wrought iron
Wrought iron was probably the first iron producedlocally. It was producedfor the blacksmith to enablehim to makeah kinds of tools neededfor the farm and for hunting. Wrought iron is the nearestto pure iron and containsasmuch as 99.9% pum iron. Even when it is heatedto a high temperature, wrought iron will not melt but only become pasty. Puddling process The main thing in the manufactureof wrought iron is the oxidation of nearly all carbonfrom the pig iron. This is done in a puddling furnace as shownin Fig. I. As you see,the pig iron I-A is not in direct contact with the fire l-B, but is hea!;d by reflection from the specially shapedfurnaceroof as shown in 1-C. During this process,the actual hearthis continuously filled with piecesof pig iron and a certain percentage oxide andmill scale. iron Mill scaleis piecesof the outer layer of hot metal which hasbeenin contact with the surrounding air (oxygen). Thesepiecespeel c;ff the metal as scale. When the metal melts, the puddler stirs the mixture with a long rake, occasionallyadding more pig iron, iron oxide or mill scale.Some of the slag will be removed but not all and someremainsmixed with the metal. Through this melting and stirring processthe carbon oxidizes and ieavesthe chimney as gases,seearrowsin 1-D. The process continues until the metal becomes pasty.This pasty metal is taken out in balls of 50 kg. The white hot balls are hammered to squeeze portions of the slag,then rolled out into rough barswith long fibres. During the rolling moreslag is pressedout of the metal. The rough barsare then m-heatedto a white welding heatand a number of batsare then bundled togetherand re-rolled. which welds the layerstogether. A cross-sectionof a piece of wrought metal is shown in Fig. 2. Notice the layersand the stretchedpiecesof slag. SeeFig. 2-A. The presence slag gives a fracture of wrought of iron a fibrous appearance. When it is filed or cut to the surfaceparallel to the direction of rolling, the slag can be seenas long lines running along the surface.

Steel converter
You rememberthat the first product of iron ore is pig ircn, classified into grey pig iron and white pig iron. We have describedthe production of castiron from grey pig iron. White pig iron is usedin the making of steel. The making of steel Steel is madein a so-called converter: Sucha converter is shown in Figs. 1,2 and 3. The charging position of the converter is shown in Fig. 1. A certain amount is charged. The actual processof conversion takesy&e when the converter is in an upright position as shown in Fig. 2. Pure oxygen is forced through a pipe 2-A over andinto the liquid pig iron. This processdevelopsso much heat that all carbon is burnedout of the pig iron. Some scrap metal is addedto cool the maction and meet the required percentageof carbon. After this process,the converter is tumed sideways and the liquid steel is poured into moulds to make steel blocks. SeeFig. 3. At a later stagethesesteel blocks are shapedinto bars,rods, plates,strips, pipes etc.

MEnLLUffiv

Properties of steel
In the previous lessonsyou have learnedabout someof the propertiesof steel.Something more.however,hasto be said aboutcertain propertiesto be able to understandat a later stagewhet actually happensduring the heat treatmentof steel. Structure The suuctureof pure iron is madeup of crystals bondedtogether. Groupsof crystals (1-A) are bondedtogether to form larger units called grains (1-B). In Fig. 1 you can seea group of grainsenlarged about 100times. You can comparethe structure to a carton of sugar cubesin which the cubes arethe grainsand eachcubeis madeup of crystals. Strength The strengthof a metal lies in its resistanceto the application of force to the metal- like compression(shown in Fig. 2-A). tension2-B or shearforce 2X - without breakingit. When a metalhas high strength,a great force is neededto break it. For example,drive chains and cylinder baits for engineshavehigh strength,otherwisethey would breakduring
p3fOtlTWlct.

Hardness The hiarriness a metal can be testedfor its of ability to withstand wear, scratching,abrasion etc., if a body harderthan the metal itseMis used.SeeFig. 3. Since a ftie itself is madeof very hard metal, it is widely usedto test the hardnessof metals.Use the edgeof a smooth file on the metal to be testedand seewhether it is very easyto scratchthe metal. This is of importancewhen you have to drill, cut or shapea metal with which you arenot familiar. Brittleness Brittle metal hasthe pro?rty of breakingby force without much permanentdistortion. Brittlenessmay be due to the brittlenessof the grain boundariesoi the crystals(readftrst lessons).SeeFig. 4.

PFwEf?NEsoFsEEi. 21

Plasticity/malleability
Plasticity is the property a metal possesses if permanentlyextending it in all directions and pressing,hammering, rolling or shaping it does not breakit. SeeFig. 1. Somemetals which are heatedto a bright red heat are very plastic and usedfor forging (lead, copper,aluminium). Toughness Toughnessis the amount of energy a metal can absorbwhile, for instance,when clamped in a benchvice, the metal is hit at the end with a hammeron all sides without breaking it. See Fig, 2. Branchesof a tree are very tough - not hard. They can bend in any direction during a storm without breaking

PROFEFtllES OF STEEL

Identification of metals
AU kinds oi castiron and steel are usedin a rural workshop,including parts which are unidentified. Various methodscan be usedto identify thesemetalsand discover their properties: - sound,producedduring a drop test, - visual inspectionof the metal, - testing the metal with a file, - bending or breaking the metal, - a sparktest on a grinding wheel. Spark test To carry out the spark test you needa grinding wheel with a speedof approximately 1.500 pm (revolutions per minute). The wheel should have a diameterof approximately 150mm. The sparksproducedduring grinding will tell you approximatelywhat kind of steelyou are grinding. While grinding you should: - standupright and in line with the streamof - makesurethe light is constant,so that the colours of the sparkscan bejudged correctly, - usethe samepressureon the workpiece during the test. If you increasethe pressure, the temperature the streamof sparkswill of rise, therebychanging the colour and length of the sparkstream. In general When the carboncontent is increased,the burst of sparksincreasesand the streamshortens. SeeFigs. 1,2 and 3. This happensbecausethe carbonin the steel bums more rapidly and the smzam sparks of changesfrom light yellow to a white yellow. Try this test first on various piecesof metal which havealready beenidentified and labelled. You can then comparethe sparks producedwith the sparksproducedfrom the test pieces.
sp=b

PROPEfTllESOF SlEEL

Carbon content
Steelsaregrouped into three different kinds, dependingon the percentageof the carbon content: - Mild steel - Medium carbon steel - High carbon steel Properties Someworkpieceshave to be madefrom steel which hasa low carbon content and a tough structure.Many tools have to be madefrom steel which has a high carbon content and is fairly tough at the sametime. The following table gives an overview of different testsand indicators for the identification of different metals.

Metal
cast iron * 3.5 % c mild steel 0.1 -0.3 %C medium carbon steel 0.3 - 0.9 % c high carbon

Dmp tess Dull sound on impact A definite metallic ring. A clca~and higher pitch ring lhan with mild steel. Still higher

vhid
i~peCl&ll

Sprrk test short slrcam of red sparks, not bright. slTcamof long yellow sparks. Shortwider smam of light yellow SW.

Filing test Hard skin, easyto file. Easy to file.

Bending or breaking Breaks before bending. Bendand them breaks. Bends slightly before breaking.

Dark PY. Roughfinish. Dark blue scale. Smoolhfinish. Blue-blackscale. Smoothfinish.

Hzdertofde than mild steel.

steel
0.9 - 1.5% c high speed steel

pitchring. A metallic
ring not so clear as in

Polish black scale. Rougher than

cast.w!el. O&n painted.

ShortWide yellowstream Strcam dull of

-fFspsrirs.

Hardex ftie to thanmedium

steel.

Resists bending and

breaking.

of bright sparks. c&n

Harder file to thanmedium

carbonsteel.

Resists bending and besking.

carbon steel.

24

PROPERTlES STEEL OF

Percentagecarbon Quality Mild steel 0.125- 0.20

0.20 - 0.30

AppIicatbn

tough quite tough

structural steel, generalforging work better gradefor snuctural work machine parts, agricultural implements.connecting rods

Medium carbon steel

very msh

very tough to great, little hardness

0.5n -0.60

chain hooks, machineparts. gears.axles. shafts mould boardsfor agric implements heat treatedmachine parts, agric implements, sometools

great toughnessomehardness great toughness fair hardness great toughness medium hardness very tough better than medium hardness

crow bars, gardentools. gears,shafts, machine parts

0.60 -0.70

tools to be used for hot work, flatters, fullers hot swages all general blacksmith tools, hammers,rivet sets. hot sets,gun barrels,screw drivers cold chisels, hammers,sledges,shearblades, large springs, scissors

0.70 -0.80

0.80 -0.90

High carbon steel 0.90 -1.00 fair toughness hard little toughness greathardness somewhatbrittle very to extremely very brittle. wall chisels. knives, punches,taps, anvil faces, wrenches,wo&.vcYting tools drifts, swages.springs,pliers planing tools, axes,saws.wood working tools shearknives, cutting tools files, drills, tools to cut hard materials

1.00 - 1.10 1.10 - 1.20 1.20 - 1.30 1.30 -1.50

PRoPEFmsoFsTtxl

Nonferrous metals
In the previous lessonsyou have learnedabout the chief metals: iron and steel.In addition to these,it is also important to know something aboutother metaIssuch ascopper,aluminium, tin, lead and zinc. Thesemetalsarecalled nonferrous metals. They can bc pure or mixed with othermetals or alloys. Aluminium Aluminium is widely usedin the country in the form of roof sheeting,cooking pots etc. It is a white metal producedby an electrical process from bauxite (aluminium oxide), mined all over the world. Aluminium meltseasily and can very well be usedfor castings. Sincepure alutiium is very soft and weak, it is mostly alloyed with other metalssuch as copperand zinc. Other specialmetalsare sometimes addedfor the production of engine Tistons,aeroplaneparts etc. Copper Copperis a red coloured metal.The ore is mined and contains some32 percentpure copper.The copper is extractedfrom the ore by a melting and refining process.Copperis a good conductor of heat and is therefq-- L .cd for soldering bits. It is highly resk,: I corrosion by liquids and a ver; g XX.+ !dCtq: for ele:criciry zs :vell, so it is use: fc :n; elecarc wire.
Lead

by judging the fin cry. The louder the cry, the more tin there is in the solder.
Zinc

Zinc is made from ore which is roasted,mixed with someform of carbon and melted in a specially designedfurnace.Zinc is a bluish-white metal, showing bright smooth crystals at its fracture. IF its pure state zinc is usedto cover sheets,called galvanized sheets. This gahanitig is done by dipping the steel sheetsor other products into the molten zinc, thus protecting the steel againstcorrosion. BrWi?&! Eronze is an aLoy of 88% copper, 10% tin and 2% zinc. Or 85% copper,5% zinc and 5% tin. BFXIS When copper is alloyed with zinc the alloy is cakd brass.Sometypes of brassare used for castings,hot and cold forging. cold rolling into sheetsand drawing wires.

Leadhasa blueish-grey colour andis very soft and plastic. It is easy to shape,cut and force cold into moulds or roll into thin &hcers. Since it is highly resistantto corrosion, it is widely usedf-r roofing and water supply. Lead ;. rs a very low melting point, 330 C, and cartbejoined together by heatingwith a blowlamp. LRadis mined asore and purified by a melting and refining process.Lead alloyed with tin forms solders. Tin Tin is obtainedfrom tin-stone by a roasting and refining process.Tin is silver-white in colour and its structure is crystalline. It is harderthan lead and has a melting temperature of 232 C. To identify tin, you can bend a small piece and as it bendsthe metal will producea crinlcbng soundcalled the rin cry. Tr;nis widely usedfor coating thin sheetmetal to avoid corrosion. A tin-lead alloy forms the so-called solders.The proportion of tin in a solder can be estimated

26

NoNFERi?ouswETALs

Heat treatment of steel

During and after the manufactureof a product madeof steel,it may be necessary change to the propertiesof this steel to be able to work on it andgive it a fmal property with a specifk hardness. Ways of changing propertiesare:
- Hardening

which appearon the surfaceof the metal just after heating and before cooling. Theseare calkd tempering colours. Tempering colours All steel, whether it has beenhardenedor not, has a layer of oxide on its surface,causedby exposureof the steel to the surrounding air (oxygen). When this layer is thick it is called rust or, when the metal is hot, scale.Even after polishing the surface of the steel.this layer will form again and be visible. The layer of rust on polished steelhas the property of giving colour to hot metal. The colour changeswhen the temperaturechanges. Various temperatureswith their colours are shown on the tempering and forging colour chart, seenext page. Beforetempeti~g, large workpiecescan be heatedin the blacksmiths forge. To avoid burning the steel, small workpiecescan be heatedby placing the material edge way over a piece of hot steel, from which it will take over the required heat. Tempering is one of the most important, but also very difficult skills in rural mechanics.It will take you a lot of time to masterthis skill. After tempering,you can use the sparktest to find out the correct hardness of the steel you have tempered.

Steel is hardenedby heating it above720 C followed by a rapid cooling in water.

- Tempering

After hardeningsteel one can reduceits brittlenessand give the steel any desired hardnessby reheating it ai a lower te.mperature cooling it slowly. and
- Annealing

Annealing metalsconsistsin heating and subsequent gradual cooling, by which internal stresses removedandthe metals are becometough and ductile. Hardening steel Steel with a carbon content of 0.70 and higher can be hardenedby heating the steelto a temperature approximately of 800 C and of then cooling it very quickly in water,oil or someother liquid. The structureof the steel changes&u-ing hardeningandthis must be clearly understood to avoid mistakesand disappointments. For example:the structure of the steelchanges when you heata piece of steel which has a carbon contentof 0.70 to 800 C andplunge this hot piecerapidly into cold water;the outer layer of the piece of steel cools very fast, with the result that the inner part of the steelcannct cool, so the outer layer cracksdue to the tension of the shrinking taking place. The fasterthe cooling, the harderthe steel becomes, dependingof courseon the carbon content.Cooling should thereforebecontrolled. Tempering Tempering is controlled cooling of steelwhich has beenhardened.When steelhasbeen hardened,it may have becometoo hard for the purposeyou needit for. Someof the hardness obtainedmay have to be taken away to ensure the correcthardnessof the steel.A special processcalled tempering is usedfor this purpose. Tempering meansheating steelto a certain temperature which is far below the hardening temperature and then cooling it, not suddenly, buttin a controlled way. Since you cannotuse a thermometerto measure temperaturesduring the tempering the process.it is important to observethe co,lours

HEAT TREATMENTSTEEL OF

27

Annealing
To be able to cut, file or shapesteel or change the properties of the steel permanently and relieve the internal stressin the crystals it may be necessaryto annealthe steel. This is done by: - Heating the steel slowly to the required temperature,seetable. - Leaving the steel long enough at this temperatureto enableinternal changesto take place. - After thii, letting the steel cool very slowly. The bestmethodis to stop the forge in which the steelhas beenheatedand leave the steeluntil its glow has disappeared. - Burying the steel in sandor ashesto ensure a slow cooling process. ---~ i Tempering and forging colour chart For a display of colours seepage20 of the Blacksmithing volume of the Rural MechanicsCourse.
Hardness Temperahire % Colour Purpose

Very hard Very hard Hard Hard Hard Hard/tough Hard/tough Hard/tough Tough/hard Tough/hard

220 230 240 255 265 275 285 293 310 330 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1250 1400

tight straw yellow Straw yellow Dark straw yellow Brown yellow Red brown Ruple Purple-blue Full blue Light blue Steel grey Dark red Dark cherry red Cherry red Light cherry red Orange Yellow Light yellow White

rasors,scapers drills, plannig tools, cutting tools pen knives, drifts, rivetting tools wood drills, rock drills fullers, twist drills cold chisels,hammers,set hammers, table knives wood chisebqxes, centre punches coid chiselsfor steel, knifes drills, twin snips, screw drivers, hot chisels wood saws,punches,light springs forging forging forging forging forging forging forging forging and welding

28

HEAT TREATMENTSTEEL OF

Shaping metals
MetaI.sare sold in the form of sheets,bars, snips, wires andsomeother special shapes. You should know somethingabout how these productsIravebeenhot or cold rolled in the rolling mill or drawn. Hot rolling You stJ rememberthat the final product of tit blast furnace andthe converter consistsof lumps of steel,called ingots, with an approximatelength of 1.50 m and 0.40 m in cross-section. Theseingots are stiil very hot when they leave the convetter and are immediately rolled betweenrolls to the desiredshapes.In Fig. 1 you can seehow the hot steel is supportedby small rollers and rolled betweentwo rolls to a thinner size. A pictorial view of a rolling mill is shown in Fig. 2. The spacebetweenthe rolls differs in size so the steelcan be rc,A.tced little at each a stage;seethe shadedareas. Sometimes,especiallyin the caseof sheet making, more than one roll is usedto speedup production, seeFig. 3. Sometimessmall sizedrolls are usedandthey are supportedby bigger rolls as shown in Fig. 4. Cold rolling The raw material for cold rolling comesfrom the hot rolling mill and the processof reducing the cross-sectionalareais similar to hot rolling, exceptthat the pressurebetweenthe rolls is much higher since cold steel gives more resistance. Before cold rolling can be done, all scalemust be removedto avoid the risk of the scalebeing rolled into the steei.Coid roiiing improvesthe surfaceof the steeland gives a more accurate shape,which may be required particularly for productswith a small cross-sectionalarea.

c 3

SHAPiffi METALS

29

31

Clamping tools
Bench vice The bench vice shown in Fig. 1 has a spindle 1-A which, when turned around, moves the front jaw 143. The guide piece 1-C gives the front jaw of the parallel benchvice stability. Although it is covered,the spindle should be checkedfor dirt and should be greased regularly. Vice jaws ate madeof hardenedsteel. They have setrations for a bettergrip on the workpiece. Some vices also have a small anvil 1-D at the back for light hammerwork. Precautions - Do not over-tighten the vice by using a hammeror a piece of pipe. - Do not file, saw, drill or chisel into the vice jaws. - Do not do heavy hammerwork on a bench vice; use an anvil or a blacksmiths vice instead. - Clean the vice after use. - Cover the vice if necessary. Vice Caps Hardenedvice jaws can damagethe surface of a workpiece. When necessary, vice capsto use protect the workpiece. SeeFig. 2. Vice caps are madeof soft material such as aluminium, lead or of a hard material such as steel, when usedfor clamping parallel surfaces. Vice capswhich are madein the workshop may have different shapesaccording to the workpiece to be clamped. Saw sharpening vice A special vice is shown in Fig. 3. This clamp can be usedin the benchvice while special work is being done. The clamp is tightened by turning the spindle of the bench vice. Hand vice A hand vice is shown in Fig. 4. This vice is usedto clamp severalpiecesof material together when they haveto be moved or to hold small piecesduring grinding. A vice grip can aiso be used for thii purpose,seeFig. 5.

32

Clamping set
A clamping set is usedfor securingmaterial or a workpiece.Particularly in a machining operationsuch as drilling the patt to be machinedmust never rotate with the drill. See Fig. 1. Fiil out the clamp plate iti& a block (1-A). The height must be more or lessequal to the thicknessof the material to be processed and the basepLue combined. Tighten the harmner headbolt which is enclosedin the table or work bench.This createsenoughclamping force on the workpiece to preventit from rotating. Clamping examples Always clamp the workpiece in sucha way that the cutting tool is close to the vice jaws, otherwisethe workpiece will vibrate and then it can damage cutting tool and accurate the work will be impossible. SeeFig. 2-A showing the right way and Z-B showing the wrong way. Someworkpieceswill be distorted when you clamp them incorrectly in the benchvice. See Fig. 3. Clamp the piece asshown in Fig. 4.

2A

Sheetmetal clamp
A specialdevice for clamping sheetmetal is shown in Fig. 1. The hand vice can also be usedin combination with prolonged vice jaw caps,Fig. 2.

h Fig. 3-A you seean incorrect way of clamping a workpiece. This way the vice will be damaged.Instead, clamp the workpiece as seenin Fig. 3-B. Pipesaredistorted when you clamp them in the vice asshown in Fig. 4. For clamping pipes a pipe vice or a pipe clamp is used.See Figs. 5-A and 5-B.
2

36

CLAMPINGTOOLS

Measuring and measuring tools

Taking care of measuring tools All measuringtools areprecision tools. You must take good careof them to keep them in good shapeto maintain their accuracy. When working, get usedto the following: - Always wrap your measuringtools in a piece of oily cloth when you put them back in your toolbox after work. Keep thesemeasuringtools in a good, safe place in your coolbox, otherwise they may get damaged. - High precision instrumentsare always stored in their own boxes, because and dust dirt will spoil their mechanisms. - Lubricate theseinstrumentsnow andthen with a clean light oil. - Rub clean all your tools - such astry square, rule, caliper andfeeler gauges- after work and oil them lightly. This will prevent corrosion. - When you work with measuringtools, it is a good habit to put them on a piece of cloth in a safeplace on the workbench so they cannot be droppedon the ground or damagedin someother way. - Never have all your tools on the workbench but only thoseyou needand keep tools and workpiecesseparate from eachother. - Use good, correct measuringtools and get to know which tools to use for a particularjob. Metric system For someynarsnow the official measuring systemhasbeenthe metric system.All techniciansshould usethis system.Oncein a while, however,the Rural Mechanic will have to measurein inches.This is usually in the context of pipes,nuts and bolts, threadand repairing old machineryor implements.
Metric units are:

r
inch mm
1 2 3 4 25.40005 50.80010 76.20015 101.6Ol320

mm inch 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0.039370
o.mi740 0.118110 0.157480

5
6 7

127.00025
152.40030 177.80035 203.20040 228.60045 254.00050

0.196850
0.236220 0.275590 0.314960 0.354330 0.393700

8 9 10

Metre, Centimeue,Millimetre. Litre, Kilogram, Gram.

Imperial units are: Yard, Foot, Inch.

Gallon, Pound.

