HOWMAMMALS

KEEPWARM
Keeping warm is essential to a mammal's survival, especially in
very cold areas. Animals have adapted both their habits and their
bodies in the struggle to conserve heat.
KEY FACTS
CHANGING BODY SHAPE
Animals living in very old
climates often differ in body
shape and size from similar
species in warm areas. Two
general rules are that round-
er is warmer and shorter is
warmer. These adaptations
are especially noticeable in
small animals.
ROUNDER IS WARMER
Bergmann's Rule states that an
animal becomes bulkier and
rounder when living in cold
surroundings. Arctic hares
living in the northern part of
their range have skulls about
an inch shorter than those of rounded bodies of seals and
Left: Small
animals lose
heat quickly
because their
body volume is
low compared
with their sur-
face area. The
snowshoe hare
has short legs
and its ears
are about the
same size as a
rabbit's. As a
result its sur-
face area is
reduced, and
heat loss is
minimized.
heat loss. The Arctic and the
hares in northern Scotland.
Lemmings in Siberia are an
inch or so longer than those
living nearer the Arctic Circle.
The rounder the animal's
shape the more efficiently it
can conserve heat. This rule
is also illustrated by the
whales-mammals that thrive snowshoe hares have shorter
in icy waters.
SHORTER IS WARMER
Allen's Rule states that the
farther north an animal lives,
the shorter its limbs, ears, and
tail will be to help prevent
MCMXCI IMP BVII MP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Left: The Arctic
fox differs from
temperate fox
species. It has
a rounder and
bulkier body,
and its muzzle
and ears are
shorter. It also
has fur-covered
feet and thick
fur that turns
white in the
winter. These
adaptations
help it survive
intense cold.
PRINTED IN U,S,A,
ears than hares in warmer
climates, and both have short,
stocky legs. The snowshoe
hare also has enlarged hind
feet that give it extra support
in soft snow, much as snow-
shoes do for humans.
DID YOU KNOW?
A chinchilla's fur is so
dense that up to 60 hairs
may grow out of a single
hair follicle.
If a musk-ox is drenched
by rain during a warm
spell in winter, its fur may
freeze solid.
There are up to 368,000
fibers in a square inch of a
fur seal's coat.
Deer may travel long dis-
tances to find shelter from
cold winds. They some-
times huddle together
for warmth.
0160200371 PACKET 37
In cold climates land mammals are kept warm
by their fur coats, which insulate their bodies
by trapping air. Many marine mammals protect
themselves from cold with extra layers of fat
beneath their skin. Some mammal species
have even adapted their body shape
and their size to help conserve heat.
~ A R C T I C LAND MAMMALS
The Arctic is the coldest place
inhabited by land mammals.
Polar bears may actually live
near the North Pole, but most
Arctic mammals have a range
spreading south to more tem-
perate climates.
Many Arctic mammals have
thick white fur made up of
hollow hairs. This fur traps and
warms air. It may be replaced
by a thinner coat in summer.
Polar bears have white fur
year-round. The white hairs
funnel ultraviolet light from
the sun to the bear's black
skin, converting it to warmth.
The polar bear's dense under-
coat is covered by long guard
hairs that form a waterproof
Right: The
gray wolf has
thick fur, but it
seeks shelter in
extremely cold
weather.
Front cover:
In winter the
reindeer uses
its fat reserves.
The elephant
seal (left inset)
has blubber for
warmth, while
the musk-ox
(right inset)
has a fur coat.
layer to keep the bear warm
and dry when it swims.
Wolverines also keep their
thick brown fur year-round.
The Inuit, or Eskimos, use wol-
verine fur to line parka hoods
because it does not collect
ice crystals.
The musk-ox has a dense,
furry undercoat covered by a
long, fleecy coat of 20- to 30-
inch hairs. This overcoat al-
most reaches the ground. The
two coats provide excellent
insulation. In fact the musk-ox
sheds its outer coat in spring
to avoid getting too hot.
Right: A layer of blubber and a
coat that channels heat to the
skin warm the polar bear.
~ WARMTH AT HIGH ALTITUDES
In the mountains animals
must adapt to temperatures
that are high during the day
and low at night, as well as to
seasonal fluctuations . Many
species have thick coats to
keep warm.
In the South American Andes,
the chinchilla, vicuna, and al-
paca are valued for their fur and
wool. The coat of the Angora
goat from southern Central Asia
provides mohair.
Further down the slopes, at
the forest fringes, the nightly
temperature drop is less ex-
treme. Some mountain sheep
and goats spend the winter in
these forests and return to the
mountains in spring.
~ SHELTER FROM THE COLD
Snow provides insulation in
very cold conditions. Small
mammals such as the lem-
ming and ermine (white win-
ter stoat) live in underground
tunnels that are insulated by
the snow on the ground.