In Fig. 1 a rule is shown with explanation of the metric division. The table can be helpful when incheshave to be convertedto nnlXmetresor the opposite.
1m=10dm=1OOcm=1G#3mm

MEASURING MEA!SURlNG AND TOOLS

35

Measuring
Measuringis not only checking the length, width or thickness of an object but also checking of the shape- things like the straightness,flatness,roundnessor squareness. Measuringis a very important skill for the Rural Mechanic.
Steel rule

The steelrule is a very important measuring tool in the workshop. Fig. 1 showsa steel rule for small work with a division in centimetres and inches.The edge of the rule is divided into parts of one centimetre (cm). Eachcentimetre is divided into millimetres (mm). Questions - How many cm are there in a metre? - How many mm are there in a centimetre? - How many mm are there in a metre? How to use the steel rule - Put the rule flat on the object and read the measurement from the tule. If you press your thumbnail againstthe rule, you can readthe measurement more easily, see Fig. 2. - Keep the rule at a rightangle to the object, seeFig. 3-A. What happensif you do not keep it square,as shown in 3-B? - Readthe measurementfrom directly above the rule. What happenswhen you read it from the side? A try squarecan be helpful, seeFig. 4. - if the end of the rule is inaccurate,start measuringat the 1 cm mark, seeFig. 2. Of course,you have to subtract 10 mm from the total reading.

36

MWURING AND MEASUWNGTOOLS

Folding rule
Fig. 1 showsa 1000mm folding rule which is usedfor larger workpieces. Tape measure A thin flexible metal tape is called a tape measure.. Fig. 2. This tape can be pulled in See and out of its housing and returns by meansof a spring inside the housing. There is a hook at the starting end of the tape to hook the tapeup againstthe objectbeing measured. This hook can only be usedfor measuringthe ;ength of an object;it cannot be usedfor any inside measurements unless it is differently designed. This tapeis specially handy when you haveto measure curved objects.SeeFig. 3. Measuring with a spanner Open-ended spannersare handy for measuring the outsidediametersof round objects, especially if the objectsare warm. SeeFig. 4. The numberon the spannergives the outside diameterof the object being measured. Use them only when no proper measuringtools are available. 1

37

Vernier caliper
1

A vernier caliper is usedfor more accurate measuringthan can be achieved with a measuringrule. SeeFig. 1. The parts of a vernier caliper are: - Main scale (1-A): the main scale is graduatedin millimetres. This is called the metric scale. - Sliding jaw (1-B): this part slides over the main scale.There is also a scale on the sliding jaw; this is the vernier graduationor vernier scale. - Jaws (1-C): you can measureinside dimensions with thesejaws, seealso Fig. 2. - Jaws (1-D): you can measureoutside dimensions with there jaws, seealso Fig. 3. - Depth gauge(1-E): you can measurethe depths of groovesand holes with the depth gauge,seealso Fig. 4. When measuringoutsidedimensions, usean as large as possiblepart of the jaws. Apply only light pressurewhen measuring.Do not pull the vernier caliper from the workpiece. Take notice of the measurement move the jaws and apart, so that the vernier caliper can be removed easily and without exessivewear. Scale The vernier scalecan have either 10 or 20 divisions. - If the vernier scalehas 10 divisions, the caliper can measure accurately up to 0.1 mm. - If the vernier scalehas20 divisions, the caliper can measureaccurately up to 0.05 mm.
Be very careful with the vernier caliper. Apply a little oil now and then.

38

MEASURINGAND MEASURINGTOOLS

Using the vernier caliper

Fig. 1 showshow to adjustthe vernier caliper with the thumb. Measuring Example A, seeFig. 2. - Look wherezero is on the vernier scale. - Answer: it is just on the 20 mm mark.
- Wr: .1 jwn:20 mm.

- Seewhich line on the vemier scaleexactly coincides with a line on the mm scale. - Answer: The 0 line on the veraier scale.
- Write down: 0.0 mm. Total measurement is: 20 + 0.0 = 20.0 mm

Example R, seeFig. 3. - Where is zeroon the vernier scale? - Answer: it is just pastthe 12 mm mark. - Write down: 12 mm. - Which line on the vernier scalecoincides exactly with a line on the main scale? - Answer: the 5 line on the vernier scale.
- Write down: 0.5 mm. Total measurement is: 12 + 0.5 = 12.5mm

MEASUAlNGAND MEASUHlffi TOOLS

39

,-

Exercise
Fill in the measuredsizes. A=..... B=..... c=..... D=..... E=..... F=.....

40

WlEASURlKi ANDMEASUWNGTOOLS

Micrometers
A micrometer hastwo scales.One scaleis divided in millimeters, seeFig. 1-A. The outer diameter of the cilinder (1-B) is divided in 50 units. When the cilinder is tumed twice (100 units), the plug (1-A) is transported 1 mm. The measurement accuracytherefore is l/100 mm = 0.01 mm. A slip clutch (1-C) assures a continuous measurement pressure.

Examples - The micrometer in Fig. 2 measures size of a

14.27mm.

- The micrometerin Fig. 3 measuresa size of

61.5 +0.34=61.85

mm.

internal micrometer Thesetype of micrometersoperatesimilar to the normal ones.The baselength can be extendedusing an extensionrod. SeeFig. 4-A. The measuredsize = value read on micrometer + length extension rod.

--

4A

41

Try square
The try squareasseenin Fig. 1 has a blade (1-A) and a stock.(1-B) which are fixed together at exactly 90. The edge of the blade and the stock am perfectly sharpand straight. Outside corners Outside comersare checked with the try square,seeFig. 2. The try squareshould be held firmly with the beam againstone side of the object Then it should be lowered untill the blade touchesthe object. Between the blade and the objectthere should not be light anymore,to ensurethe object is absolutely square. Inside corners To check an inside comer, hold the stock of the try squarefirmly againstone side of the workpiece andcheck whether there is any light to be seenbetweenthe blade and the other side of the object. If so, the secondpiece is not exactly squareto the basepiece. SeeFig. 3. Flatness As you seein Figs. 4 and 5, the flatnessof an object can be checkedwith the aid of the try square.Hold the try squarewith the stock vertical and pressthe blade firmly againstthe object. Check againstthe light in the directions 5-A-B-C-D-E-F.

42

Y~RlMGANDYEAsURNG?oQLs

Try square and bevel

Testing the try square You can usethe following method to be sure thetry squarehas an angleof 90. seeFig. 1: - Take a metal plate with a straight edge (1 A-A). - Placethe stock of the try squarealong the straight edge (1-B). - Inscribe a line (1 C-C) along the blade over the metal plate. - Turn the try squareto position (1-D). The inscribed line shouldnow coincide with the blade of the try square. Sliding bevel The sliding bevel looks a bit like the try square.It also hasa bladeand a stxk. The bladecan be adjustedto w the bevel at any angle.The bevel is usedfor checking any angleother than 90. seeFig. 2. You can useit to mark out any angle. If a piece of metal is shapedto an angle, it is checkedwith the sliding bevel. Move the sliding bevel along the object to check more than one place. Fixed bevel A fixed bevel can be madewhen a lot of workpieceshave to be madewith the same shape, Fig. 3. see

A C
1

uIELWUNG YtEASUWNG B4U TOOLS

43

Protractor

\ H % &J , \ 2.\
0

// /
A

You can draw any angle with the aid of a protractor,seeFig. 1. But makesure that you measure angle from line 1 A-A and not the from line 1 B-B. The protractor is also usedto setthe angle on a sliding bevel. Supposeyou want to setthe sliding bevel to an angle of 6Q: - Draw the angle with the aid of the protractor on a piece of paper. - Copy this angle with the sliding bevel. Someprotractorshave an arm which makes them easierto use. SeeFig. 2. Universal bevel protractor Measuring,marking and checking of angles is donewith an universal bevel protractor, see Fig. 3.

44

MEAW?R4G MEASUHNGTOOL$ AND

Feeler gauge
A feeler gaugeis a set of thin steel blades. They fold into a handle,seeFig. 1. The thicknessof eachbladeis marked on the blade. Blade .26 meansthis blade is 0.26 mm thick. Feelergaugesareusedto measurethe size of very small gapsbetweentwo piecesof metal. SeeFig. 2. To measure gap, find out which the blade fits into it, hold the blade lightly between your fingers and move it in the gap. The blade should not move too tightly but it should not move too freely either. It takesa little practice to get the right feeling for measuringgaps. When using the very thin bladesin particular, be careful not to pushthe blade too hard or it will bend and become crooked. Screw pit gauge A screwpit gaugeis usedto find out the correct pitch of a screw,bolt or nut. There are gaugesfor all kind of thread. Placethe thread gaugeover the threadand seewhich blade fits exactly over the thread.The numbersstamped on the blade tell you the correct pitch. See Fig. 3. Spirit level A spirit level is neededfor instancewhen fitting up or installing machines,seeFig. 4. Check the surfacein all directions.

MEASURt?G!WDtEASURlNGTOOLS

45

Marking out
Drawing Marking out means:marking on the metal all the lines and points neededto makefrom it the workpiecerequired. Theselines and points are called the lay-our. The shapeand all the necessary dimensions are given on a drawing, seeFig. 1 which is drawn in scale 1:2 mm. The drawing can lx madeon the blackboardor on a piece of paper. Marking on metal Copy onto the metal (as shown in Fig. 2) the sameshapeas you seein the drawing. If it is too difficult to inscribe lines on metal that is bright and clean, rub the metal first with chalk or paint, then the inscribed lines are easierto
SfX.

Before drawing a shape,like the one in Fig. 2, find out how the workpiece can be taken out of the piece of metal in tire mosteconomical way. Keep the straight side of a workpiece along a straight side of the metal. Be economical. After completing the lay-out, check all the dimensionsonce more. A small mistakein the lay-out meansthe actual shapeof the workpiece will be incorrect. Fig. 3 showsthe actual shapeof the workpiece drawn in Figs. 1 and 2. Common marking tools The mostcommon marking tools are: - Rule - Try square - Sliding bevel - Protractor - Scriber - Centrepunch - Dividers

Scriber
You can usea pencil or a chalk stick to mark lines on metal, but theselines are not very sharp or clear andthey wear off easily. For accuratework it is better to use a scriber,see Fig. 1. A scriber is a kind of steel pencil with a sharppoint. It is usedto scratchor inscribe. lines on metal. A scriber can easily be made from an old round or triangular tile. Scribing lines To inscribe a straight line, place the steelrule in the correct position and pressthe rule hard againstthe workpiect:with the left hand,see Fig. 2. Hold the scriber with the right handjust as you hold a pencil and lean it to oneside, so that the point will draw along the lower edge of the steel rule. Fig. 3-A showsthe right way. Scratchone line. If necessary,sharpenthe scriber on the oil stone. Inscribe a V when you want to mark a point, because marking a point with a single dot is not very clear. General rules for scribing lines - Have a sharpconical point sn tse scriber. - Pressthe n-ysquareor the steel rule very hard againstthe workpiece on the correct points. SeeFig. 4. - Watch very carefully that the point of the scriber is againstthe !ower exfgeof the try squareor rule, asshown in Fig. 3-A. - Draw the line with the scriber in a slanting position. SeeFig. 5. - Scratchonly one,firm line. - If the metal is too hard or shiny, usesome chalk or paint the surface. - Mark points with a V.

MARKRlG OUT

47

Marking off
A measurement be marked off in two can ways. You can measurefrom2StoOmm.The rule is then plact~! on the workpiece in such a way that the desired measurement this case (in 25 mm) is on the samelevel asthe edgeof the workpiece. SeeFig. I-A. A line is then drawn along the front side of the rule with a scriber. The measurement also be madefrom 0 to can 25 mm. To do this the rule is placed on the workpie.ce such a way that 0 is level with in the side of the workpiece. A V is then drawn at 25 mm. The point of the V indicatesthe correct measurement exactly. The marking off is therefore done by the point of the V. SeeFig. 1-B.

1A

Reference

lines
1

What is a reference line? A referenceline on a workpiece is the lime from which you am going to take all the measurements. you have to make the if workpiece shown in Fig. 1. you usually need two referencelines. Thesetwo referencelines are always at rightanglesto eachother. The sideschosenfor the referencelines are usually the sideswhich do not have many cuts etc. We have therefore chosenthe sides 1-A and 1-B for the referencelines. How to make reference lines lf the metal hasa straight edge,you should use that side as a referenceline. SeeFig. 2. If the metal has no straight edge,you have to makea referenceline yourself. Supposeyou haveto makea rectangleasshown in Fig. 3. Thisis the procedureyou have to follow: - File one edgestraight; this is the first referenceline (3-A). - Fidethe secondedgestraight and at 90 to the first edge.This is the secondreference line (3-B). - File the third and fourth edgesaccordingto the given dimensions(3-C). Symmetrical workpieces Many workpiecesaresymmetrical, like the trowel blade shownin Kg. 4. The centre line is the first referenceline for all symmetrical workpieces.Measurements have to be the sameon both sidesof the centre line.

r-yg / / A / / 1 B

hii:-

/ / LIY..lcl c 3 MAJ?KMGOUt

B C

53

Centre lines
A centreline in a technical draw>rg marks the centre of a workpiece. SeeFig. 1. A cenue line is drawn only when the workpiece is vmmetrical (the sameshapeon both sides). 1 Round holes Round holes always have two centm lines to makeit possible to locate the exact centre of a hole. SeeFig. 2. The r on the drawing gives you the diameter of the hole to k drilled. Marking out The drawing in Fig. 2 showsyou all the details. On the piece of metal in Fig. 3 you see only the centre lines. From the drawing you know the diameter of the drill to be usedfor the round hole and the slotted hole. AU cenue lines are markedfrom the referencelines 3-B. 2 Square or rectangular holes Squareor rectangularholes aredrawn with four lines. SeeFig. 4. To be able to make this rectangularhole you needtodrill four holes at the comersof the large hole. The large rectangularhole is inscribed andfour centre points drawn for the four holes. SeeFig. 5. The four holesare then drilled andthe large rectangleis cut out. SeeFig. 6.

1 j-. + .-

i!
1 I

I I R 3

50

MARM OUT

Centre punch
The centre punch is madeof hardenedsteel andhasa sharpened with a 30 to 60 cone. tip Seefig. 1. The centrepunch is usedto mark the centre of a hole betoredrilling. Exercise - Fit measureout the centresof the holes. inscribe a long line andsomelines across where the holes should be. - Placethe centrepunch on the intersections of the two lines. Carefully place the centre punch at an angleto ensurebetter vision. SeeFig. 2. - Move the centre punch into an upright position and strike it with a hammer,see Figs. 3 and 4. The blow must be delivered in the -5rection of the ctntre punch axis. When centre punching, always fix your eye on the tip of the centrepunch. - Strike the centre punch firmly so the mark can lodge the small drill, seeFig. 5. Accuracy The accuracyof the centrepunch dependson: - exact marking of the holes, - the ground tip of the centrepoint, - placementthe centrepunch in the exact position, - correct use of the hammer. Safety Makesure thatrhe headof thecentrepunchis free of grease and dirt. See to it that the head
am-i the point have the correct shape.

MAIWNG Ol.iT

51

Lines on a cylinder
You can use an angle iron as shown in Fig. 1 to inscribe a line in the length of a cylinder. Press the angle iron fumly againstthe cyiinder and inscribe the line. If V-blocks are available, the cylinder can be placed in the block and horizontal lines give the cent-m poti as the cylinder is turned. Centre point on a cylinder Marking the centre point on a cylinder is possiblewith the aid of a Centre square. Press the squarefirmly againstthe side of the cylinder and inscribe severalshort lines, while tuming the centre squarein different directions, seeFig. 2. Template It is more economical to makea template if a lot of workpieceshave to be madeof the same size and shape,seeFig. 3. A template can be madeof sheetmetal or any other material and should have exactly the shapeof the pieces which have to be made.Mistakes are avoided by having one example because same the templateis always used. Round holes are madeon the template as a small hole through which a centre point is passed indicate a centrepoint on the rough to material. Squareholes are markedat ah four comers with a centre point. Lines can be inscribed around these points later. When marking with the template,make sure there is ample spacefor the tool to cut the material.There should be enough space betweencurved lines in particular to allow the cutting tool to passthrough. A templatemakesit easyto make a good, economical lay-out without much wasteof materials. Use your right hand to mark lines with a scriber and with your left hand pressthe templatefirmly againstthe rough material, see Fig. 4.

scribe

line

52

MARKl?GOUl

Dot punching
A centre punch can also be usedto makedots along an inscribed line, seeFig. 1. This sort of marking is called dorpunching. Dot punching is useful because inscribed lines can easily wear off while you are handling the work; dot punchesmakethem last longer. Dot marksare smaller than centremarksand a light hammer is usedfor dot punching. Exercise - Inscribe a line with a scriber. - Make dot punchesat regular intervals. - Cut the material. - File the work to the exact shape,leaving half the dots visible. This is important because showsthat not too much material it hasbeenfiled off. Dividers A pair of dividers is a two-legged instrument with hardenedtips; theselegs are shapedas shown in Fig. 2. Exercise
- hscribing circles or parts of circles

Make a centrepunch mark for the centm of the requiredcircle. Put one leg of the divider in the centrepunch mark, pressthis leg firmly in the small hole madeby the centre punch. Inscribe the circle.
- Marking equal dimnces

Using the divider. scratchthe Fastmark required. Mark this point again with the centre punch beforeyou continue to the secondmark, holding the leg of the divider in the centrepunch hole you havejust made, seeFig. 2.
- Measuring distances

Openthe divider asfar as necessary reach to from one mark to the secondmark (Fig. 3). Placethe divider carefully on a ruler and check the distance.SeeFig. 4

3 r5vMlNGOUT

53

Dividers
Dividers are usedto scribe circles on material to be used.The most commonly useddividers are shown in Fig. 1. During scribing the top of the dividers is held with the thumb andthe forefinger asshown. When madelocally, make sure that the legs of the dividers are of the samelength and shaped at the end asshown in Fig. 2. Beam trammels A beamtrammel is usedto scribe large circles, seeFig. 3. Exercise - Set the dividers at the correct radius of the required circle. - Pressone leg of the dividers into the punchedhole. - Hold the compassat the top betweenthe thumb and the forefinger. - Turn the compassaround while scratching the circle into the material, as shown in Fig. 1. Approximate large circles Large circles with an approximate diameter may be madewith the aid of a wire which is fixed at the other side to the scriber. The distance betweenthe scriber and nail or screw is equal to the required radius. While scribing the circle hold the wire tight, so thar the scriber producesthe correct circle. SezFig. 4. Chalk line A very long rough cutting line may be made with the aid of a chalk line. This line is covered with chalk powder. Fix the line at two points onto the malerial. Lift the line in the middle and leave it at once so that it will jump to the material and so produce the required line, seeFig. 5. As said before,this method producesa rough cutting line only.

54

wuw+GOur

Calltpers
Internal caliiper

External calliper

Measuring internal

Measuring external

Measuring external to internal and internal to external CAUlPER5 55

Hack saw
1

The hack saw is one tif the most useful tools usedby the rural mechanic. It can cut different metals in a relatively fast way. SeeFig. I
D

Hack saw parts

- Handle, made of wood I-A

- Frame, madeof steel 1-B - Blade, different sizes and shapesI-C - Wing nut, to adjust the spigot 1-D - Adjustable spigor, to fix the saw blade 1-E All metal hacksawsare shown in Fig. 2. Hack saw blades Saw bladesarecommonly available with the following shapes: - Coarse: 14 teeth per 25 mm, for thick and soft metal, seeFig. 3-A. - Medium: 22 teeth per 25 mm, for medium work, seeFig. 3-D. - Fine: 32 teeth per 25 mm, for hard metal, seeFig. 3-C. Quality - Ail hard: the whole blade is tempered. - Flexible: only the teeth are hardened. - High speed steel: special steel.
3A

I
/----25 -4

Make sure you tighten the blade correctly in the hack saw frame with the correct tension and the teeth pointing forwards.

38

i.+--.

25

--+

L i I t-+-I
25 ~------+i I 3C

Cutting action To ensurechip clearance,the teeth of the saw blade aresef asshown in Fig. 4-A. Teeth are bent sidewardsto the left and to the right. Another way of ensuring chip clearanceis to have saw bladeswhich are waved, as shown in Fig. 4-B. The space4-C is the spacefor drip clearance.

48

58

HACK SAW

How to hold the hack saw

- Hold the handle with your right hand and hold the front of the framewith your left hand, seeFig. 1. - Keep your feet 25 cm apart,the left foot pointing towards the workbench. - Pressthe hack saw down on the forwxd strokesand lift it a little on the backward strokes. - Usethe full length of the blade, otherwise the middle part wearsout instead of the whole blade. - Do not make more than 50 strokes per minute. If you go faster,the blade becomes too hot and losesits hardness. Always use a blade of such a shapethat at least threeteeth cut into the material. Otherwise the bladeeasily gets damaged.Fig. 2-A shows a correctly shapedblade and Fig. 2-B shows an incorrectly shapedblade for this particular piece of metal. Clamping the workpiwe Always clamp the workpiece in the vice so the cut is madenear the vice jaws. SeeFig. 3; IA is right, 3-B is wrong. Starting a cut Do not start cutting the metal as shown in Fig. 4-A. Working this way you cannot get hold of the metal and you may damagethe surface. The method shown in Fig. 4-B is also wrong. The angle of the saw bladeto the metal piece is too large, which may result in the teeth being broken. The correct way to start is shown in Fig. 4-C. The angle betweenthe metal and the blade is not too big. Start with a forward stroke. Cuts longer than the distancebetweenthe blade and the frame can be cut asshown in Fig. 5. Changethe direction of the blade.

HACKSAW

59

Filing a notch
It is a good habit to file a notch at the sharp edgeof a workpiece. A notch makesit easyto start sawing exactly on the line and reducesthe risk of breaking off teeth of the blade. See Fig. 1. Sawing tool steel Be surethat tool steel is annealedbefore sawing, otherwise the saw blade quickly becomesblunt. Although annealedtooi steel can be sawn like ordinary steel, a good way is to saw only a deepnotch all around the workpiece and then breakthe material by clamping it in the benchvice, but in such a way that the sharp blow falls in the direction of the fixed jaw. If you are not sure about the hardnessof the material, first fiie a bit and this will tell you whether you can saw the metal. Sawing thin metal A small piece of thin metal can easily be sawn by clamping it betweentwo piecesof wood in a vice and sawing through both the metal and the wood SeeFig. 2. Larger pieces of thin metal cannot be held in the vice but can be clampedto the benchtop with the part to be cut off projecting over the bench. Thin pipes can be sawn by cutting through the metal while turning it round at the sametune, seeFig. 3. Sawing wide slots Sometimesit is desirableto make a wide slot, in a bolt head for instance.Such a slot is easy to make,using MO or more hack saw blades insteadof one. SeeFig. 4. lf for somereasona very small slot has to be made,an old hack saw bladecan be used because setting of the teeth is less than on a the new blade.
l

Files
A file is a most valuablecutting tool. Its real valueis seldomfully appreciated beginners. by Unlessa file is properly caredfor and used,it will do oniy moderatelysatisfactorywork and filing with it will be tediousand laborious. On the otherhand when a file is properly caredfor andused,a good rural mechaniccan often do fasterand better cutting with it than he can with a grinding wheel. Files are madeof tool steeland are covered with hardenedteeth, seeFig. 1. Parts of the tile
- Handle

Thehandle is usually madeof hardwood. SeeFig. 2. But sometimes handle is made a of steel asshown in Fig. 3. This handle can tit onto most of the files. Notice how the handleholds the file.
- Ferrule

The ferrule is a metalring which prevents thehandle from splitting, see1-A.

- Tang

Thetang is the taperedshapedpart of the file which fits into the handle, see 1-B.
- Heel

The length of the file is measuredfrom the heel,see1-C.

- Blade

The blade is the actualfile. It is madeof hardened steel.Teeth areplaced at 70 and 52. seePig 2.
- Point

The point is the part to which the length of thefile is measured from the heel, see1-D. How to hold the handle Fig. 4 shows you how to hold the handle of a file. Th, forefmger should be on top of the handleto improve the pressure. round part The of thehandle should be lodged in the hollow of your hand. Fig. 5 showsa wrong way to hold thehandle.

61

Classification of Ales
To identify any particular file it is essentialto know (seeFig. 1): - Length of file - Shapeoffile - Typeof cut - Grade of cut Length of file The length of a file is measuredfrom the point to the heel of the file. The most commonly usedfiles are of lengths from 150to 300 mm. Shape of file The shapeof the file is named after its cross-section,seeFig. 1. - Flat file 1-A and 1-B - Round file 1-C - Squarefile 1-D - Half round 1-E - Triangular file 1-F Type of cut The singk cut has one set of CUS. teeth are The like the edgesof a chisel. SeeFig. 2-A. The double cut hastwo setsof cuts crossingeach other. This gives the teeth the shapeof sharp points. SeeFig. 2-B. The rasp hasteeth which are not connected.The teeth arejust sharp points. This raspis usedfor woodwork, not for metal. SeeFig. 2-C. Grade of cut Files are cut with teeth which are grooved at a certain angle,seeFig. 2-A and 2-B. LXffeient gradesof file produce finished surfaceswith different qualities. Most file cuts tre positioned at anglesof 52 and 70. The gradeof cuts on files varies. The more cuts the smootherthe file. Comparethe gradesshown in Fig. 2-B and Fig. 3.
Edge of file One edgeof the file has teeth, the other does not. The edgewith cuts enablesyou to file inside comersof a squarehole, seeFig. 3.

62

FILES

Holding the file

- When filing, standwith your left foot 15 to 25 cm in front, to the tight, and your body leaning slightly forward from the hips. - Hold the handle with your right hand, the point with your left hand, asshown in Fig. 1-A. For light filing, use the alternative posi;ions as shownin Figs. 1-B and 1-C. Filing - Pressthe file firmly down on the forward stroke. Lift the file a little on the backward stroke. Use the full length of the blade. - Make slow, even strokes.Do not makemore than 40 cutting strokesper minute. - When filing a narrow flat surface,usemore pressureon the front end of the file than on the handle during the first part of the stroke. Then asthe file is pushedforward, gradually easethe pressureon the front end and place more pressureon the handle. Cross filing Crossfiling is shownin Fig. 2 and is usedto producea smooth,flat surface. - Move the file forwardsand at the sametime sidewaysto the left and r&t. - Changethe direction of strokesregularly as shown in Fig. 2-A-B-C. Draw filing Draw filing is usedto finish long narrow surfaces. - Hold the Ne betweenyour fingers as shown in Fig. 3. - Use pressureon the forward and backward stroke when you usea double cut file. Press only on the forward stroke when you usea single cut file. Draw filing wearsout the file fast since only a srxil part of the file is used.Changethe position now andthen so that you usethe -wholefile.

FILES

63

Round filing with radius

- Placethe file with the tip in the position shown in Fig. 1-A. While moving the file to the positions 1-B. 1-C etc., push tie file over its lateral axis to enable you to usethe whole file.

Round filing at right angle

- Place the file with its tip in the position shown in Fig. 2. - Pushthe file forward while moving it in direction 2-A. - Tum the file slightly as shown in 2-B. - Move the file in direction 2-C as well. - Guide the file as straight as for flat filing. ..-- U1le, - Turn the file at the s-11~i-s. as shownin Fig. 3. - Draw one stroke3-D-E at a time, asshown

Internal round surfaces

in 3-A-B-C.

Internal round filing

- Use the samemethod as shown in Fig. 4. - Changethe position of the workpiece in the clamp asnecessary. - The rotation of the file is very imporiant.

Clamping the workpiece

Clamp the workpiecein such a way that your file is close to the vice jaws, otherwise the workpie- startsto vibrate while you arefiling, seeFigs. P-A(right) and 1.B (wrong). Obviously, you can never make a proper squareedgeon a workpiece if the piece is vibrating. An improperly clamped workpiece also makesa lot of noise and may damage the file. Filing soft metals The filings (dust) tend to stick betweenthe teeth of a file - especially a double cut file and makethe file useless.So a single cut file is generally usedon soft metalslike aluminium, lead and copper. C!enning the file Removethe filings with a wire brush,a piece of soft metal or a piece of hardwood.If you usehardwood,rub the file with the endgrainof the wood. Rub it in the direction the file cuts. SeeFig. 2 Taking care of files - Use your files correctly so they will last a long time. - Do not allow a file to slip over the work as this makesthe tile dull. Lift the file on the backstroke. - Never file hardenedsteel. Do not touch the . . .,i~ jaws w:t. ynt; f&y h - Do not allow files to touch eachother, wrap them separatelyin a piece of cloth or store them in a file rack asshown in Fig. 3. - Never usea file with a broken handle.

Steel hammers
Hammersare very important for the rural mechanic.A lot of work is done with them in the workshop.Since our tool kit is limited, we deal here with oniy the most common hammers. Hammersare madeof hardenedsteel and are of different shapesand weights. The most suitable weight for hammersis 400 to 600 grammes. Cross pein and ball pein hammer The crosspein 1-A and the ball pein 1-B hammerare shown in Fig. 1. Thesehammers are usedfor all kinds of metal work which have to be done in the workshop. The ball pein hammercan be used for hammering out sheet metal. 2 Hand hammer A hand hammeris shown in Fig. 2. This hammeris commonly usedfor all kinds of work especially by the blacksmith. Light hand hammersare also used in sheetmetal work. Mallet A mallet is madeof hardwood, plastic, rubber, lead or any other material, dependingon the work to be done with it. A mallet (Fig. 3) is usedwhen a steel hammer is likely to damage the workpiece. 3 Hammer shaft The shaft of a hammeris madeof straight jFpd.4 *q-pn-lTr;c VPN - --=--- -__ that it is . -.-..u . we, imnnnnnt straight grained. becausetropical wood is mostly crossgrained and this causes shaft the to breakeasily. The shaft is fitted into the hammerhead.The hole in the hammerhead has a specialshapeto ensurethe shaft lodges well in the headand to allow room for expansionwhen the wedge is fixed. SeeFig. 4. in dr- areasit is better to wet the shaft now and then to makesure it will not break andto make it more flexible, which is necessary when there is heavy work to be done.

6!5

STEEL HAtWERS

Hand chisel
Hand chisels are madeof tool steel.They can have many different shapesand are sometimes specially madefor special work. The most common shapeof the chisel is shown in Fig. 1. This chisel is called a&r chisel and hasthe following parts: - hammeranvil (1-A) - shank&B) - face (on eachside) (1-C) - cutting edge(1-D) The cutting edgeis ground to an angle of 60. The cutting edgeis hardenedand tempered, that is why it cancut metals softer than the chisel itself. ZIow to hold the hand chisel - The chisel is held in the left hand. Hold it lightly but with a full grip. - The hammeris held in the right hand.Use a 1000g hammerfor heavy work. - Cut thin chips. This is lesstiresomeand meansyou can work faster. - Be very careful that the chips do not fly away. - When chiselling, look at the cutting edgeof the chisel andnot at the anvil, seeFig. 2. Light work - When doing light work, hold the chisel with your fingertips. SeeFig. 3. - Use a light hammerfor light work. Safety When the chisel is useda lot, the hammeranvil becomes mushroom-shaped The hammeranvil should look like Fig. 4. When you are working, piecesof steelmay break off the mushroomed anvil and injure your hand.

HAND CHISEL

67

Cutting on the anvil

Thicker metal is cut with the hand chisel on top cfthe anvil. SeeFig. 1. A chisel with a curved cutting edgegives the bestresults. If the cutting edge is straight, the comers of the chisel wear out or break off. Never use the surfaceplate as a packing block. Exercise - Mark the workpiece with the scriber. - Before cutting, put a plate of mild steel (packing block) under the workpiece, otherwise the anvil will damagethe chisel when going through the workpiece. See Fig. 1. - Move the chisel in the direction of the arrow after each hammerblow. - Keep the chisel a little tilted as shown in Fig. 2. Shearing in the bench vice The jaws of the bench vice and the flat chisel can be used together as a pair of scissorsor ,rhears.This method of cutting metal is called shearing, see Fig. 3. Exercise - Inscribe the cutting line on the workpiece. - Clamp the workpiece in the bench vice. The cutting line should be just visible above the vice jaws. - Take the hammerandchisel and cut the metal by shearing it off. Keep the chisel pointed in the cutting direction. - Make sure during cutting that the face of the chisel is flat on the vice jaw, to avoid damaging the vice and to keep cutting along the cutting line. SeeFig. 4. - A clean cut should be madewith a minimum of effort and without damaging the work.

66

HAND CHISEL

Cutting a steel rod

Barsand rods can generally be cut most easi!y by nicking them deeply on two or more sides andthen breaking them by bending them back and forth. When cutting in the vice, always cut as closeto the vice jaws aspossible. Always strike so that the force of the blow is against the fixed jaw, not againstthe movablejaw. Whencutting with the cold chisel at the anvil, alwayswork over the packing block and not over the face of the amil. seeFig. 1. Hold the chisel firmly. yet loosely enough to easethe shockof the hammerblows.
Removing

ijigger rivets may needsomedrilling before the headis cut. Hold the chise! in such a way that oneside of the cutting edgeis flush with the workpiece.See2-X. a specialchisel asshown in Fig. 3. This is called
web chiselling.
Exercise Cutting large holes Large holes can be cut in a metal plate with 2

SrnzlE can be cut at once,seeFig. 2. rivets

rivet heads

- Mark out :he shapeof the rectangularhole with the :,criber. - Punchthree placeswherethe holes are to be drilled. - Drill the holes. - Cut the holes through on both sideswith tie chisel. - File the edgesof the hole until they are
smooth. Cape chisel 3

Capechisels can be used to cut sheet metal, oil drums, water tanksetc. The capechisel is groundto a blunt squareend, slightly thicker at the cutting end than a little further back. See Fig. 4. It shearsout a ribbon of steel.

HAND CHlSEL

69

Hollow punch
The hollow punch shown in Fig. 1 is usedto cut thin material such as leather,plastic, lead and thin sheetmend. The punch is made of tool steel and the cutting edgeis hardened.The holes at 1-A should be able to push back the cut washers.The cutting edgeof this punch is sharpened approximately 60, seeFig. 2-X. to To protect the cutting edgefrom becoming dull or damaged,it is good practiceto cut the washersor rings on ttip of the endgrains of a piece of wood which can be clamped into the benchvice. 1 Cutting gaskets Before cutting, the shapeof the object should be drawn on the gasketmaterial. An example is shoiun in Fig. 3 of how a gasketshould be madefrom a water pump part, Placea piece of paperon top of the object. With a small hammeror a piece of metal, tap over the edges of the object; this leavesa mark on the paper. Cut the papergasket accordingto the marks on the paper.Placethe papergasketon the real gasketmaterial and draw the actual shape.Cut the gasketto shapeas shown in Fig. 4.

70

HAND CHISEL

Drilling
Drilling meanscutting round holes with a hand drill and a twist drill. A hand drill is shown in Fig. 1 andhasthe following parts: - Breastplate 1-A - Crank 1-B - Gear,sometimesmore than one 1-C) - Chuck 1-D - Jaws1-E - Side handle 1-F - Pinion 1-G - Bushing and nut 1-H - Body 1-L When tightening the twist drill, makesure the whole shankof the drill is betweenthe jaws of the hand drill. The diameter of the twist drill is punchedon the shank. Twist drill The drill shown in Fig. 2 is called a hvist drill. The twist drill is the most commondrill used for drilling metal. Partsof the twist drill are: - Shank2-A - Flute 2-B - Body2-C - Chisel edge/deadi,entre 2-E) - Cutting edge2-B - Margin 2-F The cutting edgesof the drill cut the material. To get an rlccuratehole the cutting edges shouid be equally long and should have the point exactly in the middle. The margin of the drill servesas a guide and ensuresthat the hole is smoothan exactly round. Chips ate removed via the chip grooves. The actualpoint of the twist drill is flat and is called the deud cenrre. This grinds but doesnot cut, seeFig. 3. It is therefore necessary to punch a mark in the metal with the centre punch so the punched hcle will guide the twist drill. Always punch the metal to guide the drill.

Drilling large holes

Drills with a large diameter have a large dead centre. A punchedhole would be too small to take the deadcentre.A pilot hole should therefore be drilled for holes with a diameter larger than 15 mm. The pilot drill should have a diameterat least i/,~of the diameterof the hole to be drilled. SeeFig. 1. Reamer A drilled hole is usually not exactly cylindrical and completely smooth.If a perfecthole is needed,you should drill a hole only slightly smaller in diameter(0.1 - 0.5 mm) than the diameterrequiredand widen with a reamer, seeFig. 2. An exactly cylindrical and very smooth hole will be the result. Usea tap Hrench tightenedon the squareend of the reamerto facilitate the turning of this tool. Ensurethat evenpressureis applied on the reamerandturn it steadily in the curdng direction only. Reamersare fairly brittle and should thereforebe handled very carefully. Lubricate the reamerwhile cutting.

Drill sharpening
When a drill tip is blunt it must be sharpened. Drill sharpeningis usually done by very experiencedmechanics.Trainees should not attempt to sharpentheir own drills, before it has ken explained to them. You should practise a lot on old twist driIls beforeyou start sharpeningyour own drills. Let us repeatthe namesof the twist drill tip, seeFig. 1: - Cutting edgesI-A - B,ands1-B - Dead centte I-C - Heels 1-D Sharpening When sharpeninga twist drill you have to consider the following: - Sharpeningthe cutting edgesis very important. It should be done very accurately. The line of the cutting edgesshould meet at a11 angle of 116 to each other: the drill point angle. See Fig. 2-B. - The other angleof the cutting edgeshould be 5.5to the deadcentre, seeFig. 2-A. - The heel should give a clearanceof 6 to 1W to the cutting edge.The cutting edgeshould be sharp.By enlarging the angle to the heel the cutting edgebecomessharper.But do not exceed6 to lo. Clearanceof the heel is also neededto prevent the heel from getting overheated.If the drill overheats,the steel of the drill burns and becomesuselessand soft. - The deadcentreshould be exactly in the centre of the drill and should not be too large.
28

116-118'

Sharpening gauge The drill point angle and the position of the dead centre can be measuredwith the aid of a sharpeninggauge,seeFig. 3. The length of the cutting edges be measuredwith a try square.

74

Cutting edgeswith different angles

If a drill tip is not sharpened correctly andone cutting edge(1-A) is shorterthan the other, see Fig.1, it is clear that only one cutting edge (1-B) hasto do all the work. You will notice this because drill producesonly one the shaving insteadof two. Cutting e2gesof unequal strengtn A drill which is not ccrrectly sharpenedmay producea drill with an off-centre point. If you drill with sucha drill, the workpiece shakes, the drill may breakand the final result is that the hole producedis larger in diameterthan the actualdiameterof the drill. SeeFig. 2. You can seethat the centreof the hole will be at 2-A and the centreof the drill at 2-B. You can seein Fig. 3 that the hole is much larger than the drill diameter. Drilling exercise The drilling procedureis shown in Fig. 4. - Mark the position of the hole on the metal and punch it. - hscribe a circle round the centre point equal to the diameterof the drill (4-A). - Inscribe anothercircle with a diameter slightly larger than the circle (4-B). - Placethe drill in position, pressthe drill firmly and drill a point, spot drilled (4-C). - Check whetherthis small hole is exactly in line with the centrepoint. - Drill again and seewhether the diameterof the drill coincides with the first circle (4-D). - Drill through the metal and you will seethat the hole exactly matcheswith the second circle (4-E).

Post driii
Apart from all the other kinds of drilling equipment,the post drill is an excellent drilling machine, because electricity is not always available in the rural workshop. See Fig. 1. The whole drilling assemblyof the post drill can be mounted to a woodenpost (I-A) againstthe wall. Drills uy,to 13 mm can be fixed in the chuck with a specialkey (1-B). The workpiece is clampedon a table. When handle 1-C is turned, the drill turns round and at the sametime movesdownwards,regulated at the top by a ratchet construction 1-D. The whole axle and drill can be lowered with handle 1-E. Flywheel 1-F reducesthe power neededto turn the drill round. Drills with a diameter larger than 13 mm have a taperedshank with a fLtt end. SeeFig. 2. The taperedshank fits into a taperedrecessof the drill spindle (2-A). To removethe drill with the taperedshank, you haveto hammerme drill drift (2-B). into the slot of the drill spindle. Precautions A drill shank must be clean and without burrs. Burrs can be removed with the sharpening stone.Do not usethe grinding stone or you may damagethe shank. If there is a burr or dirt on the drill shank, the drill will not fit straight into the chuck, it will start to wobble and may comeout of the chuck. The lower side of the drill drift is flat. Always usethe drill drift with this side turned downwards,otherwise the post drill will be damaged.Use a piece of wood when removing a drill to prevent it from being damagedwhen hitting tne table. A special reducing sleeveis availaYe to make i+possiblefor larger drills to fit in the recessof the drill spindle.

fi

: I I I I t I 4 4

\ I I I I I I I I A

75

DRlLUffi

Drill chuck
A drill chuck is usedfor clamping a drill in position. SeeFig. 1. This is necessary, a for loosedrill will rotate, resulting in damageto the drill (burr formation) andthe jaws of the drill chuck.Always usean appropriatechuck key. Ensurethat the drill is exactly cenrred between jaws. Keep the drill chuck the thoroughly clean and seethat no dirt gets between clamping jaws. the Drilling deep holes Whendrilling deepholes,the drill tip easily getsoverheated. preventthii the drill hasto To be takenout of the hole from time to time to cool off. This also facilitates the removal of the chips. Clamping the workpiece Whena hole is to he drilled the workpiece shouldhe clampedonto the drilling table by means a drill pressvice (Fig. 2) or clamps of
(Fig. 3). These aids both have to be connected 1

to thedrilling table by meansof T-slot bolts which fit into grooveson the table (2-A). To preventthe drilling table or the drill pressvice from beingdamaged,packingpiecesshould be used,see2-B. Stepsshould always be taken to preventa worlqiece from coming up or startingto turn with the drill. Lubrication Whenyou usean electric drill it is aC(isable to usea lubricant to cool down the driii, make cutting easier,makework smoothand make the drill last longer. A lubricant can be made locally by mixing soapand a little oil. Put the mixture in ZUI can and shakeit before use. oil No iubricant is neededwhen you cut cast iron: the carbonin the cast iron actsas a lubricant.

Pillar drill
Drill diumeter Drili speed

fmmj ;: 5 6 7 8 9 10 i:. 13 15 16 18 I-.-.--

frpmj loo0 750 600 500 425 375 El 275 250 ?ii 170 165

Drills can only operateefficiently ap to a certain maximum cutting speed.If the cutting speedis too high the drill will heat up and consequentlybecomedull. If the cutting speed is too low the electric drill operatesbelow its capacity with poor quality performance. The cutting speedvaries with the diameter of the drill, but also with the changing of the spindle speed.The spindle speedcan be changedby locating the V-belt on any of the three stepsof the spindler &riven and motor driven pulleys. seeFig. 1. The various spindle speeds often indicated on the electric drill are itself in rotations per minute @pm). It is not allowed to locate the V-belt out of level. The belt must be positioned at the same height on both pulleys. The right combination of a certain drill diameterand a certain spindle speed(in rpm) is shown in the table. Different materials needvarious spindle speeds. mild steel Fhetable on this page For can be used.For tool steel a lower spindle speedis required and soft metalsshould be drilled with a higher spindle speedtlntn indicated in the table.

78

DRlWffi

79

Introduction
Assembly meansputting parts together. Disassemblymeanstaking parts apart.A rural mechanichasto assembleand disassemble engines,pumps,farming machinery, ploughs etc. Most important in any assemblyor disassemblyjob is the loosening andtightening of nuts andbolts. SeeFig. 1. Bolts can have a left or right thread. Most common is the right thread. - A right threaded bolt is tightened: turn it clockwise, see Figs. 2 and 3-B. - A left threaded bolt is tightened: turn it anti-clockwise, see Fig. 3-A. - A right threaded bolt is loosened:turn it
anti-clockwise.

- A left threaded bolt is loosened:tum it

clockwise.

flow to tighten nuts and bolts This is difficult to describe.The correct tightening of nuts and bolts is a matter of experience.If a bolt is tightened too much, the thread is stripped off the bolt or the bolt breaks.
Small bolts: 6 to 8 mm are tightened lightly,

using only onehand, because thesebolts break easily - be careful!

Medium bolts: 10 to 12 mm am tightened moderately with one hand. Large bolts: 16 to 20 mm or more are tightened a lot. It is almost impossibleto break

thesebolts and you can use both hands. Practicetightening bolts and check this with the torque wrench. Ask your instructor for guidance.

60

ASSEMBLY TOOL!3

Spanners
Spannersare tools for tightening and loosening nuts and bolts. They aremadeof special steel. The length of the handleis such that no extra extensionof the handle is neededor even allowed. Spannersareclassified into three commonranges/sizes: - Metric spanners for metric nuts and bolts. SeeFig. 1. - Inch spanners for British madenuts and bolts. - Inch spanners for American madenuts and bolts. Note: the size is always markedon the spanner.Special nuts and bobs are sometimes usedand you may needspecial spannersto tighten or loosenthem. Shapeof spanner There are many differently shapedspanners. But the most commonare: - Open ended spanner: mis spannerhas two U-shapedopeningsto fit two sizes of nuts or bolt heads.SeeFig. 1. - Combination spanner: this spanneris a combination of an openendedand a ring spanner.Thesespanners very useful for are the rural mechanic.SeeFig. 2. - Ring spanner: a ring spannergrips a nut on six sides,so there is no risk that the spanner can slip round a nut or bolt head.SeeFig. 3. A ring spanneris thereforebetter than an openendedspannerwhen you have to apply a lot of force. A ring spanneris usually of double hexagonshape,that meansit has twelve comers.The double hexagon thus meansyou can usethis spannerin narrow placeswhere you canNm the spanneronly a little. SeeFig. 4. Useof the spanner When you apply force on an openended spanner,make surethat the jaws, which are positionedat an angleto the handle, are pointing towardsthe force applied on the spanner.SeeFig. 5-A (right) and 5-B (wrong).

sPAM4EFis

81

Set of socket spanners

Socketspannersare shot?rigid steel tubes. On one end they have a hexagonalor double hexagonalrecessto fit the nut or bolt. The other end has a squarehole to fit the handle. This squarehole is of the samesize for all spanners. Fig. 1. It is betterto buy die See hexagonshapedsocketsbecause they are strongerand therefore last longer. Handles A set of socketspannerscontainsa variety of handles: - Sliding T-handle (Fig. 2) - Braceor speedhandle (Fig. 3) - Extension piece (Fig. 4) - Universal joint (Fig.5) - Ratchethandle (Fig. 6) All handleshave squareendswhich fit into the squarehole in the sockets.On one side of the squareend a map is madeto ensurethe handle locks properly into the socket.This snap is a small ball locked into the metal which has a spring behind it to make surethe ball locks after the squareend has beenpushedinto the socket. Ratchet handle The ratchethandle (Fig. 6) allows you to work fast with short movements.Especially when a construction doesnot leaveyou much spaceto move the spanner,it is advisableto use the ratchethandle becauseyou can leave the socketon the nut or bolt. Universai joint The universal joint, shown in Fig. 5, is used when a construction is suchthat you cannot reacha nut or bolt either vertically or horizontally with the handle. Precautions Be very careful when you tighten small nuts or bolts. You can easily over-righten a small nut.

82

SPANNERS

Box spanner
The box spanneris a piece of metal on which a hexagon headis pressed one or two sidesto on allow a nut to enter.The pipe spanneris turned around with a handlecalled a fommybar. See Fig. il. With the box spannerYOU can reach nuts or bolts which aredeeply recessed, lie spark plugs etc. Allen keys Allen keys ate L-shapedbarswith a hexagon section. SeeFig. 2. Thesebars fit into the recessed headof specialbolts. Adjustable spanners This spannerhasone fixed jaw and onesliding jaw, adjustedwith a worm screw for different nut sizes.SeeFigs. 3 and 4. The sliding jaw is never rigid, especiallywhen the spanneris usedfor a long time. so the spannerneverfits snugly onto a nut or bolt. This spannershould only be usedwhen no other spanneris available. When working, position the spanner as you would an openendedspanner. Torque wrench A torque wrenchis a handle which can be used on a socketspanner.With this handle you can measurehow much torque you apply to a nut or bolt. The pansof a torque wrench are (Fig. 5): - Squareheadfor socketspanner5-A. - Pointer to indicate the torque 5-B. - Torque scale5-C. - Movable handle5-D. - Bar fixed to headand handle 5-E. The torque is always indtcated on machines, enginesor drawings.Seealso the next page.

SPANNERS

Torque indication
As mentionedbefore,ail the important nuts andbolts in an engineor any piece of machineryhaveto be tightened to the correct torque.The torquecan be measuredin different units of measurement: - Nm (newton metre) - Kpm or Kgm (kilogram metre) - Lbft (pound foot) The torque wrenchhasdifferent scalesfor different units of measurement. sureyou Be readthe torqtie on the correct scale.Not every rural mechanichasa torque wrench in his toolbox. But a Rural Mechanic Co-operative shouldhave onein the tool store. Records Keepa record of torque values for various engines.Wheneveryou come acrossa workshopmanual,copy the imponant torque figures in a no%book. Precautions A good mechanichasthe right feeling for usingspanners. Small nuts need little tightening, bigger nuts can be tightened more. This is why a larger spannersize is also longer andgives more leverage.Make surethat you turn the correct way. A bolt whichis upside down can be very confusing. Rememberthe differencebetweenclockwise and anti-clockwise. Make surethe spanneris of the correct size and fits well, otherwiseit will damagethe headof the bolt. Wheneverpossibleyou shouldpull on a spanner.If you haveto push it, usethe palm of your hand and keepyour fmgers out of the way. Never usea piece of pipe to increasethe leverageof a spanner.The spanneror the bolt may break.Never usea hammereither. A very stubbornnut can be loosenedif you heatit. Usea blow torch or gas welding equipmentor, if the piece is pot too large, you can usethe charcoalfire. Readjust the adjustablespannerto tighten eachnut or bolt. Usethis spanneronly if there is no other type of spanneravailable. Remember the jaws of the adjustable that spanneror the openend spannershould point in the samedirection asthe force being applied. Use a torque wrenchwhenevernecessary. Check the torque loading in the workshop manual.Keep the torque wrench in the tool store,not in your toolbox becauseyou may damageit.

Exercise Take an old engine or a piece of machinery. Placethis in position and loosen the nuts and bolts without tutning the workpiece. Fastenall nuts and bolts and check with a torque wrench the torque you have given thesenuts and bolts. Place all nuts and bolts properly. If necessary, place them in a certain sequenceon the table or on a piece of wood. Clean rusty nuts and bolts with a wire brush and greasethem a little if necessary. Rememberwhere you have placed washers,if my-

SPAtMEl%

Screwdrivers
E D C B A

Screwdriversare used to tighten and loosen screws.The screwdriver consistsof different parts,seeFig. 1. - Handle: the handle is madeof wood or plastic. Along the handle somegrooves are madeto ensurea good grip on the handle (1-A). - Tang: the tang is the part of the shankthat goesthrough or partly through the handle. It is shapedin such a way that it cannot turn inside the handle (1-B). - Shank:the shank is madeof hardenedsteel and varies in length from 50 to 300 mm (l-c.). - Blade: the blade is a widenedpart of the shankto form the tip (1-D). - Tip: the tip has a special shapeand is less hardenedthan the shank and is therefore more flexible (1-E). Holding the screwdriver How to hold the screwdriver is shown in Fig. 2. Keepthe handle in the hollow of your hand, so that you push the screwdriverforward. Placethe forefinger on top of the handle or sometimes partly on the shank,to guide the screwdriver.Make surethe screwdriver is exactly in line with the screw. Types of screwdrivers
- Standard tip screwdriver

This screwdriver has a flat tip. It is usedfor all kinds of ordinary work. An extra short screwdriver may be usedfor work in restrictedplaces.
- Phillips tip screwdriver

This screwdriver has a cross-shaped It is tip. usedfor screwswith a Phillips head.The advantageis that the screwdrivercannot slip out of the slot. SeeFig. 3.
- Offset screwdriver

This screwdriver is usedin placeswhere you cannot work immediately abovethe screw.SeeFig. 4. Sharpening the tip Fig. 5 showsdifferent shapes screwdriver of tips: - The correct tip shapeS-A - Improved anti-slip shapeS-B - Phillips screwdriver shapeS-C

SCREWDRIVERS

05

How to use screwdrivers

- A screwdriver is designedonly to turn screws.Do not usethe screwdriver as a wedge or a fever, becausethii will deform the shank and the tip may break. - The tip of the screwdriver should fit correctly into the slot of the screwhead.See Fig. 1-A. - The tip of the screwdriver shown in Fig. 1-B is not correctly shaped,it is taperedand will slip out of the slot of the screw and therefore out of the headof the screwsor will damage the headof the screw. - Never usea flat tip screwdriver as a Phillips screwdriver. - For heavy work you can usea screwdriver with a squareshank. You can usea spanner to increasethe turniug force. SeePig. 2. - Do not hold the workpiece loosein your hand while you turn a screw. Clamp it in the vice or put it down on the work bench, because screwdriver can makewounds a and the dirt on the tip of the screwdriver may causeinfection. SeeFig 3. For the samereasondo not carry a screwdriver in your pocket. - After sometime you may have to re-shape the tip of the screwdriver. If you usea grinding wheel for this, do not pressthe tip too firmly onto the grinding wheel, because the tip may overheat and the correct propertiesof the steel may change.When sharpening,cool the tip regularly. - When he tang in the handle of the screwdriverdoesnot go through the handle, do nut hammer on the handle of the screwdriver.The handle may break or it may be pushedover the shank. Have different screwdrivers in your toolbox for different types of screws (Fig. 4). If not the screw headwill be damaged(seeFigs. 1-C to

1-E).

06

SCRfiWDRlVERS

Bolts
Bolts are madein many different sixesand qualities. SeeFig. 1. Important dimensionsof a bolt are: - Length: the headis not included in the length of a bolt, see1-A. - Threaded length: the threadedlength is only measuredon the actual threadedpart of the bolt, see1-x. - Size: the size of the bolt is the sameasthe major threaddiameter (the outsidediameter of the thread),see1-O. Screw thread The winding groove around a bolt or inside the nut is called a screw thread, or simply a thread - Interal thred: is on the inside of a round hole - for example, a nut. SeeFig. 2-A. - External thread: is on the outside of a round object for example, a belt. SeeFig. 2-B. ln a technical drawing a bolt is drawn as shown in Fig. 3. The slanting lines indicate the thread.
A

0 I

Bolts and screws Bolts and screwsare representedon a drawing as shown in Fig. 4. Contrary to the bolt 4-A. the countersunkscrew length is measured including the head,see4-B. The length of the round countersunkscrew is measured including half the head, see4-C. Quality As mentionedbefore,there are many different kinds of bolts and also different quabties. Special nuts and bolts are usedfor engines. Order the right kind of nuts and bolts from the factory. The tensile strength of a bolt is indicated on the head of the bolt.

i
4

90

BOLTS

Various bolts
In Fig. 1-A you see a machine bolt. This bolt is usedfor commonpurposes.If this bolt is to be used,makesurethe thicknessof the material to be fastenedis greaterthan the unthreadedpart of the bolt. In Fig. 1-B you seea tap bolt, This bolt is threadedover the full length and can beusedto fastenthin material like sheetmetal etc. Fig. 2-A showsa carriage bolt. This bolt is usedto fastenwood to wood or wood to steel. The headis round andhas no slot or anything to hold the bolt while fastening the nut. This is why there is a squarepart under the head.This squarepart is hammeredinto the wood and thuspreventsthe bolt from turning when the nut is being tightened. A stud bolt is shown in Fig. 2-B. This bolt is fixed on one side to a construction. Over the unthreaded anotherpiece of the part constructioncan be mountedand a nut tightens the whole assembly.

Bolt heads Bolt headscan be of different shapes,asshown in Fig. 3. - Hexagonhead3-A - Squarehead3-B - Sockethead3-C Right and left hand thread In Fig. 4-A you seea right hand threadedbolt. You can seethis from the fact that the tines representing threadgo upwardsto the right the side.In Fig. 4-B you seea left hand threaded bolt. You can seethis from the fact that the lines representingthe threadgo upwardsto the left side and the headis marked in all comers. - Right hand thread is tightened clockwise. - Left hand threadis tightenedanti-clockwise.

BOLTS

91

Bolts, nuts and screws

Bolts, seeFig. 1 - Carriage bolt 1-A - Squareheadbolt 1-B - Hexagonheadbolt 1-C Nuts, seeFig. 2 - Wing nut 2-A - Squarenut 2-B - Hexagon nut 2-C
2

Screws, seeFig. 3 - Countersunkhead3-A - Cheesehead3-B - Metal screw3-C Socket heads,seeFig. 4 - Recessed countersunk4-A - Recessed sockethead4-B - Recessed round head4-C

3 B C

Wood screws,seeFig. 5 - Roundheadwood screw 5-A Self-tapping screws,seeFig. 6 - Counter sunk 6-A - Round countersunk 6-B - Round head6-C Self-tapping phillips head, seeFig. 7 - Counter sunk 7-A - Round countersunk 7-B - Round head7-C

6 A B

B A 92

8OLlS

Thread dimensions
Types of thread Four different types of thread are: - External thread - Internal thread - Right hand thread - Left hand thread External thread The bolt shown in Fig. 1 has an external thread.The thick lirre represents major the diameter(outside of thread).The thin lines representthe inside of the thread,the minor diameter. kternz! thread Fig. 2-A showsthe top view of a subject with a threadedhole in it. This thread is an internal thread.The thick circle represents minor the diameter.The thin part circle represents the major diameter. In the crosssection,seeFig. 2-B. you seethe samethick and thin lines representingthe major and minor diameter. Metric IS0 thread M The metric thread which is measuredin millimeters is widely used.The thread angle is 60 and the pitch (p) is measured in mii!Imeters. SeeFig. 3. Thread profiles Six thread profiles areshown in Figs. 3 and4. - Angular thread with a top angle of 60 (metric and Americanthread). - Angular rhread with a top angle of 55 (British thread,4-A). - Trapezoidal thread (usedon lathe machines, 4-B). - Butressrhread (4C). - Round thread (hunp bulbs/threaded rod, 4-D). - rectangular thread (on vice, 4-E). 2 I 1

/+j+$

2A

2B

Thread dimensions
Right hand thread In Fig. 1-A you seea drawing of a bo!t with a right hand thread.The lines representingthe slope of the thread are going down towards the left side asseenon the real thread. Left hand thread Fig. 1-B showsa bolt with a left hand thread. The side of the hexagon head is markedto show that the bolt has a left hand thread. It is seenalso on the lines which representthe thread.They are pointing down to the right, as seenon the real thread. This bolt is tightened
anti-clock wise.
British Metric

1 A B

Course thread A coursethreador bolt has less pitch than a bolt which hasa fine thread. The coursethread is usedfor generalwork. The advantageof c6urse is that it can standa rough thread handling well. Fine thread A fine threadedbolt has more pith than a bolt with coursethread.The fine threadis less commonthan the coursethread. It is mostly usedon strongly vibrating engine parts.A course bolt or nut will shakeloose when it vibrates much, a fine thread standthese vibrations much better. Types of thread Three types of thread are used on bolts or nuts: - Metric thread, measuredin millimeters. - Ameriran or unified thread, measured in inches. - British thread, measuredin inches. British threadis indicated in the numberof threadsper inch, while metric thread is indicated by the pitch. Metric thread is strongerthan British thread due to a larger minor diameterbecauseof a larger top angle. SeeFig. 2. Somemajor characteristicsof thread are: - Outer diameterof the screw threadin mm (2-W - Core diameterof the screw threadin mm (2-d) - Number of threadsper inch (2-n) - Pitch of the thread in mm (2-s) Although different threadsmight look just about the same,they should never be interchanged.After having studiedthe thread churfs, you should take a variety of bolts and nuts and identify the thread.

s 2

94

THREAD

Types of thread: metric thread

More and more manufacturersare using metric thread.In time the metric thread will probably bxome a worldwide standard. Note Metric threadcanbe eitherfine or course. Major diameterscommonly usedrangefrom 3 to 24 mm. The threadhasa W V-profile. The sharpedgesof the V are rounded off. means: - bolt with a major diameter of 8 mm. - pitch of 1.25mm. - length of 40 mm.
M8 x 40 f .m D' d' outside 60

inside

Bolt Diameter
(mm) 6 7' a 9* IO

Metric Pitch
(mm)

Course Tapdrill
(mm)

Metric Pitch
(mm) 0.75 0.75

Fine
T2pdrill b-4 5.2 6.2 7.0 8.0 9.0

1 1 1.25 1.25
1.5

5.0
6.0 6.7 7.7 8.4 9.4

11 * 12
14* 16

1.5 1.75
2 2

10.0
11.8 13.8

1 1 1 1 1.5 1.5
1.5

10.0
10.5

12.5
14.5

Note: The thread sizesmarkedwith * are nonsrandard Normally thesesizesare not used.

--

TYPE!3 THEAD OF

Types of thread: American or unified thread

American threadis mostly usedon machinery etc. which is manufacturedin America. American threadis the sameas unified thread. Note American threadcan be either American National Course(A-NC.) or American National Fiie (A.N.F.) - Major diametersare measuredin inches. - The threadhasa 60 V-profile. - The pitch is given in Thread per Inch (T.P.I.). 10 T.P.I. means: - There are 10 threadsper inch. - The distancebetweentwo threadsis /,o inch.

outside

insic!e

r------

Bolt Diameter (inches)

American National Course Thread (per inch)

20 la 16

American National Fine Thread (per inch)

28 24 24 20 20 ia ia

Tapdrill (mm)
5.3 6.7 a.1

Tapdrill (mm)
5.5 7.0 a.5 10.5 11.5 13.0

94
%6 Ia l/16 * 'h 9/16 * la
3i4

14
13 12

9.4 10.9
12.3

11 10

13.7 16.6

16

14.5 17.5

NOW: thread sizesmarkedwith * are twnsmdard The Normally thesesizesarenot used. 1

96

TW'ESOFMREAD

Types of thread: British thread

rhe British thread is still commonly used. It L;.okssimilar to the American thread, but with the difference that the degree of the pitch is different. Kate British thread can be either British Standard Withworth (B.S.W.) British Standard Fine (B.S.F.). - Major diameters are measured in inches - The thread has a 55 V-profile - The pitch is given in Thread per Inch (T.P.I.) Questions - Which bolts nave afiner pitch, B.S.F. or A.N.F.? - For which bolt size do B.S.W. and A.N.C. have a different pitch?

Bolt

___-_ Isiameter (inch) /4

5/16 3la
7/16 12 *

British Standard Whitworth Thread (per inch)

20 18 16

Britisch Standard Fine Thread (per inch)

26 22 20 18

Tapdrill (mm) 5.1

6.5 7.9 9.25

Tapdrill, (mm)
5.3 6.8 8.3 9.7

9l16* %
916 v4 *

14 12 12 11 11 10

10.5 12.1 13.5 15.1 16.5

16 16
14

11.0 12.7
14.0

14 12

15.5 17.0

Note: The thread sizes marked with * are rwmtandbrd Normally these sizes are not used.

TYPESDFRIREAD

--

Inside pipe diameter (Inch) -h

I/4

Tha _-iJ (per inch)

28

Tapdrill diameter (mm>

8.9

Types of IMead: Whitworth gas thread

The Whitworth gas thread is especia3y used for cuttiug thread En gas or water pipes. The Whitworth Gas thread has the same top angle as B.S.W. but a much higher pitch. This results in a larger minor diameter. This type of thread therefore gives good sealing and can be cut on thin-walled pipes. - The thread has a 55 V-profde. - The pitch is given in threads per inch (T.P.I.). - G 1 stands for thread on a pipe with an inside diameter of 1 inch. As the thread is cut on the outside surface the minor and major diameter of the thread wiIl consequently be larger.

3/s
/2

%
3I4 I/ a 1

19 19 14 14 14
14 11

11.8
15.3

19.1
21 24.6 28.3 30.8 35.5

1/a 1% 13/a
I/2
P/4

2 2% 2/2 2% 3 --

11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11

39.4
41.8 45.4 51.3 57.2 63.3 72.8

55

79
85.5

TYPES THREAD OF

Threading
Tapping is cutting thread grooves iu a workpiece with the aid of taps. Threading in cutting thread grooves around a workpiece with the aid of a Die. Taps Taps are cutting tools made of hardened tool steel, They are used to cut thread in holes, see Fig. 1. The top end of the tap is square and fits into the tap wrench (1-A and Fig. 3). The type of thread is stamped on the shank of the tap (1-Bj. A tap has three or fourflutes to break the chips produced and make room for withdrawal from the hole (1-C). On the cross section of the tap you can see the cutting edges are made at a certain angle and the heels are set slightly backwards (1-D). Set of taps Fig. 2 shows a set of three taps: - taper tap, witi one ring 2-A - plug tap, with two rings 2-B - bottmning tap, with three rings or no rings at all 2-C Taper tap This tap starts cutting the thread gradually. It is tapered for about the first eight threads. Plug tap This tap takes the second cut. It is tapered for the first three threads. If the hole goes through the material, this tap finishes the cutting. Bottoming tap When you cut thread in a blind hole, the bottoming tap should be used in addition to the two other taps, in order to cut the thread right down to the bottom of the hole. This tap is not tapered. Tap wrench A tap wrench is shown in Fig. 3. In the centre there are two jaws, one of which can be adjusted by turning one handle.
2

c
A I

A die is a cutting tool made of harden& toolsteel. It is used to cut thread on bolts, see Fig. 1-A. The type of thread is stamped on the die. The hole in the die is for holding the screw that holds the die in place. Another die is shown in Fig. 1-B. This die can be adjusted slightly by turning a screw in the stock. This makes it possible to cut a little over or under the size. Die stock As mentioned before, the die is fixed with a screw in the die stwk. See Fig. 2. Make stiireit is tightened well to prevent the die turning round in the die s~:ock. Thread gauge Lf you have to make a nut for a ready-made bolt, or a bolt for a ready-made nut, then you have to use the thread gauge to find out the right pitch. A thread gauge is shown in Fig. 3-A. There are gauges for all kinds of thread. Place the thread gauge over the ready-made thread and see which blade fits exactly over the thread (3-B). The number stamped on the blade tells you the correct pitch (3-C). Threading tools If possible, it is best to have different sets of taps and dies in the rural workshop to meet demand. Many nuts and bolts on old machinery have threads other than the metric, British or American thread.

lwl

THREADING

--

HOW cut a thread to

The procedure for threading a rod or bolt is: - Cut the rod and check that it is the COKF:M size and shape. The rod should be perfectly round and should have the same diameter as the major diameter of the thread to be made. - Clamp the rod ve&ally in the bench vice. Check this with the try square, see Fig. 1. _- Chamfer the end of the rod with a file at 45. See Fig. 2. Place the stock in the correct position 021 of the rod. See Fig. 3. top - Place the stock in the correct horizontal position on top of the rod. Press it squarely on the end of the rod and turn it clockwise to ,-et right-hand thread. - Step back ;?lcjcarefully inspect whether the die is positoned square. Start again if the die is not square on the rod. Check this from all sides. See Figs. 4 and 5. - After the die has been turned a few times, no more pressure is needed. - Easethe die back at regular intervals to break the chips. Do this as soon as you feel resistance.Chips which clog in the die can be removed with a wire. - Apply some oil after every few turns. This gives the die a longer life and cools down the heat oroduced by the friction. See Fig. 3. - Never fdrce a die. You can easily break the teeth of the die. - After work is finished, clean the die and the wrench and put them back in the box.

--. I
1

Cutting thread with a tsp

The procedurefor threading a hole with a tap is asfohows: - Make surethat the hole hasthe correct diameterfor cutting thread,The followhg rule of thumb can be usedfor smaller diameters: drill diameter= 0.8 x bolt diameter - Fii the tapertap in the tap wrench.Hold the tap wrenchin your right hand andposition it squarely on the work piece. SeeFig. 1. - Pressthe tap down and turn it clockwise to screwthe tap into the hole. - Check after a few turns whetherthe tap is squareto the work, using the try square.See Fig. 2. - Make a new start if the tap is not square.A tap which is not squareat the start wiU break if you continue. - Apply someoil regulary, seeFig. 3. - After the tap hasstartedto makethread,no more pressure needed.You canturn the is tap with both hands.SeeFig. 4. - For small tapsand deepholes it is necessary to removethe tap severaltimes to c!earout the chips at the bottom of the hole. - When threadinga blir,d hole, usethe bottom tap. Cleanthe hole in time. - Never force a tap. - Clean the tap and the stock beforeyou put them backir$the box. To makethe centrelines of the drilled hole and the tap cometogether you can clamp the workpieceon the drilling table andput a centre in the postdrill. This centre gives guidanceto the tap, seeFig. 5.

102

THREmlNG

Tapping a thread
Whenyou tap thin metal, it is best to hold a nut with the samethreadover the hole. This nut guidesthe tap squarelythrough the thin metal. Tapping blind holes Takespecialcarewhen you tap a blind hole. Removethe tap severaltimes to clear out the chips.Be careful whenthe tap reachesthe bottomof the k31e.Do not turn any further or the apwill break.It is very difficult to remove a brt ken tap from a hole. The materid usedto makethe tap is so hard that a dril.1cannotbe used. Tapping drill A hole in which you want to tap threadshould beof exactly the right diameter. - Ifthe hole is rooo It is impossibleto cut a big: full thread. - if the hole is IOOsmall: It is difficult to turn the tap; it may break. Thedrill size usedto drill a hole before rappingis called the rappingdriif. The thread chairs give the tappingdrill sires for the varioustypesof thread.A set of twist drills in stepsof half a millimetre is neededwhen threadingholes.If the threadchart saysa tappingdrill of 9.3 mm is needed,you cantry a drill of either 9.0 or 9.5 mm. A fairly good methodto find the correcttap drill is to take a drill andpassit exactly through a new nut of therequiredthread. Causesof broken taps Tapsanddies shouldbe handledcarefully. They arehard andbrittle and thereforebreak easily.Small tapsin particular are very delicate.A tap will breakwhen: - The diameterof the hole is too small - The taps arenot squarelyin the hole - Nooilisused - The tap is not eased backto breakthe chips - The tap is turnedafter reachingthe bottom of a blind hole - The tap is droppedon the ground Repairing thread in holes Suppose threadin a hole is damaged, the the bolt now turns loosely in the hole. You can repairthis by cutting an oversizedthread.This oversizedthreadwill be a non-s!andard thread. Non-standard threadsare: M7, M9, Ml 1 and M14. An M7 tap cartrepair a damagedM6 thread. Whenthe hole is cut oversize& you haveto makean oversizedbolt which will fit into the hole.

THREADING

103

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~_

-.

Lmkbg devices
Somepartsof engines,agricultural machinery or implementsvibrate strongly. These vibrations will shakeloose any bolt or nut, unlessthe bolt or nut is lockelf properly. Some methodsto lock bolts and nuts in the correct wx, are asfollows. Washer Washersarethin rings made of steel,plastic, lead, aluminium or copper.They areplaced under the nut and makethe nut fit flat on the workpiece.SeeFig. 1. Spring washer A spring washer,also called lock washer, looks like the winding of a spring, see Fig. 2-A. A spring washeris madeof spring steel. When a spring washeris usedunder a nut, the springforce of the washerlocks the nut, see2-B. A spring washercan also be used under the bolt head. Castle nut This is a nut with six slots on oneend and is screwedon to a bolt. SeeFig. 3-A. A small hole is drilled through two slots andthe bolt and a cotter pin is pushedthrough this hole (3-B). Note how the cotter pin is spliced:one end is bentupwards,the other end is bent downwards(3-C). The head of the cotterpin is insertedin the slot and bent upwards. Luck nut A lock nut is a secondnut screweddown on top of the first nut. SeeFig. 4-A. The first nut is tightenedin the normal way. Hold this nut in position with a spanner.Then screwthe lock nut andtighten it with a secondspanner(4-B). When you disassaxnble lock nut, you also a needtwo spanners. Keep !thespanneron the lowest nut into position and loosenthe first nut with anotherspanner.Make surethat you turn both nuts the correct way.

106

LocKlNG DEvlcEs

Nyloc nut
This is a nut with a nylon collar fitted inside thenut. This nut locks itself after being fit to thebolt, because collar grips the threadof the thebolt, seeFig. 1. Locking wire This methodof using a locking wire is often usedwhen a large numberof small bolts have to besecured.Every bolt hasa hole drilled in its head.The wire passes through all these holesandthe endsaretwis:ed together,see Fig. 2. Locking plate A locking plate is a pieceof sheetmetal with a holein ii, seeFig. 3. The bolt passes through this hole, andthe plate is placedunder the head of the bolt. After tightening the bolt, bendthe plateagainstthe side of the bolt headand at theother side passingover the workpiece. The locking plate mustbe be securedto the work for otherwiseit may turn round. There aretwo ways to securethe plate; - By bendingit over the workpiece, seeFig. 3. - By using the locking plate for severalbolts, sothat the one bolt secures other bolt, the seeFig. 4. Screwedlocking plate Anothertype of locking plate is &own in Fig. 5. This plate hasa shapewhich grips the bolt !lead.The locking plate is securedto the bolt with a small screw.This methodis less advisablesincethe small screwmay loosen, and the plate may fall off. Nutscan also be lockedwith locking plates.
2

4 5

LoCKlffi

DEVICES

107

Pins
Pinsare usedto fastenvariousparts to axles. Pinsare only usedfor relatively light connections.For very strongconnectionsa key is usedinsteadof a pin. Keys are explained on the next page. To drive a pin out of a hole. you have to usea drift punch, seeFig. 1. Sincemost of the pins protrudeslightly abovethe surface,make sure that you US the correct drift punch with the samediameterasthe pin. If the drift punch is too small in diameterthe headof the protruding pin may widen and it is than impossibleto drive the pin through. Beforefixing the pin, pushthe drift punch through the holes to makesurethat they are all in line with eachother. Roll pin A roll pin is madeof spring steel. it is hollow andhasa slot along the side,seeFig. 2. The roll pin tits into a hole with a slightly smaller diameter,but the slot in the pin allows it to enterand so the pin will be fir,ed securely in the hole. Tapered pin The taperedpin is not ascommonas the roll pin. The hole where the pin fits is also taper shaped, Fig. 3. Whenyou assemble see the construction,make surethat the taperedpart of the axle is also positionedcorrectly. The pin should be wedgedinto position with a few light hammerstrokes.If you haveto drive this pin out, you should do this from the smallest diameterside. Cotter pin The cotter pin is used,for exampie,to securea castlenut, but it can also be usedfor many other purposes.SeeFig. 4. Sometimes nail is a usedinsteadof a cotter pin. This is only allowed if it cannotcauseaccidents.
5

Dowel pin Dowel pins areusedto position two piecesof metal,seeFig. 5. Mostly two pins are used beforetightening the workpiecewith bolts.

1Oii

LOCK046 DEVICES

Circlips
Circlips arethin rings madeof spring steel. You canopen01cic.z themslightly with internalor external circlip pliers to fit them insidethe groove madein me axle and the part which hasto fit aroundthe axle. Somecirclips can heopenedwith long-nosedplie,s. Therearetwo kinds of circlips: - Theoutside circlip, which fits into a groove on dulaxle, seeFig 1. - Theinside circlip, which fits inside a hole, seeFig. 2. Keys A key preventsthe free rotation of a wheel on an axle.This wheel canbe a gear,a pubey, a flywheel etc Tne wheeland the axle both need a keyway:Inwhich the key is located,see Fig. 3. A key hasto fit accuratelyinto this keyway.If thereis any play (if the keyway is too wide)the wheel canrotateslightly and very sOon will causeseriousdatnageto the this key andthe keyway. Typesof keys
- Gibheadky

This key is slightly tapered.You have to wedgeit in position with a hammer.When you haveto take out a gibheadkey usea tapered pieceof steeland wedgethis between hook of the key and the pulley, the to avoiddamagingthe hook. SeeFig. 4.
- Woodruffkey

This key is mostly usedon taperedaxles, seefig. 5.

- Fearher key

Thegroove for this key can be !ccatedat anyplacealong the axle.The key is placed in position fust andthe wheel is then moved overthe axle andthe key, seeFig. 6,

Removing a broken bslt

If a piece of the broken bolt is still protruding you can: - Try to grip this piece with pliers or a wrench. - Weld a nut onto it and use a spanneron the nut, seeFig. 1. If the bolt is brokeninside the hole, you can: - Use a hammerandcentre punch to knock out the bolt bit by bit. - Drill a hole in the bolt and use a screw em-actor,seefig. 2. Removing stud bolts A stud bolt hasno headon which you can put a spanner.To get the stud bolt out you can: - Grip it with pliers if it is an unthreaded protruding part of the stud bolt. SeeFig. 3-A. - Make a fock nut, see Fig. 3-B. If only the threadedpart of the stud bolt is protmding. Tighten the two nuts with two spanners. Put a spanneron the lowest nut and unscrewthe stud bolt in the sameway as a normal bolt. Removing worn nuts Sometimeshexagonshapednuts or a bolt head are worn round. The spannerhasno grip on such a nut. You can usethe following method to loosenthis nut or bolt: - Try to removethe damaged nut or bolt with the slip joint pliers or with a pipe wrench. - Take a new nut or bolt when you assemble the workpieceagain. - zf no new nut or bolt is available, you may take the damaged piece and fde the shapeto the next smallersize of the spanner.Keep checking with the spannerto seewhether you have filed enough. You are not allowed to use this mzthod on
engine bolts!

110

REMOVINGA BROKENBOLT

Intmduction
Sharptools are !he mark of a good rural mechanic.Only a poor craftsmanstruggles along with a blunt tool insteadof taking time to sharpenit. Blunt tools may causeaccidents. Tools can be sharpenedwith: - Handgrinder - Electric benchgrinder - Oil stone Hand grinder A handgrinder can easily be fixed on top of a work benchby meansof a clamp,seeFig. 1-A. The grinder has a handle with gearwheels (1-B) anda toolmst (1-C). Two people are neededto do a good job. Onehasto turn the wheel towardsthe tool rest andthe other does the actualgrinding job, holding the tool against the tool rest in the correct position. The wheel is fixed to the grinder over an axle and is tightened with a nut. Make surethat you placethe washersin correct order. 1 Electric bench grinder If thereis electricity in the turai workshop it is advisableto have an electric benchgrinder which canbe usedfor manyjobs. Electric benchgrindersare available in many different sizes.A grinder with two wheelsof 150 x 20 mm will do an excellent job. SeeFig. 2. The two wheelson a grinder areusually of different texture. Gne hasa coarsetexture and is usedfor rough work and the other wheel is of fine texture for fmishiig work. A steel guard,2-B. protectsyou from touching the wheel or from an accidentif the wheel breaks. A tool rest,2-C. is mountedto let the tool or the workpiecerest properly. The gap between the tool rest and the grinding wheel must be as small aspossible,without the grinding wheel touching the rest. If the guardis fitted with a slide, set it so that it is ascioseto the grinding wheel aspossible without touching it. To checkthat the wheel can rotatefreely after adjustingthe tool rest andthe slide, rotate the wheel a few times by hand.Checkthe gap betweenthe tool mst and the grinding wheel at regular intervals. It is essentialto nse the eye shield, see2-D. Grainsfrom the abrasiveartificial stonesfly aroundand are very dangerous.

112

GRIWBG WHEEL

Grindstone dressers
While grinding an objectoneshould take care to movetheobjectgradually from left to right andbackto avoid makinggroovesin the surfaceof the grinding stone.If for one reason or anothera groove is madeinto the surfaceof the grinding stoneit is advisableto have a wheel dresser hand to smoothenthe surface at again. Wheel dresser A wheeldresser shownin Fig. 1 may be as usedto flattenthe surfaceof the grinding stone again.This wheeldresser consistof a handle with a wheelat its end.This wheel is madeof very hardsteelandspeciallyshaped.It is movedoverrhe surfaceof the grinding stone while it is rotating. Make surethat you move the dresser gradually left andright until the surfaceis smoothagain.During dressingwear safetygogglesbecause particlesof the grinding stonemay fly around. Insteadof a wheeldresser diamond-point a wheeldresser may be used.At the end of the bar, shownin Fig. 2, an industrial diamond is located.With the diamond,being harderthan any material,the surfaceof the grinding stone can be smoothened. Safety precautions when sharpening tools - Before,+ding adjustthe tool rest very closeto the grinding wheel and at the requiredangle.SeeFig. 1. Make surethe gap between tool rest(1-A) andthe the wheel is not so big that a workpiececan wedgebetweenthe tool rest andthe wheel. This is very dangerous: wheel may break. the - If necessary adjustthe eyeshield (1-B) so no abrasivegrainscan fly into your eyes. - Put on safetyglasses. - Never wearglovesor usecotton wasteto hold theworkpiecewhengrinding. - Never knock agaixt the wheel, as this may causebreakage. - Always standasidewhenstarting the grinding motor, until the operatingspeedis reached. - Switch on the machineaF.d wait until it has reached speed. full - Secureall looseclothing and removerings or otherjewellery. - Positionthe workpieceon the tool rest. - Press workpiecegently againstthe the wheelandmove it left andright over the top of the wheelto avoid wearingout the wheel in oneplace.

- Seeto it that the material doesnot get overheated.Remember heat changesthe that propertiesof the steel. - Cool the material regularly in water. - Never usethe sideof the wheel. - Switch off the machineafter use. - Never try to sharpenmaterial thinner than 2 mm. It may be pulled betweenthe wheel and the tool rest.Thii situation can be very dangerous. B

GRINDING WHEEL

113

Mounting a new wheel

If the grinding wheel becomestoo small in diameterit should be replacedby a new wheel. Before placing the new wheel on the spindle ensurethat: - The maximum number of revolutions of the spkulledoesnot exceedthe value statedon the wheel. - The diametersof the spindle and the shaft hole of the wheel correspond. - The wheel doesnot show any damage. Fit test the new wheel for cracks.Hangthe wheel freely on a rope. The wheel should make a clear soundwhen you tap it with a mallet, see Fig. 1. A crackedwheel makesa dull sound. Never usea crackedwheel, If the grinding machinehastwo wheels,the wheel nut on the left side will have a fef hand thread.This is to preventthe nut loosening itself during grinding. Usesafety washersof heavy paperor leather betweenthe mounting flanges of the wheel. Large safety washers prevent excessivestress on the wheel. SeeFig. 2. Tighten the wheelnut moderately. When a new wheel is mountedgive it a one minute testrun. This preventsinjury if the wheel falls apartdue to a defect that hasnot beennoticed. Oil stone An oil stonefor sharpeningkeen-edged tools is indispensablein a good rural workshop.Two kinds of stonesareavailable: - natural stones - artificial abrasivestones The artificial stonesare generally preferred,as they are more uniform in structure. A combination stonewith one side madeof coarsegrainedandthe other side madeof fine grained abrasiveis recommended. coarse The side is usedfor fast cutting during the first part of the sharpeningand the fine side for finishing to a keensmoothedge. Use a light oil, suchaskeroseneandmotor oil mixed in equal partson an oilstone, to float off the small cuttings of steel and to preventthe swface from becomingclogged with dirt.

114

GRINDING WHEEL

Sharpening the cold chisel

1

A cold chiselshould havea cutting edgeof 60. Both facesshouldhavethe samelength. To avoid accidentsthe hammeranvil should be re-shaped occasionally.SeeFig. 1-A for a correctshape. - Hold thechisel with the right hand. Placeit on thetool rest.The forefingershould be againstthe front of the tool rest for guidance.Two fingers of the left hand shouldpressthe chisel towards the wheel. - The chiselshould rest at the correct angle againstthe wheel,A little experimenting may benecessary find the correct to position.Onceit is found, keepthis hold with your fmgers,evenwhen you dip the chisel in water or inspectit. The chisel can then easilybe replacedon the tool rest. - Pressthechisel gently againstthe grinding wheel.Swing it from sideto side, pivoting it over thetool rest. Fig. 2-A. - Dip thechisel in waferregularly. - Checkthecorrectangleof the cutting edge with a sheet metal gauge.SeeFig. 2-B. - A 604ot can be filed in the sheetmetal with a triangular file.
Re-shaping a screwdriver

The tip of a screwdrivershouldbe flat. If the tip is round,it easily slips out of the screwslot. Figs. 3-A and3-B showthe correctshapeof the screwdrivertip. Figs. 3-C and3-D show the wrongway to t-e-shape. TOgrind a screwdriver: - Hold it on the grinding wheel asshown in Fig. 4. - Move the bladeendwisebackand forth a little to grind the facea shortdistanceback from theend. - Turn thescrewdriverover andgrind the other facein the sameway. - Grind theedgesandthe end of the screwdriverbit. - Remove tool andinspectit. the Watchoutfor cwrheating!

0 A

SHARPENING

Sharpening the centre punch

The centrepunch should be sharp and havea point sharpened 60. Hold the centre punch to in the sameway asthe cold chisel. SeeFig. 1. Pressthe centrepunch againstthe grinding wheel and roll it betweenyour fmgers,left and right. Dip the point in water frequently to cool it. The grinding marksshould run away from the point asshown in Fig. 2-B. If the grinding marksrun acrossthe point of the centrepunch, the point is weakened. Fig. 2-A. See Sharpening the scriber The scriber is sharpened much the sameway in asthe centrepunch.The point should havean angle of 30. Be careful, becausethe thin point will bum easily during grinding. So useonly light pressureanddip the point in water frequently.
B

Sharpening shear blades When you sharpenthe bladesof the tin snip, seeFig. 3, or the bladesof the lever shears, you have to grind only the cutting edgesof the blades,see3-A. The sharpeningangle should be lo- 15, asshownin Fig. 4-A. Ifthe sharpeningangleis too great, the bladessoon becomeblunt. Figs.4-B and 5-A show you a set of wrongly sharpened blades.If you grind the steel side of the blades,the bladescannot cut and the materialto be cut will wedge betweenthe two bladesassoon as they come together,seeFig. 5-B. After sharpening,makesurethat the rivet cf the tin snips is tight enough.If there is too much spacebetweenthe blades,the tin snips cannotcut and material will wedgebetween the blades.Someclearanceis necessary, however, in order to be able to cut material of various thicknesses. With lever shearsit is sometimesnecessary to add a piece of stiff paperbetweenthe frame and the blades,when adjusting them, to ensure that the bladespasseachother correctly.

/, / ,*: iI,,I p p

10-15

/ / +=Ei

3iiiEl

116

I&ARPENING

How to sharpen twist drills

Twist drills are sharpened a medium coarse on grinding wheel. As mentionedbefore,it is difficult to sharpentwist drills and it takesa lot of practiceto masterthis skill. The procedure for sharpening twist drill is: a - Studythe drill tip andcheckthe shape.If the drill is damaged, somerough sharpeningcan be done. - Takethe drill in your handand place your finger on top of the tool rest on which the drill will be supported. Fig. 1-A. See - Makesurethe axis of the twist drill is at an angleof 59 degrees the face of the to grinding wheel. SeeFig. 2. It is a good idea to file a 59-guide on the tool rest. - Hold onecutting edgeexactly horizontal againstthe grinding wheel.SeeFig. 1-B. - Press cutting edgegently againstthe the grinding wheel andslowly lower your right handwhile gr!nding. - Do not stop while lowering your hand, but makeone stroke. - Repeat grinding strokeasmany times as the necessary. - Dip the drill in waterfrequently and at the same time inspectthe shapeof the cutting edgeandthe correctangles. - Grind the other cutting edge,regularly checkthe gaugefor the correct anglesand theshapeof the two cutting edges,including thedeadcentre.
Note: 1

Study Fig. 3-A; you will seethe shapeof the cuttingedgeis somewhat rounded.This is necessary because you sharpenit straight the if clearance anglewill be too wide, seeFig. 3-B.

Twist drill sharpening gauge

it is advisableto makea sharpeninggauge yourself for sharpeningtwist drills, seeFig. 1. The gangeshownis madeof sheetmetal with a thicknessof 2 to 3 mm. The three sidesoi tie gaugehave different shapes,with the required anglesfor: - An angle of 118 for both cutting edgesof 59. see1-A. - An angleof 6 to 8 for the clearanceangle of the two cutting edges,seeE-B. - The deadcentreangle of W, see1-C Checking different angles - Marks on the gaugeshown in Fig. 2 makeit possibleto checkthe drill point angleand the lengthsof the cutting edges.Spaces 1 of to 3 mm aremarkedon both sidesto measurethe length of eachcutting edge. The length of the deadcentre can alsobe measured. - Fig. 3 showsthe correct angle of the dead centre to the cutting edges,which is 55. if the deadcentreis not exactly in the centreof the drill, the drill wobbles during operation and producesa larger hole than the actual diameter. - In Fig. 4 you can seethe gaugein position to check the clearanceangle, which may be between6 and8. Clearance angle The harderthe materialto be drilled, the less the clearanceangleof the drill tip should be. If the clearanceangleis too wide, the drill will chop too much material at once, with the result that you cannotmakea smoothhole, the drill vibrates andthe cutting edgesvery soon becomeblunt.

SHARPENING

__

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Sharpening scissors
A pair of scissors very useful in the rural is workshop,because washersmadeof leather, plastic, mbber or paperhave to be cut. Many peopleoutsidethe workshopmay askfor your help by sharpeningtheir scissors,because they do not have the meansto do this themselves. To sharpena pair of scissorsyou haveto iolow the following proce4brre: - Clamp the scissors betweenthe benchvice and usea pair of soft vice clamps. - File the bevellededgescarefully at the original angle- seealso the procedurefor sharpeningtin snipsand Fig. 1. - If the materialof the scissorsis too hardto file, usethe grinding stone. - While grinding, hold the blade at an angle acrossthe grinding face of the wheel,with the back of the bladetilted just enoughto grind at the desiredangle.SeeFig. 2. - Move the bladebackand forth slowly across the wheel. - After the bevellededgesare renewed,finish the sharpeningby whetting on the ftne side of the oil stone.
Note:

Ifthe scissors not blunt, the bevelled are edgesmay be renewedby first whetting on the coarseside of the oil stoneand later on the fine side of the oil stone. Be careful to keepthe bladesperfectly flat when whetting the flat side (Fig. 3) andat the correct anglewhen whetting the bevelkzd edges(Fig. 4). Study the drawings properly and observethe position of the handsandthe fingers. This is very important for a goodjob.

SNARPENtNG

119

Testing the sharpnessof a knife

1

Probably the bestway to tell whether or not a knife is sharpis to feel the blade with your thumb. Hold the bladewith the cutting edge upwardsin the openhand and, with very light pressure,move the thumb lengthwise along the edge.SeePig. 1. Be careful, do not press againstthe edge. If the knife takeshold or pulls on the calloused skin of the thumb, it is sharp.If it doesnot take hold or feels slick andsmooth,it is blunt. of the tin snip or lever shearblades,which have a keenedgeon one side of the blade:, knife has the cutting the edgein the middle of the blade. Fig. 2-A showsthe cutting edgeof the lever shearblade and 2-B the cutting edgeof a knife. Sharpening a knife blade - Use a medium or fine grinding wheel. - Placethe bladeagainstthe wheel at the required angle.The tip of the blade should be somewhathigher than the handle, see Fig. 3. - Move the bladeover the wheel, pressingit gently. - Keep an eye on the tip of the blade; this will quickly overheat. - Dip the bladein water regularly to cool it. - If one side is sharpened, the bladeand turn sharpenthe other side of the cutting edge. - Usethe samepressureon both sidesto make sure the cutting edgeis exactly in the middle of the blade. - To producea keenedge,whet the bladeon an oil stone,moving the blade as shownin Figs. 4-A and4-B. Turn the blade after every stroke. Fine keen edge A very fine keenedgeis producedwith the aid of a piece of smoothleather. Move the blade over the leather,turning it after every stroke. Make sure you usepulling strokeswith the cutting edgeir oiling not leading.

12G

!SHARPENIffi

Axes
Sometools havespeciallyshapedcutting edges.So it is alwaysnecessary study the to shapebeforesharpeninga tool. In the caseof an axe,the cutting edgeis slightly roundedoff in the length and on both sides.SeeFig. 1-A. After sharpeningasshown in I-B, a keenedgecanbe madewith the aid of an oil stone,using first the coarseandthen the fine side of the stone,see1-C. Thin metal toots Thin metal tools which arenot too hard CM be sharpened with a file. Sometools, like the shovel, are sharpened oneside. Other tools, on like the chopping knife, aresharpened two on sides.SeeFig. 2. If for somereasona file is not available, thin metal tools can be sharpened with the aid of a small rounded-off anvil anda hammer.See Fig. 3-A. Placethe tool in a convenient position on top of the anvil. Hammerthe metal towardsthe edgewith the pein of the hammer so thzt it takeson the shapeshown in 3-B. Wheny3u hammer,a burr is producedwhich should be taken off with the oil stone. Keen edge A keenedgeon hammered-out tools is producedwith an oil stone.Use: - Coarsestone - Medium stone - Fine stone Sharpening steel The sharpeningsteelis a long round tool that is madeof hardenedsteel.Along the length of the tool very tiny groovesaremadewhich straightenthe actualkeenedge.SeeFig. 4. When using the sharpeningsteel,tilt the blade slightly so the cutting edgeis in contactwith the steel.Quickly draw it down with sweeping diagonal strokes.Strokethe other side in the sameway andcontinuestroking, first oneside and then the other sideof the blade. 3 1

StiARPENlNG

WI

^-123

How to bend a pipe

Steel pipes can be bent in the rural workshop while the pipe is hot. Hot-bending galvanised pipes must be avoided,because heatbums the the zinc coating which protectsthe pipe against mst. Before bending,rememberthat the bend must never be lessthan three times the diameterof the pipe to be bent. Bending Procedure - Mark the length of the bend on the side of the pipe wherethe welding seamis. The seammust alwaysbe cn the inside of the bend. - Close one end of the pipe with a wooden plug, hammeringit in firmly. - Fill the pipe with clean,dry sandto avoid flattening the pipe during bending. Make surethe sandis very dry and high-grade. Moist sandcontainswater that turns into steamwhen the pipe is heated- the steam may force out the wooden plug violently. - While filling, shakethe pipe and gently tap the pipe wall continuously to makesureno voids are left. SeeFig, 1-A. - After filling the pipe, close it with another wooden plug. SeeFig. 1-B. - Heat the inside of the benda little morethan the outsideto avoid wrinkles on the inside of the pipe bend. - Heat a short length of the pipe eachtime and bend it, Repeat this until the whole bendis made. - Bending can be doneover a jig or according to a templatemadeof sheetmetal. - While bending,watch the cross-sectionof the pipe very carefully to seethat it remains round. SeeFig. 2. - Bendscan only be made50 cm or further from the end of the pipe. Never attemptto make a bendat the end of a pipe, it is then impossibleto keepthe pipe round in shape.

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\I

PIPE BENDINGAND Ffl-TNG

Pipe wrenches
A pipe wrench,shownin Fig. 1, can be adjustedwith a screw1-A. pipe wrenchesare sold in different lengthsand are suitablefor pipes with a diameterof /2 to 1 inch andof 1 to 2 inchesor larger,dependingon the adjustmentsmade.It is advisableto buy pipe wrenchesin pairs because always need you one to hold the pipe in position and anotherto tighten or loosenthe pipe. Chain pipe wrenches, shown in Fig. 2, areused to tighten or loosenpipeswith large diameters. When you want to tighten or loosena pipe, turn the wrenchesin the direction of the arrows in Figs. 1 and 2. While moving the wrenchesin thesedirections, thejaws grip correctly over the pipe. While tightening or loosening,do not damagethe galvanisedsurfaces.
Pipe vices

It is impossibleto clamp a pipe securelyin an ordinary benchvice. When you tighten the vice, the pipe is tlattened.To avoid damaging the pipe, you can usea pipe vice as shownin Fig. 3. If you do not havea pipe vice, you can makea pipe clamp asshown in Fig. 4. With this pipe clamp you canc!ampthe pipe in the benchvice. Designa clamp vice for different commonsize pipes.If you do not havea pipe clamp or a pipe vice, you can clamp the pipe loos~:y in the benchvice -just hand tight. To prevent rotation of the pipe, clamp a pipe wrench on the pipe asshown in Fig. 5. Make surethe handleof the wrench restsagainstthe edgeof the work bench.Positioning the pipe wrench takessomepractice.Placethis tool in such a way that it tightensby itself andthe teeth do net damage galvanisedsurface. the

PIPEWRENCH

Pipe fitting
Large villages and institutions like schoolsand hospitals often have a drilled boreholewith a diesel poweredpump and a big overheadtank to provide storageand pressure.The water from the overheadtank is carried through pipes to the different buildings. It is important for the rural mechanicto know about pipe connections,pumpsand stationary diesel engines,to be able to maintain and repair these installations which are of vital importanceto the community. SeeFig. 1. Pipe Besidescoppertubing, galvanisedsteelpipe is also commonly usedfor water supp!y.Since galvanisedsteelpipes can stand moreforce, they are widely usedin rural areas.Galvanised meansthe pipe is coveredwith a thin layer of zinc. This zinc protectsthe pipe against corrosion. You canrecognizegalvanisedpipe from its bright greyish colour. Pipe is sold in lengthsof 6 metresanddifferent pipe diametersare available. At present,pipe sizesare still measured inches and the size in of the pipe refersto the inside diameterof the pipe, seeFig. 2-A. Make sureyou get the correct size when you buy pipe of: l/z - 3J/ - 1 - l/z - 1% - 2. Pipe fittings When thereis threadon the end of a pipe, the pipe can be screwedinto a pipe fitting. Pipe fittings areusedto makeconnectionsbetween pipes. Pipe fittings have the samesizesas pipes. For example,a 1-pipe is connectedto a I-fitting. Thereare fittings for many purposes.Fig. 3 showsthe most commonly usedfittings in rural water supply systems: - coupling1A - reduced coupling 3-B - tee3-C - elbow 3-D - streetelbow 3-E - knee3F - union 3-G - nipj4e 3-H - cap31

I
3

126

PIPE BENDINGAND KITING

Pipe die
A pipedie is usedto c*lt threadon a pipe. Fig. 1 showsa die stock I-A with a set of pipe dies 1-B. For every sizeof pipe there is a die. The die stock hasa ratchetmechanismwhich canbesetto turn clockwiseor anti-clockwise, see1-I). Sincethe pipe thread2-C is tapered,the threadsin the die arealsotapered.SeeFig. 2-A. Usually a pipe die hasa collar. This collar, 2-B and l-C, fits just aroundthe pipe andguidesthe die squarelyonto the pipe. How to use the fixed pipe die - Selectthe correctdie andput it in the die stock. - Placethe die on the endof the pipe, at the same time tuming the handleof the die stock.SeeFig. 3. - Whenthe die startsto cut, it screwsitself ontothe pipe andno morepressureis needed. - Apply someoil at regular intervals to the pipenearthe die. - TLXIIthe die backa little at regular intervals to cut and removethe chips madeby the die. - Continueto turn the die until one thread projectsthrough *hedie. - Turn the die back. Whenthe threadingis finished. get the metal chipsfrom the die andcleanthe die and the stockwith a cloth. Beforeyou storethe tools, oil ail partsa little to preventthem from corrosion.

1 D

TNREAmG

127

Adjustable pipe die

HG ABC D

In the rural workshopthe adjustablepipe die is more often usedthan the fixed pipe die. The advantageof the adjustablepi die is that it can cut threadson pipes from T to 2 inches. /2 Partsof an adjustablepipe die are shownin Fig. 1: - die 1-A - die plate 1-B - flange ring 1-C - knurled ring 1-D - eccentriclever 1-E - collar lever 1-F - locking lever 1-G - die block 1-H Nure: There arethree setsof dies for: 1/2w 3/4-pipe to 1 to 1l/z-pipe 11t2w to 2-pipe Each setconsistsof 4 pieceswhich are numberedon top l-2-3-4. Fig. 2-A shows piece no.4 of the die that cuts I to l/b-thread. Mounting the die (Fig. 3) - Turn the die plate so that lines 3-A coincide. Now the die can be exchanged. - When you insert the dies, makesureyou put every piecein the correct slot: the numbers are markedin circles on the die plate. See Fig. 3-C. - The slots in the dies should faceupwards. Threading with the adjustable die - Turn the die plate so the pipe sizenumber 3-B coincideswith line 3-O. Tighten the locking lever. - Turn the eccentriclever clockwise.Placethe die stock on the pipe and adjustthe collar. - Turn the eccentriclever anti-clockwiseand start the threading.Do not forget to apply oil from time to time. Break the metalchips whennecessary. - Usethe knurled ring to adjustthe ratchet mechanism. - Do the threadingin two steps.First adjust the die plate to cut a bit oversize.

A x..

128 THREADMG

Cutting a pipe
A simplemethodof marking a pipe before cutting is shown in Fig. 1. Take a piece of paperwith a straight edge.Fold the paper roundthe pipe, making surethe straight side coincidesall over its length round the pipe. Mark the pipe with a pencil or cha& You cancut the pipe with a hack saw,see fig. 2. Use a fine blade,because the blade is if too roughthe teeth may breakoff during cutting. It is very importantthat you cut the pipe squareand straight,otherwiseit will be difficult to start threadingthe pipe at a later stage. After cu*--nq,removethe burr on the insideof the pipe with a half round file.

Pipe thread The threadon water pipe is known asBrirish StandurdPipe thread(B.S.P.).Pipe thread is different from threadon bolts, because is it tapered, Fig. 3. see Why is this pipe threadtapered(Fig. 4)? Because gives a watertightjoint when the this pipe is screwedasfar aspossibleinto the pipe fitting.

Cutting and threading

Pipe is often threadedin the workshopbut assemblyis doneon the spot. When measuring pipes which must fit in a certain place,do not forget the length of the thread that is screwed into the fittings. SeeFig. 1. Sometimes required pipe fittings arenot the available. You can make someyourself. A locally madeelbow is shown in Fig. 2. When making this elbow, be sure there is enough length on both sidesto makethe thread2-X. A reducing coupling can be madeby welding two piecesof pipe together. Apply somepaint on the inside andthe outside of the socket.See Fig. 3-A. Insteadof using a cap, a pieceof pipe can be hammered and welded togetheras flat shown in Fig. 4. Other parts can also be made locztlly. It is left to your imagination how to makethem. Since the galvanisedlayer which protectsthe pipe againstrust may be damagedwhile these parts are being made,paint dl partsinside and outside beforeassemblingthem. Bury a pipeline deepenoughto avoid damage by ploughing, hoeing etc. SeeFig. 5. At road crossingspipesshould be laid deepenoughin the ground andcovered with concrete.Before assembly,checkall pipes for dirt andinsectsor animals. Put a plug in the open end of a pipe line when the work stops.

----a

concrete

---

Assemblingpipes and fittings

Whenyou work with galvanisedpipes you shouldbe very careful not to damagethe layer of zinc that protectsthe pipe againstrust. But you cannot avoid taking off somel>,f zinc the whencutting a threadon a pipe. Thts is why rust will appearfirst at the threadedjoints. To protectpipe joints againstcorrosion andmake themwatertight, you cando the following: - Wrap somesealingtape aroundthe pipe thread,seeFig. 1. - Apply somesealingcompound- for instancebituminouspaint on the pipe thread,then wind somehemp round the thread.Be carefui not to usetoo muchhemp or tightening will be very diicult andyou may not be ableto tighten the whole thread inside the pipe fitting. SeeFigs. 2 and3. When you screwa pipe joint, you needtwo pipe wrenchesasshownin Fig. 4. Turn the pipe wrenchonly in the direction in which the jaws are pointing. If you turn it the other way, the wrenchhasno grip on the pipe. Keepa firm grip on the wrenches.If they slip too often they damagethe layer of zinc on the pipe. The openingbetweenthe two legs of the pipe wrench should bejust large enoughto suit the size of your hand. Installing valvesand taps on a pipe Valves andtapsaremadeof soft brassand havehexagonends,so it is possibleto tighten them. Do not usea pipe wrench on theseparts as this will damage the surface.Always usea spanner.When you screwa valve onto a @pe, put the spanneron the nut nearestto the pope, seeFig. 5-A. If you usethe othernut S-B, you will probably damage and distort the whole valve.

Repairing leaks
Small leaksin a pipe (Fig. 1) can be repaired with a pieceof sheetmetal. Preparea piece as shown in Fig. 2. Apply somesealing compoundaroundthe leak. Clamp the sheet round the pipe and tighten the nuts. For larger leaks you haveto replacethe pipe. - Close the valve to shut off the water pressure. - Cut the pipe with a hack saw, seeFig. 3. - Unscrewthe two pipe sections. - Cut new threadon the two pieceswhich have beencut a secondtime exactly to the requiredlength, seeFig. 4. - Fix a union with sealing tape. - Fix the two pipe sectionsand tighten the union. Before using the samepipe, makesurethe leak is not the result of rust. If that is the case,you had bettterusea new piece of pipe.

Polyvinyl chloride pipes

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a kind of plastic that can be usedto makepipesfor water supply. As you will understand,PVC pipesare cheaperto producethan galvanisedsteelor copperpipes. Pipesaremadewith the same inside diametersasthe galvanisedsteelpipes. On requestyou can obtain a catalogueof all fittings madefor the useof PVC pipes. Remember PVC materialsextremely that polute the environmentwhen theseare burnt. Specialfittings may be neededto connectPVC pipe to galvanisedpipe. A threadedPVC coupling is shownin Fig. 1. A union with one end madeof PVC andthe other madeof galvanisedsteelis shownin Fig. 2. PVC fittings areglued insteadof screwed. Specialglue is usedfor this. Readthe instructionson the tin very carefully before you start using this glue. PVC pipes can be benteasily over a charcoalfire. Like all pipes, they should be filled with very fine, dry sand. During heating.the flamesshould not touch the pipe, otherwisethey burn the PVC. After heating, bendthe pipe while rubbing it with a piece of cloth to smoothout the bend. You do not needto usespecially made connectorsto connectpipestogether.You can insteadexpandthe end of eachpipe andglue them together.To expandthe end of a pipe, you canheatthe end of the pipe. Carefully pressa taperedwoodenblock, shown in Fig. 3, into the pipe andturn it around.SeeFig. 4. Removethe block andglue the pipes together. A PVC pipeline shouldbe buried at least 60 cm deepin the ground,otherwisethe pipe becomes hot during daytime and too cold too during the night. This makesthe pipe expand andshrink. which causes leakageat thejoints. Do not exposethe PVC directly to sunlight because will become it very brittle.
1

PVC Pips

133

Main valves
Fig. 1 showsa cross-sectionof a gate valve. Gate valves aremostly usedin main pipelines, becausein main pipelines the water should flow easily andthe valves are rarely closed. Partsof a gatevalve are: - Hand wheel 1-A - Packing unit 1-B - Packing ring 1-c - Packing box 1-D - Spindle 1-E - Gate 1-F When you turn the hand wheel, the spindleand the gate move up or down. When the gateis down, the watercannotflow and the gateis closed, seeFig. 2. When the gate is up, the water can passandthe valve is open,we Fig. 3. 1 Remember: Turn the wheel clockwise to close the valve. Turn the wheel anticlockwise to openthe valve. Disadvantage of gate valve The disadvantage the gate valve is that it of cannot be rep&d. When the gate is worn out the valve hasto be replaced. Packing box The packing box, l-D, is a very important part of the gatevalve. Most valves and pumpshave a packing box. The packing box preventswater leaking around the spindle. When ycu tighten the nut, the packingring 1-B is pressed round the spindle on top of seat1-C. Do not over-tighten the nut. It should be just tight enough so that no water can leak. Replacethe packing ring when it is damaged.

134

VALVES

Globe valve
The globe valve in Fig. 1 is more common than the gatevalve. Someparts arethe samein both valves: - Packingnut 1-A - Packingring 1-B - Packingbox 1-c - Spindle 1-D Other partsare: - Rubberwasher/metal washer1-E - Seat1-F The valve is closedwhen the rubber washeris pressed down. The valve is open whenthe rubber washeris positionedupwards.See Fig. 2. On the outsideof the globe valve you seean arrow pressed the metal. Connectthe into valve so that the water flows in the direction of the arrow. Tap A tap is a wateroutlet. It works in the same way asa globe valve. Most tapshave l/r or Y/-thread which can be screwedinto a corresponding fitting. Replacing the rubber washer When a globe valve or a tap leaks,it usually meansthe rubberwasheris worn out. If no washeris available,it may help to turn over the old rubberwasher. The correctshapeof a seatis shownin Fig. 1-F. Whenthe seatis rough or pitted, the tap or valve will leak. In that casesmooththe seatwith a specialseatreameror a pieceof sandpaper. fmporfant: makesurethe spindle is turnedup when you assemble valve or a tap. Whatcan a happenif you do not do this?
D

0
E

VALVES

135

137

Introductions
More water is neededevery day for the growing humancommunity. But we cannot increasethe quantity of water on the earth.We can only conserve,protect and makebetteruse of what we have(from World Neighboursin Action). Water takenfrom pondsor rivers shouldnot be usedfor humanconsumption.Many diseases are causedby dirty drinking water, so it is better to useclean water from a handpump. Every rural mechanicshould feel responsible for the water pumpsin his areaand maintain them regularly. Pump valves Every water pump has valves. Thesevalvesare very important partsof the pump. Beforeyou can understandhow a pump works, you first have to understand purposeof the valves the and how they work. A pump valve is a one-waypassage water. Water can flow for through a valve in one direction. But assoonas the water wantsto flow in the other direction, the valve shutsoff the water flow, seeFig. 1. Types of pump valves Three typesof valves arecommonly used: - Flap valve, seeFig. 1 - Ball valve, seeFig. 2 - Poppetvalve, seeFig. 3 Flap valve This is a rubberor leather flap. A metaldisk is attachedto the flap to help close off the water passage. This type of valve can easily be made or repairedin the rural workshop. SeeFig. 1-A. Ball valve This is a very simple valve. The water flow is shut off when the ball is pressedon the valve seat.Dirt or corrosion may causethis valve to leak. SeeFig. 2-A. Poppet valve Here the watefflow is controlled by a disk. The disk hasa stemto guide its movement.This valve is very sensitiveto dirt and corrosion which can block free movementof the stem. SeeFig. 3-A.

HAND PUMPMAINTENANCE

Types of pumps
Threetypes of waterpumpsareexplained below: - Suctionpump - Suction/pressure pump - Lift pump The srrction pump The suction pumpgot its namebecause it sucksthe water out of a well or a borehole.It is importantto remember this type of pump that cannotsuck waterif the water level is more than8 metresbelow ground level. Fig. 1 shows a suctionpump with a separate pump piston. Fig. 2 is a diagramof the suction pump andthe pumppiston. Partsof the suctionpump are: - Pumpcylinder 1-A. - Suctionpipe 1-B. This pipe goesdown into the welI or the borehole andreaches below water level. - Pumphandle 1-C. - Pumprod 1-D. The pump rod movesthe piston up and downinside the cylinder, - Piston1-E. In the middle of the piston is a hole with a valve. - Pistonseal 1-F. Around the piston is a leatheror rubber seal, sealingoff the gapbetweenthe piston and thecylinder. - Pistonvalve 1-G. This is the valve in the hole of the piston. - Footvalve 1-H. This is the valve at the bottomof the cylinder.

THESUCTlONPlJMP

139

How the suction pump works

In Figs. 1 to 3 you can seeagain a diagramof the suction pump.When you pump water, you move the handleand thus also the piston up and down. The movementsof the piston are called srroki?s. Suction strokes Pushingthe handledown makesthe piston move up andthe cylinder volume 1-A becomes larger. Because this, water is suckedinto the of cylinder through the footvalve 1-X. At the sametime the water at 1-B is lifted by the piston andflows out of the cylinder through the water outlet. Return strokes Lifting the handle(Fig, 2) makesthe piston move down andthe cylinder volume 2-A gets smaller. Now the water is pressedout of the cylinder through the piston valve 2-Y. No water flows out of the water outlet (spout) of the pump during the return stroke. Priming the pump When the foot valve closesperfectly, thereis always water in the pump and in the suction pipe. But in tropical countries therewill be no water if the pump is not usedregularly, because evaporationthrough heat.In that of caseyou haveto pour somewater on top of the piston to makethe leather piston sealwet. This is calledpriming the pump. Summary Refer to Fig. 3. - Primedsuction stroke %A. - Return stroke3-B. - Suction stroke3-C. - Return stroke(half) 3-D. - Return stroke(full) 3-E. - Suction stroke3-F.

#-

i.-------ti---4,
-

I------1 --Y Fh
3

A
140

F TMESUCTIONPllMP

The suction/lift pump

1

Figure 1 showsa suctionIlift pump. This pump got its namebecause: - It suckswater out of a well or borehole which cannot bedeeperthan 8 metresbelow ground level. - At the sane time i! can lift the water to a higher level, for exampleto an overhead tank. Parts of the suction/lift pump - Pumprod 1-A - Packingbox 1-B - Pumphandle 1-C - Pumpcylinder 1-D - Suction pipe 1-E - Riser pipe 1-F - Priming cup 1-G - Piston M - Foot valve I How the suction/lift pump works There is only one importantdifference betweenthe suctionpump andthe suction/lift pump - this is the packingbox. The packing box is the sameCE tapsand valves. The in suction/lift pump works in exactly the same way asthe suction pump.It is possibleto connecta riser pipe to the spout of the pump. With the riser pipe you can pump the waterup to a higher level. If therewere no packing bcx, the water could neverbe pumpedup in the riser pipe. Insteadit would leak along the pump rod. Figure 2 showsa diagramof the suction/lift pump. Write all the correctletters m :p correctcircles.

THE SUCWNUFT PUMP

The lift pump

As we have seenbefore, the suction pump and the suction pressure pmmpare easyto repair because pump cylinders are locatedabove the the ground.The disadvantageof thesepumps is that they cannotsuck water deeperthan 8 meuesbelow ground level. When the water level is deeperthan 8 meuesit is necessary to use a lijpump. This is the casewith almost all boreholcs,because ground water level in the theseboreholesis deeperthan in wells. How a lift pump works The working of a lift pump is similar to other pumps,but with the difference that the pump cylinder is loweredinto the boreholeasseenin Fig. I. Because cylinder is underwater, it the is not necessary prime the lift pump. If there to is trouble with the cylinder piston or valves, it is necessary lift the riser pipe in orderto to bring the cylinder to the surface. How to maintain and repair a lift pump As mentionedabove,it is sometimes necessary to raise eachcylinder to the surface.In the next lessonsyou will learn how to do this. Parts of pump stand assembly Refer to Fig. 1-R. - Pin 1-A - Coupling 1-B - Rumprod 1-C - Cap 1-D - Spout 1-E - Fulcrum 1-F - Pin 1-G - Handle 1-H - Standbase1-I Parts of connecting assembly Refer to Fig. 1-S. - Drop pipe 1-J - Pumprod 1-K Parts of cylinder assembly Refer to Fig. I-T and detail. - Drop pipe 1-L - Cylinder cap 1-M - Dischargevalve 1-N - cups 1-o - Suction valve 1-P - Cap1-Q

142

THE PUMP LIFT

Lifting the riser pipe

When you haveto repair the pump cylinder of a Lift pump, it is necessary lift the riser pipe to with the cylinder out of the borehole.A riser pipe is quite heavybecause is filled with it water. Somefirms in chargeof topairing pumpsus: a hoisting winch, which is mounted on a vehicle. Howeverwith a few strongmen it is possibleto lift the riser pipe by hand. When a hoisting winch or a tripod with a wheel and ropeis usedto lift the pipe, you needan eye coupling to connectthe winch to the pipe. SeeFig. 4. Equipment needed The following equipmentis neededto lift the riser pipe by hand: - Two pipe wrenches, Fig. 1 see - Two vice grips, seeFig. 2 - Two pipe clamps - Two piecesof timber, 3 metreslong - Pipe. coupling Lifting the riser pipe by hand A rural mechanicshould know how to lift a riser pipe by handbecause somevillages cannotbe reachedby car in the rainy season andthe hoisting vehiclesare not alwayson the road. Procedure - Fii a clamp asshown in Fig. 3. - Insert the two piecesof wood on either side of the pipe underthe clamp. - Raisethe riser pipe as far aspossible. - Fix a secondclamp again. - Repeatthe procedureagain until the whole riser pipe andthe cylinder are out of the bore hole. - For safetyreasons, the eye coupling at fix the end of the pipe eachtime. Then the pipe can not slip through the clamp. 1

2 4

----II_ ASSEMBLY DISASSEMBLY AND 143

How to lift the riser pipe

Whenthe riser pipe is being lifted, it is clear that only one man should give the commands to avoid mistakesand accidentsduring this work. The first job is to removethe pump head.The pump basemustremain bolted on the concretebase.How you haveto remove the pump headwill be explained later on. As shown in Fig. 1, put a pipe clamp on the riser pipe. The pipe clamp is usedto Lift the riser pipe with the aid of two piecesof wood of about3 m. Also fix a pipe coupling on top of the riser pipe. This coupling is for the sakeof safetyif the riser pipe slips through the clamp. With the two piecesof wood, lift the riser pipe asfar aspossible.Then fix a secondclamp round the riser pipe. Lift the pipe again with the two piecesof wood until you reachthe end of the first section. Fix a clamp asshown in Fig. 2. Usetwo pipe wrenchesto disconnect the first pipe section. Lift the pipe section a little asshown in Fig. 3. Keepthe pipe in a steadyvertical position. If you do not keep the pipe vertical, you bendthe pump rod. USP ,@p wrenchesto disconnectthe pump two rod. 1 akc carenot to drop the pump rod into the riser pipe or into the borehole after disconnection.&peat the procedureuntil the whole pipe and cylinder are out of the borehole. As mentionedabove,oneman gives the commands the othersfollow his and instructions. Make sure that all helpers know their position and their work.

144

ASSEMELYAND DISASSEMBLY

Transporting pipes and rods

Thereis somerisk that the threadsof pipes and rods will bedamaged while they are being transported. Couplingsshouldthereforebe left on theendsof the pipesandnuts on the endsof rods.In this way at leastoneend of eachpipe androd is protected.During transport,rods are kept inside pipesso that they cannotbend.See alsoFig. 1. Beforeinstallation Beforeinstalling the riser pipe and the pump rod, makesurethat: - Everypipe hasa coupling on oneend. - Everyrod hasa coupling on one end. - Thereis one rod in every pipe. - Thecoupling end of the pipe and the rod are at oneand the sameside. - The length of eachpipe plus coupling equals thelength of the corresponding plus rod coupling. Installation of the riser pipe The procedure installing the riser pipe is for the reverse the procedurefor lifting the riser of pipe.If the threadis damaged, haveto you restore at the work site. The thread of a it pumprod can be restoredwith a die or a die nut, seeFig. 2. British, American andMetric threadsare used on pumprods,dependingon wherethey come from. Note that /2nBritish and American threaddo not havethe samepitch! The pipe threadcan be restoredwith a smal!triangular file, seeFig. 3. Note:During installation, makesurethat yau applysomebituminouspaint to eachthreadto protectthem againstcorrosion. 3

ASSEMBLY DISASSEMBLY AND

145

Pump maintenance
Refer to Fig. 1. - Pumprod 1-A: lubricate every week. - Stuffing box 1-B: check every month. - Hinge pins 1-C: lubricate every week. - Exposediron work 1-D: paint. - Concreteslab 1-E: clean every day. - Pumprod 1-F. - Pumprod coupling 1-G. - Drop pipe 1-H. - BrasscyImder 1-I: look for symptomsof wear from time to time. - Leathers/Leather 1-J: look for cup symptomsof wear. - Plunger valve 1-K: check now andthen. - Suction valve 1-L. Pump trouble-shooting In many cases, pump failures are causedby the breakageof hinge pins, bearings,bolts or levers at the pump head.Such breakages am easily detectedandrepaired, because are the aboveground level. To prevent from breakage, the hinges andsliding parts of the pump should be greased every week. Bolts and other connectionsshould be checkedandtightened every month. Do not over-tighten the mounting bolts in the concreteslab, because bolt may the break. If the pump delivers lesswater, this may be due to worn leathers,leaky valves, blockageof a foot valve, a leaky riser pipe or the well drying up. If the pump handlemoveswithout arty resistanceit meansthe pump rod is broken. Spare parts for pumps If you go to the Water and SewageCorporation for spareparts,you have to statevery clearly: - Location of pump. - Type of pump. - Serial numberof pump. - Clear descriptionwith sketch or drawing of the brokenor damagedpart. If possible, bring the brokenpart along.

146

MAlNrENNANCE

The monarch pump

The monarchpump is a lift pump with a cylinder andpiston at the end of the riser pipe. This type of pump canbe usedwhen the water level is lessthan 20 metresbelow ground level. Whenthe water level is deeper,this kind of pumpshouldnot be usedbecause lever the system not strongenough. is Parts of the monarch pump Referto Fig. 1 andcrosssectionof detail. - Flangebolts 1-A - Pumprod 1-B - Pumprod 1-C - Pumprod coupling 1-D - YEr pipe flange, screwedto the riser pipe - Pumpbase1-F - Borehole lining 1-G - Concretebase1-H Dismantling the monarch pump - Remove fuur flange bolts at 1-A. the - Lift the pump headfrom the pump base. - Usethe vice grip wrenches grip the pump to rod at 1-B and 1-C. - Unscrewcoupling 1-D andremovethe pumphead. - Lift the pipe flange 1-E which is connected to the riser pipe. Assemblingthe monarch pump 4ssemblingthe pump is the sameas dismantlingtn reverse.Beforeassembly,check all parts,cleanthem andusebituminous paint for all connections.

India Mk II pump
Referto Figs. 1 t;; 3. - Inspectioncover 1-l - Chain l-2 - Handle l-3 - Sealedbearingl-4 - Connectingrod check nut l-5 - spout l-6 - Pumpstandl-7 - Pistonrod l-8 - Front plate 2-9 - Chain 2-10 - spout 2-11 - Pi 2-12 - Bracket2-13 - Handle2-14 - Chain, guide 2-15 - Chain 2-16 - Coupling 2-17 - Tee 2-18 - Nipple 2-19 - Reducer2-20 - Pipe 2-21 - Rod 2-22 - Nut 2-23 - Side cover 3-24 - Grease nipple 3-25 - Baseplate3-26
3

1213

14

2 3

148

CORQlllloN USEDPUMPS

Robbins & Meyers pump

The R&M lift pumpis a specialdesign,see Fig. 1. The pump rod doesnot move up and down; it turns round.The pump rod is driven by a gearboxin the pump head.Look at Fig. 2. The pump rod 2-U tums the rotor 2-V inside a rubber szator2-W. This rubber statoris bound to the inside of the pipe. The rotor screwsthe water upwardsassoonas the pump rod is turnedround. As you cansee, this pump hasneither a piston nor a cylinder. Maintenance The R&M lift pump requireslittle or no maintenance. Every threeyearsthe grease in the greasebox hasto be replaced.Removethe four bolts at 1-A andpack the gearboxhair full with the correctgrease. After severalyearsof use,the pump capacity may fall. If that happens, stator is worn out the andhasto be replaced. How to dismantle the R&M pump - Usean Allen key to removethe four socket bolts at 1-A. - Lift the pumpheadfrom the base1-B and fix a pipe clampas seenat 1-C. - In mostcases riser pipes are fitted into the the pump headwith an adaptorbushing1-D. - Removethe drive shaft coupling 1-E from the gearbox.This coupling is recessed the in pump headandis difficult to reach. - Lift the riser pipe out of the borehole. The last sectionis madeof Y-pipe. Note: Do not attemptto repair the rubberin the StatOr.Lf the rubberstatoris worn out or damaged, mustbe replacedby a new one. it
C

COwuNusEoPUMPs

Making a leather cup

1

Beforemaking a cup, study the shapeof the old cup. Make a sketch with all dimensions andfind a good piece of leather.SeeFig. 1. Constructa wooden mould asshown in Fig. 2. Reinforcethe wood with someclamps,see 2-C. The hole in the mould should be 1% greaterin diameterdue to shrinkageof the leatherduring the drying process. Cut the leatherto roughly the right shape. Placeit in water to makeit soft. Placethe leatherover the hole in the mould. Placedisk 2-B exactly over the centre.Clamp the mould betweenthe jaws of the benchvice. Tighten it gradually until the leathercup is formed. See Fig. 3. Heatup stear%e,a candle wax, to 90 C. Take the cup out of the mould andplace it in the hot stearine.Do not soakthe leathertoo long in the stearinebecause may bum it. Replacethe you cup at oncein the mould andcool it rapidly in cold water.Take out the cup and finish the shapingwith a sharpknife. SeeFig. 4.

LEATHERCUP

161

Sheet metal work

When you werea young boy, you madecars, lorries, etc. from old tins. This is a very nice exampleof sheetmetal work. The metal of usedtins can also be reused to make householdimplementssuch as boxes,drinking mugs, funnels, measuringcontainersetc.
1

Sheetsteel is light in weight and easyto form. It thereforeoccursin many different shapes. Shaping andassemblingsheetmetal to finished productsinvolves: - Design - Making developments - Marking sheetmetal - Cutting/bending/shaping - Joints andseams - Riveting andsoldering - Finishing Design Before the actualdesign is made,you should know somethingaboutshaping sheetmetalin such a way that it can stand and carry forces. A piece of sheetmetal as shown in Fig. 1 cannot standmuchforce in the direction of the arrow and bendseasily. But if you takethe samepiece of sheetmetal and shapeit asshown in Fig. 2 it can stand more force in the direction of the arrow. Look aroundandnotice products madeof sheetmetal andyou will seethat most of the sheetmetal is shapedto gain strength. Roofing sheets shown in Figs. 3-A and3-B as are corrugatedto makethem stronger. Fuel or oil drumsare not madesquarebut round to avoid bulging. The side is sometimes shapedto gain strength.SeeFig. 4. Neither is the door of a car or lorry madeflat but is designedwith various curvesto make the door stronger.SeeFig. 5. Zngeneralsheetmetal products should be designedin sucha way that the metal acquires ROE strength.

n-n-!!

13

SHEETYEfAL WORK

Sheet metal development

To makean objectlike the metal box shownin Fig. 1 you needa drawing showing all views if the material from which the box is to be made is heavy andcannotbe bent. SeeFig. 2. If the samebox is to be madefrom thin sheet metal, a lay-out is drawn directly on the sheet metal or on a pieceof paperfirst. This lay-out is called a development. More information on developments be can found in the drawing book of the Rural MechanicsCoutse. Template If you have to makemorethan one of the same development,it is advisableto makea temp!atefirst. A templatecan be madefrom any hard material,seeFig. 3. A templatemusthaveexactly the sameoutside dimensionsasthe objectto be made.If required,notchescan be filed at the edgesof the templateor holesdrilled in it to mark the folding lines. Then placeth, templateon the sheetmetal andscribethe outline firmly. When using the template,be sureto leave enoughspacebetweenthe objectsto allow for cutting the material. Fig. 4 illustratesincorrect marking. At X there is no room for you to cut with the tinsnip. Fig. 5 showsa marking method wherewasteof matelial is minimal, seethe shadedarea. Fig. 4 showsanothermarking methodwherea lot of material is wasted.

, 2 IJI

DEVElBPHENl

153

Marking
On a developmentcutting lines arescribed with a firm, full line. Folding lines are thinner and dottedin order to avoid mistakesin cutting the material.Before scribing the developmenton the sheetmetal, draw a referenceline I-A asshown in Fig. 1. Scribe a secondline 1-B perpendicularto this line. You can draw the developmentof the object betweentheselines. Bending lines and cutting lines can be indicated by drawing them with a pecil (Fig. 2-A) or with a hard metal scriber (Fig. 2-B).
2A

---------A

The indication of a middle point is called centring. This can be done with a centrepunch. Ensureyou have a strong, firm baseanddo not makethe centrehole too deep,seeFig. 3.

Reinforcement and joints

Beforeyou are able to designthe most commondevelopments, should know you moreaboutthe way sheetmetalcan be joined togetherand reinforced.Thesejoint seamsand reinforcementrequiresomeadditional material which must be shownon the developmentof eachwotkpiece. The metai box shownin Fig. 1 is not strong. The four sidesof the box areliable to bulge out due to inside pressure the solderedbutt and joints (seearrow) at the four comers,which do not give a strong structure.Fig. 2 showsa developmentof this box andit is good to comparethis later with the developmentsin Figs. 3 and4. Flaps and notches To reinforce the metalbox at the four comers, flaps are addedon the long or short sidesof the box, seeFig. 3-A. To avoid sharpcomers,the flaps are cut off at 45 on all sides,see3-B. There is a risk of cutting too deepwhen you cut the edgeson the flaps.So it is advisableto <rill small holes of about2 to 2.5 mm at the corners,see3-C. Theseholesalso help to give the material ampleplay when the flaps are folded. Note againthefull cutting lines and the dotted folding lines. Safety edges The rop edgeof the metalbox is sharpand thereforedangerous. avoid accidents,the To top edgecan be folded over to a su,&r edge,see Fig. 4-A. The materialfor the safetyedgeis addedto the height of the box, seeFig. 4-B. Note also the way the notch andthe safety edgeare shapedat 4-C. The safetyedgealsoactsasreinforcement againstside pressure the sidesof the box. on
1

--_----2 I

-----

C ------

I3

C ---------mm-

DEVELOPMENT

155

Cutting sheetmetal
Tinsnip A tinsnip is usedto cut thin material suchas sheetmetal. Hold the tinsnip with your right hand, placing yollr little finger inside the lower handle so you KU move the handle up and down. I& tinsnip shown in Fig. 1 is usedfor cutting sheetmetal in a straight line. The dotted lines 1-A and 1-B show how the metal finds its way during the cutting procedure. Becausethe jaws of the tinsnip shown in Fig. 2 are at an angle,this tinsnip makesit possibleto leave the metalflat during cutting. But a small spaceshould be forged to lodge the lower jaw. It takesa lot of practiceto find the space during cutting. Specially shaped tinsnips are available for curved work. Tinsnips with an extra lever are shown in Fig. 3.

Cutting sheetm&al
The besrtool for cutting sheelmetal is a pair of tinsnipsasshown in Fig. 1. The two eyes at the endof the handlesmakeit easyto openthe tinsnip when needed,contrary to someother straighttinsnips which do not have theseeyes andthus makeopeningmoredifficult. Cutting is done along a scribedline, holding the tinsnip in your right handandthe metal in your left. Before cutting the whole line, first makea notch at the beginningof the line. Openthe bladeswide andinsert the metal all the way back in the throat, making surethe cutting edgeof the upperbladeis exactly over the scribedline. SeeFig. 2. Then squeeze the handlestogether. It is bestnot to cut all the way 0Litto the tips of the bladesbut to stop towardsthe end and make a new cut, avoiding the small nicks and burrsmadeby the end of the bladesif full-length cuis are made. Whencutting larger sheets, allow the right part fo benddown over the edgeof the workbench andpull the left part up to leavespacefor your handto operatethe tinsnip. SeeFig. 3. Heavymetal can be cut by clamping the sheet between piecesof angleiron and shearing two it with a cold chisel, seeAg. 4 Fig. 5 showshow you can alsousea straight tinsnip to cut outsidecurves.First cut away the excess material andthen trim tha curve, allowing the wastematerialto curl or roll up.

---2

157

Cutting a large hale

Cutting a large hole in sheetmetal is done with a curved tinsnip. To be able to enter, pierce a hole through the centreof the hole, large enoughfor the tinsnip to passthrough. See Fig. 1. Cut the material spirally, so that the wastecomesout in narrow strips. When cutting with the curvedtinsnip, place a finger on the inside of the lower handle making it possibleto openthe tinsnip while cutting. Cutting action In Fig. 2 you seea cross-section a cutting of action on sheetmetal. You note that the blades havecutting edges2-A with anglesto the sheet metal 2-B. The real angleof the cutting edgeis determinedby 2-C. You note too that the bladeshave a clearanceangle 2-D to each other. If angle2-B is too large,the bladesam very sharpbut quickly becomeblunt. If the angle is too small the bladescannotcut correctly. The correctangle for B is approximately 8. While cutting there is somefriction between the blades,the clearanceangle 2-D prevents this friction as far aspossibleand at the same time gives a better,keeneredge. If the bladesdo not passeachother correctly as shown in Fig. 3, the metalto be cut tilts and squeezes a cleancut is not possible. See and also Fig. 4. Beforeusing the tinsnip, check whether the rivet or bolt holding the bladesin position is tight enoughfor the bladesto passeachother correctly. If the bladeshaveto be sharpened, takethe tinsnip apartandshapeit correctly as you have learnedin a previous lesson.Do not attemptto cut heavier material than the tinsnip is designedfor and do not useit to cut hardenedsteel wire.

Lever Shears
Levershearsare shown in Fig. 1. Theselever shears very useful in the workshopbecause are you cancut thicker materialwith them. The cutting action is similar to that of cutting with a tinsnip, the difference beingthat the jaws are movedby the lever 1-A. Working with lever shears Nevercut material thicker than the pemntted thickness.Sharpenthe bladeof the shears regularly so that they remainsharpand less forceis required when cutting. Always usethe hold-down,seeFig. 1-B. Thenthe bladeswill not twist away from eachotherand there will he no play betweenthe blades. Sharpen blade so that it is slightly ccnvex, the seeFig. 5. A convex blademakesthe cutting work a little easier.

Folding bars
Sheetmetal can be bent over the edgeof the work benchor, if the workpieceis small, in the benchvice. Larger foldings can be madewith a specially preparedangle iron, seeFig. 1. The bar is fixed in the bench vice. If foldings with a round comerhave to be made,a hardwood folding bar ca.1be madeto the shaperequired. SeeFig. 2. It is advisableto constructthe folding barsin sucha way that the inside, over the length of the bar, is slightly hollow to ensurea good grip over the whole length. Another way to obtain a round comer is by clamping the workpiece in the vice around a metalrod, seeFig. 3. Selectthe diameterof the rod smallerthan the diameterto be given to the workpiece.The diameterwill becomelarger in any casebecauseof the springinessof the sheetmaterial. The extent of this increasemust be determinedby trial anderror. Another folding bar is shownin Fig. 4. As you can see,one angle iron is fixed at the edgeof the workbench and anotherangleiron can be attachedto it with bolts. Make sure you bend the sheetmetal towardsthe fixed angle iron to avoid over-straining the attachedbar. Here it is also advisableto curve the angle iron slightly towardsthe inside to makesurethe sheetmetal workpieceis fixed well and firmly. A device for clamping larger foldings is shown in Fig. 5. It consistsof a handvice in combiiation with two piecesof angle iron. If a vulnerable workpieceis to be bent, as in Fig. 6, ensurethat the workpieceis protected againstdamage.Placeclamping plates in the bendvice. When striking hold a piece of hardwoodbetweenthe hammerand the workpiece.

Hand hammer and mallet

To shape sheetmetal it is advisableto use a small handhammeror a woodenmallet. See Figs. 1-A and 1-B. Whenusing the hand hammer, not hammertoo heaviIy asthis do makesthe material spreadandmay give the wrongresults. Usea woodenor rubbermallet for bending sheetsteeland for upsetting.A steelhammeris usedfor stretchingmaterial.It hasgreater penetrating power which enablesthe material to be extended easily. The dolly The dolly, with a squarebottomend clamped in the benchvice, is usedfor supportwhen processing sheet,seeFig. 2. Never strike thin the hardened surfaceof the dolly with a top steelhammerasdangerous splinters could fly off. Pipe stake A pipe stakeis essentialwhenmaking pipes bentfromthin metal sheet(for examplefor stoves). Fig. 3. A shortpipe stakeis See clampedinto the benchvice for use.Long stakesarepushedbelow steelbracketsfitted to the workbench.The pipe is pushedover the stakewhich can act asa supportduring forming.The pipe stakecanalso be usedas a dolly whenmaking a rivetedjoint. Edge stake An edgestakecan be usedfor flanging right-angledfolded seams in the caseof (as cansor pails). SeeFig. 4. Either a straight or a round edgestakeis used,dependingon whetherthe folded seamto be flanged is straightor circular in shape. Cylindrical objectsarepre-roundedon both sides.SeeFig. 5.

5
4

,i

I
SHAPING

161

Folding machine
A fozdingmachineis used for deforming sheet

steel by bendingit, seeFig. 1. It is generaLly not possibleto bend an angle gnxter than 90 to loo. It is however, possibleto install cutting edgeswhich permit the bendingangle to be increased. Note that thesespecialcutting edgesaremore easily damagedif not correctly used. The cross-section Fig. 2 showsthe fixed top in straight edgeand the moving bottomsuaight edge.The dkrance betweenthe top and bottom straight edgesmust be the sameasthe material thicknessof the workpiece. If the distanceis taken too small the material will be cut off slightly and if the distance betweenthe straight edgesis too greatthe radius for the workpiece will be too large. Dependingon the material useda spring-back of severaldegreeswill occur. SeeFig. 3.

Sheetrolling mill
A sheetrolling mill is usedfor bending sheet material in such a way that cylindrical or cone-shaped objectsareformed.SeeFig. 1. To achievethis the sheetto be rolled is generally passed betweenthe threerollers severaltimes. After every passthe rollers are brought closer togetheruntil the desiredresult is achieved. The cross-sections Fig. 2 show how the in sheetrolling mill works.Ensurethat the ends of the sheetareroundedbeforefeeding the sheetinto the roller. The top guide, roller makesit possibleto role workpiecesuntil they arecompletely cylindrical and to removethem from the rolling mill without deformation.seeFig. 3.

SHAPlffi _.

163

Stretching and upsetting material

1

Generally speaking,the stretchingand upsettingof sheetmaterial aredone on cylindrical objects.In stretching, we increase the diameter(seeFig. 1-A) and in upsetting (seeFig. 1-B) we reducethe diameter. In both stretching andupsettingit is advisable always to start oppositethe seamand to work round on the left andright towards the seam from thii starting point. only in this way cana completely closedrim be obtained. SeeFig. 2, 2-A is right and 2-B is wrong. Flange the rim in severalstages,seeFig. 3. To stretchrims we usethe pein of a steel hammer.They must be beatenin such a way that the outside of the rim stretchesmore than the inside. Upsetting is done with a rubber or woodenmallet. In this casebeatingmust be done in such a way that the inside of the rim is upset more than the outside of the rim.
2

Safety edge
To achievethe effective height 1-H as seenin Fig. 1 for a box with a safetyedge,you have to add1-X to the height of the box on all sides. To makea safetyedge,you needto fold the edgeof the metal over to a square.Insert a pieceof sheetmetal asshownin Fig. 2-A and fold the sheetmetal completelyover. Finish off theedgewith a handhammerasshown in Fig. 2-B. Wire edge A wire edgeis shown in Fig. 3. To cover the wire, you must add materialto the sides,equal to 2 - 2.5 times the diameter3-A of the wire to beused,see3-B. Prepare piece of flat metalwith a thickness a equalto the thicknessof the wire. Fold the metal over that piece of metalas shown in Fig. 4. Insert the wire andfold the metal over thewire asshown in Fig. 5, using a hand hammer. Sometimes pieceof wire should be a left sticking out, see5-X. for possible connectionat a later stage. A beadingiron can be usedto obtain an absolutelyround edge,seeFig. 6. 3

-6tiAPlNG

165

Hand-operated beading and corrugating machine

1

A beadingand corrugating machineis usedfor reinforcing steel sheet.Fig. 1 showsthe machinewith attachments. machineforms The the steelsheetin accordance with the rollers installed, seeFig. 2-A. Whenthe rollers of a beadingmachine are in the form of bladesthis apparatus also be usedto cut bottomsand can circles out of steel sheet.The beadingmachiie can also be usedfor maltingjoints, for example for fixing bottomsinto cansand similar products,seeFig. 2-B. Beadingsprotect the edgesof cansand pails, which are often sharp,andgive the rim greater rigidity. SeeFig. 2-C. Corrugating gives the material greaterrigidity. It is done in various steps.SeeFig. 3. The corrugationcan be madeslightly deeperat eachpassby tightening the top roller. The shapeof the bottom roller determinesthe maximum depth of the corrugation.

Drilling in sheetmetal
1

To preventdrills from breakingin thin steel sheetspecialsheetmetaldrills are often used. Thesedrills havea shorterbody and a shorter shankthan normal twist drills. SeeFig, 1. Thereare also conical sheetdrills with which holesof various diameters be bored in can sheetmetal.The deeperyou drill, the larger the diameterof the hole. A drill with a centring point can also be used.Always fix the material firmly in positon, seeFigs. 2,3-A and 3-B. Whendrilling out thin sheeta double centre punchis a very good aid when marking. The distancefrom point to point is equal to the centre-to-centre distanceof two holes to be drilled in succession, Fig. 4. see Whendrilling holesof 2 larger diameterin sheetit is advisableto placea bundel of paper (for instancea newspaper) a thick piece of or cloth betweenthe drilling point and the materialto be drilled. This permits an exactly roundhale to be obtained.

WL

3A

--3B 8

SNAUNG

167

Sheetmetal joints Y
1 Sheetmetalcan be jointed in manydifferent ways. Frequentlyusedmethodsare:folding, riveting, pop riveting, spot welding and,of course,welding and soldering. Lap joint A lap joint is shown in Fig. 1. If you look at the jointed piecesof metal in Fig. 1. you see that piece 1-A is equal in length to 1-Y and piece 1-B is equal to 1-O. All the samethe total length, called the e#ecrivelength, is equal to 1-L. The effective length is very important in the designof sheetmetal work, because, to obtain the correct effective length you have to add to piece 1-B a length equal to 1-X. Folding Folding is usedto join sheetsteelor to make bottoms.A folded seamcan be madeas a single or asa double folded seam.A double folded seamis usedwhen a thorough sealis
I?Xpired.

Folded seam In Fig. 2 you seea folded seam.To obtain the effective length for this workpieceyou must add to piece2-A one times 2-X. And you must add to piece2-B two times 2-X. Double over-folded seam A double over-folded seamis almostsimilar to the folded seam,with the differenceat 3-O. seeFig. 3. When upsetting at 3-0, you do not haveto allow additional material because the sheetmetal is very thin. To makethis seam,fold the two piecesof sheetmetal over as shown in Fig. 4. Hook them together,seearrow. A groovedstakeis usedto tighten an folded seamin sucha way that a completelyclosedjoint is obtained,see Fig. 5. Usethe right grooved stakefor the desiredwidth of the folded seam. Another way to finish this double overfolded seamistouseamallettoshapetheseam roughly. Usea hand hammerto finiih thejob. SeeFigs. 6-A and 6-B.

68

160

JoiNrs

Box seam
For a box seamasshownin Fig. 1, you must addtwo times 1-X to the bottom part of the box. You must also addtwo times 1-X to the sidesof the box. Someexamplesof seams shown in Fig. 2: am - Angle fold2A - Upright fold 2B - Upright casingfold 2c - Upright top fold 2D - Upright bottomfold 2E

Riveting sheetmetal
When sheetmetal hasto be jointed, rivets can be usedinsteadof solder the sheetstogether. Since sheetmetal is thin, it is advisableto use button headshaped rivets only. A rivet is a small piece of metal with a body anda head; the headis not included in the leugth, see Fig. 1. The length of the body 1-L shouldbe equal to the thicknessof tbe two sheets1-X plus a length equalto the diameterof the head 1-D. Riveting pnaxdure Drill or punch holesin the parts which haveto be joined. The holesshould fit exactly. It is bestto clamp the parts together so that you can drill or punch them at the sametime, seeFig. 2. Put a rivet through the holes and placeit upside down on a dolly, seeFig. 3. Usethe riser in the rivet set to knock the sheets tightly together.Make surenot to touch the workpiece with the edgeof the dolly; leave a space. Use the flat pein of the hammerto spreadthe body of the rivet a little, seeFig. 4. Shapea rough round headwith the ball pein of the hammer,while turning it round so that the headis shaped all sides.SeeFig. 5. Usethe on rivet snapasshownin Fig. 6 to finish off the rivet head. Note: Heavy blows or too many blows will makethe metal stretch and buckle round the rivet. If a rivet startsto bend,cut it off, remove it and insert a new rivet.

176

JOINTS

Xiveting tools
Punched holes can be widenedwith the aid of a handreamer,seeFig. 1. Onetaperedpoint of the hand reameris square,the other side is hexagonshaped;the latter is for fine work. Figure 1 showsan enlargeddetail of the hand reamer.The comersof the reamer1-A-B-C-D act asa file, scrapingoff somematerial and widening the hole. After the metal hasbeenpunchedor drilled through,the edgesof the holesshould be chamfered allow correctconnectionbetween to the metal and the rivet heads. For the actual riveting a rivet set,seeFig. 2-A, is usedin combination with a dolly shown in Fig. 2-B. The two tools canbe combinedto makeonetool, as shownin Fig. 3. The hole in the tool 3-A slightly greaterin diameterthan is the shaft of the rivet andequalto the length of the rivet shaft. The round shapedhole in the dolly 3-B is slightly lessthan half the diameterof the rivethead,to allov+.fora spacebetweenthe rivetheadandthe metal to bejoined.

Cold riveting Rivets are sold with different shapedheads. The most commonly usedare: - round head rivet (Fig. 1-A) - ro!mtersunkrivet (Fig. 1-B) The length of theserivets is measuredas shown in Fig. 1. 1-L = length 1-K = face 1-H = grip (thicknessof material to be joined)
2

Rivets can be usedin different ways as shown in Fig. 2: - Round headto round head2-A - Round headto countersunk2-B - Countersunkto countered& 2-C A c Rivet holes in thick material should be drilled. Holes can be punchedin thin sheetmetal, as shown in Fig. 3. Whenpunching, put a piece of lead or end grain wood underneaththe workpiece so that the punch can go through the material. When it is being punchedthe material will benddownwards,which should be correctedat a later stage.

Rivet dimension!; (in mm) Diameter 1.8

2 2.2 2.5 2.7 3 3.3 3.6 3.9 4.2 4.5 b

Length

Diameter 4.9
5.3 5.8 6.2 6.5 6.9 7.2 7.6 8 8.4 8.8

Length

4
4.5 5 6 65 7.5 85 9.5

155
17.5 195 22 24 26 28 30 32 32 36

11
12 13.5

Pop riveting
Another wayof riveting light sheetmetal togetheris with the so-calledpop rivet. This pop rivet is fixed with specialpop rivet pliers, shownin Fig. 1. A specialnozzleis fixed at 1-X. This nozzlehasa hole with a diameter equalto thediameterof the pin 1-Y. A speciallyshapedrivet - that can be madeof duminium, copperor steel- is placedover the pill. Riveting procedure Drill holesthrough the sheetmetal, making surethe holesareexactly aboveeachother. with the correctdiameter.Placethe correct rivet with pin into the nozzleandclose the handlesuntil you feel someresistance. Placetherivet in the hole, pressingit down so that the sheets closetogeuicr,seeFig. 2. are While you closethe handlesgently, the headof the pin widensthe rivet asshownin Fig. 3. ContinueJosing the handlesand,because of the resistance, pin breaksoff at once,as the shownin Fig. 4. The foal result is shown in Fig. 5. Theheadof the pin remainsinside the rivet or falls off.
Note: Usethe right nozzlefor this work, close

the handlesgently andpressthe sheetmetal andthe rivet tightly together. Welding and soldering Welding andsolderingof sheetmetal are discussed volume 2 of the Rural Mechanics in Course:Blacksmithing,weldingandsoldering.

JOINTS

173

Metal box ____--------__----A----. iE &&1 _____ _---------L --AL c B I I -4 I

Fig. 2: Cutted and wire edgefolding

Fig. 1: Development

. .

ig. 3: Folding side C

Fig. 5: Folding sides

over woodenblock

Fig. 7: Inserting wire Fig. 8: Wiie edge

174

EXERCISES

More metal boxes

----_--_

_I------

Metal box with safety edgesand flaps

-------

Bread tray with wire edgesand flaps X is the heightof the tray, 0 is the width of the sides.

Fig. 3: MethodA - paperbasket sides with from onepiece. Fig. 4: MethodB - paperbasket seperate with sides.

H is the height of the basket,0 is the length of the sides.

Metal box with lid

The bx (Fig. 1) is madeout of sheetmetal with a thicknessof 0.5 mm. The hinge is a wile edgeconsmxtion, seeFig. 2. The lid is 1 mrnmoreinwidthand2mmmoreinlength themthe box is. Cut the hinge after shaping. SeeFig. 3.

Charcoal pot
fence 0.8 mm -------wire lock edge 0.6 mm

support (riveiting)

folded s&m

Fig. 1: Pictorial view

Fig. 2: Side construction

I biiiuii .

I 3

Fig. 3: Crosssection

Fig. 4: Top fence

Fig. 5: Development ---a 1 ----I I

bottom

I ----i ;

Upsetting

Fig. 1: Shapinga cilinder A - bendboth endswith a mallet B - shapecylinder by hand

Fig. 2: Shapea cone A - Bend both ends with a mallet B - Shapecone by hand over round beak

Fig. 3: Shapinga joint

176

Fig. 4: Shaping the bottomandthe top Shapeinside and outsidelie a bottle top. Bend in stagesA-B-C.
ExERaSES

Drinking mug
After designingthe correctdevelopmentfor the mug shown in Fig. 1. the outline can be cut and the safetyedgefolded.To shapethe cylindrical body you needa piece of pipe with an outsidediameterslightly smaller than the diameterof the mug. Shapethe first and the last part of the body with a mallet. SeeFig. 2. This shapingcannotbe doneby hand, because the edgeis very short. The rest of the body canbe shapedby hand. Move the metal over the pipe, as shown in Fig. 3, while pnxsing it gradually down until the right shapeis obtained. Shaping the bottom To shapethe bottomof the drinking mug the pipe is fixed upright in the benchvice. Place the bottom piece on top of the pipe, seeFig. 4, andgradually fold over the edgefor the seam while turning it round. First hold the bottom sheethorizontal andhammerthe edgeslightly, shapingit like a bottle top. SeeFig. 5. In Fig. 6 you seethe edgeis folded over a bit more, keepturning andhammeringat the sametime. Fig. 7 showsthe edgefolded 90 for the seam. For a tight solderedconnectionit is good to over-fold the edgeslightly, asshown in Fig. 8. The other side of the pipe can be usedfor this.

Stretching

Fig. 2: First shaping

Fig. 3: Shapingby hand Fig. 4: Result of shaping

the joint to avoid cracks: the hammered in part

166

EXERCiSE!3

Upsetting

~D

Developments
Note: x x D is calculatedfor thin material only.

b
0 *

_____------------I I I I 4 I I I I 1I

1 T

--------__

-&lY

3 4 0 I I I I -------------__ __ -------------___! I I I

182

EXERCISES

Bucket

Fig. 2: Crosssection

Fig. 3: Seam(3-A) and seam/wireedge(3-B)

Fig. 4: Developmentcircle (4-A) andbottom (4-B)

Fig. 5: Attachmentfor the handle - find stretched length

--Fig. 6: Handle- fmd stretchedlength EXERUSES Fig. 7: Final development

183

I 1 II PI I
184 EXEIEISES

Charcoal pot

fold for riveting t fire fench support

folded seam

Fig. 1: Dimensions

Fig. 2: Crosssection

wire edge

folded seam

Fig. 3: Development

185

Contents

Rural Mechanics Course &eface Introduction Rural MechanicsCourse Rural MechanicsCourseLay out and Timetable General metal work and sheet metal work Generalmetalwork and sheetmetal work Tools The tural workshop Storageof materials Workshoplay-out Metallurgy Mined iron ore Blast furnace Nature of pig iron Cupola/castiron castings Wrought iron Steelconverter Propertiesof steel Plasticity/malleability Identification of metals Carboncontent Nonferrousmetals Heat treatmentof steel Annealing Shapingmetals Tools and equipment Clamping tools Clamping set Sheetmetal clamp Measuringandmeasuringtools Measuring Folding rule Vernier caliper Using the vernier caliper Exercise Micrometers Try square Try squareandbevel Protractor Feelergauge Marking out Scriber Marking off Reference lines Centre lines Centrepunch Lines on a cylinder g?$~*hg Callipers

:
4

5 7 t 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 57 ii El ;;I 29 3:. ;: ii ;5 2 41 1; z 2 t; z: ii 2

107

Cutting tools Hack saw How to hold the hack saw Filing a notch Files Classificationof files Holding the file Round filing with radius Clamping the workpiece Steelhammers Hand chisel Cutting on the anvil Cutting a steelrod Hollow punch Drilling Drilling Drilling largeholes Drill sharpening Cutting edgeswith different angles Postdrill Drill chuck Pillar drill Assembly tools Introduction Spanners Set of socketspanners Bcx spanner Torque indication Screwdrivers How to usescrewdrivers Pipe wrench

57 :i 60 z; iii 22 :i 69 70 71 72 73 74 ;i 77 78 79 80 81 x; it 86 87

Sharpening tools llltrodllction Grindstonedressers Mounting a new wheel Sharpeningthe cold chisel Sharpeningthe centrepunch How to sharpentwist drills Twist drill sharpeninggauge Sharpeningscissors Testing the sharpness a knife of Axes Pipe bending and fitting How to benda pipe Pipe wrenches Pipetittillg Pipedie Adjustablepipe die Cutting a pipe Cutting and threading Assemblingpipes and fittings Repairingleaks Polyvinyl chloride pipes Main valves Globe valve Hand pump maintenance ~troductions Typesof pumps How the suction pump works The suction/lift pump The lift pump Lifting the riser pipe How to lift the riser pipe Transportingpipes and rods Pumpmaintenance The monarchpump India Mk II pump Robbins& Meyers pump Making a leathercup Sheetmetal work Sheetmetal work Sheetmetaidevelopment Marking Reinforcementandjoints Cutting sheetmetal Cutting sheetmetal Cutting a large hole Lever Shears Folding bars Handhammerand mallet Folding machine Sheetrolling mill Sttetchingand upsetting material Safetyedge Hand-operated beadingandcorrugating machine Drilling in sheetmetal

111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167

Bolts and thread 89 Bolts 90 various bolts 91 Bolts, nuts andscrews Threaddimensions ;; Threaddimensions Types of thread:metric thread ;z Types of thread:American or unified thread 96 Types of thread:British thread Types of thread:Whitworth gasthread iii Threading Dies 1: How to cut a thread 101 Cutting threadwith a tap 102 Tapping a thread 103 Lacking devices Locking devices Nyloc nut Pins Circlips Removinga broken bolt 105 E 108 109 110

188

Sheetmetaljoints Box seam Riveting sheetmetal Riveting tools Cold riveting Popriveting Exercises Metal box More metal boxes Metal box with lid Charcoalpot Jpsetting Drinking mug Stretching Upsetting Developments Bucket Funnel Tharcoalpot

168 169 i7G 171 172 173 174 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185

189

190