Some bear species, such as
the Alaskan brown bear, hi-
bernate in a den during win-
ter. But the polar bear seeks
shelter only during blizzards
and to give birth. To rest, it
curls up outside, tucks in its
head, and lets the snow drift
around its body for insulation.
Wolves, reindeer, moose,
and foxes are all well adapted
to the cold. In winter they live
on fat reserves built up in fall.
In very bad weather they take
shelter in vegetation or thick
leaf debris. Squirrels, badgers,
and many other small mam-
mals escape cold by sleeping
through the winter.
Left: The
alpaca's dense
coat protects it
from the cold
on the high
plains. Its wool
grows year-
round to pro-
vide constant
insulation.
~ WARMTH IN WATER
Cold water absorbs heat from
warm-blooded animals faster
than air. Humans could sur-
vive for only a few minutes in
the polar seas that are home
to some marine mammals.
Several species live around
both the North and South
Poles. Walruses live only in the
Arctic. A few seals, such as the
ringed seal in the Arctic and
the leopard seal in the Antarc-
tic, live in the cold year-round.
Others, like the harp seal, mi-
grate. Narwhal and beluga
whales are residents, while
gray, humpback, and blue
whales are summer visitors.
The bulky, rounded shape of
whales and seals minimizes
heat loss. They also have a
thick layer of blubber, or fat,
below the skin that keeps body
heat in and cold out. The blub-
ber layer varies in thickness
from an inch to more than a
foot depending on the animal.
Fur seals get added insulation
from their coats.
Their insulation methods
are so efficient that marine
mammals may overheat after
a strenuous swim. If they get
too hot, blood flows through
a network of vessels in the
blubber, close to the skin,
and is cooled by the icy sea.
Below: The harp seal's rounded
shape and layer of blubber keep it
warm in icy water.
HOW PREDATORS
DISGUISE THEMSELVES
All animals that hunt need to catch their prey before it flees.
Some adopt remarkable disguises either to remain undetected
or to fool their victims into believing they are harmless.
KEY FACTS
REASONS FOR DISGUISE
A predator must be able to
get close enough to its victim
to catch and eat it. Some
animals, such as foxes, move
I stealthily as they stalk their
prey. Other animals, such as
cheetahs, rely on their speed
to attack their prey.
Still other animals take a dif-
I ferent approach. They blend
in with their background and
wait until their prey comes
close enough to be attacked,
using a minimum of effort.
. Some of these hunters actually
mimic the background envi-
ronment, changing colors and
body shapes to enhance their
resemblance. Their deception
is so good that the victim usu-
ally does not realize the danger
I until it is too late.
DID YOU KNOW?
The ray is a sea fish that
hangs in water and arches
its broad "wings" to form a
cave. Small fish swim into
this seemingly safe refuge
and are quickly eaten.
To catch birds, the Afri-
Right: The
crab spider
closely re-
sembles the
flower it sits
on and simply
waits to catch
insects that fly
onto the plant
to feed.
Below: The
lacewing larva
does not natu-
rally resemble
the woolly
alder aphids
it feeds on, but
it plucks the
woollike sub-
stance from
their backs to
disguise itself.
can vine snake wraps its tail
around a small tree branch
and holds its body out rigid-
ly to look like a twig. It then
sticks out its orange tongue,
which resembles an insect,
to attract birds.
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Other predators mimic a
harmless creature that does
not frighten the desired prey.
They may enhance a natural
resemblance by imitating the
other animal's movements
and behavior, or they may,
like the lacewing larva, dis-
guise their own appearance.
This tactic allows small preda-
tors to approach animals that
are larger than themselves.
Male fireflies can identify I
a female of their species by
her pattern of light flashes.
The Photuris firefly mimics
the signals of the female
Photinus to attract the male
Photinus, which it eats.
0160200351 PACKET 35
Camouflage and mimicry allow prey to hide
from their predators, but these techniques can also
benefit predators. By blending into their surroundings
or taking on the appearance of more
harmless animals, predators can avoid detection
by their victims and in this way
get close enough to attack them.
~ WOLVES IN SHEEP'S CLOTHING
Some predators disguise them-
selves as harmless animals. An
example is the green lacewing
larva. It feeds on woolly alder
aphids, but it first has to get
past the ants that protect the
aphid. When it can, it plucks
white, woollike wax from the
aphid's back and attaches this
Front cover: A tropical mantis
and a sargassum anglerfish
(inset) blend into their surround-
ings so that they can hide them-
selves from their prey.
to its own back. The larva can
then deceive the ants and get
to the aphids more readily.
The zone-tailed hawk feeds
on live prey, but it mimics the
flight of a vulture, which eats
only dead animals. The hawk
deceives small mammals with
its gliding flight and vulture-
like outline.
The harmless cleaner fish
eats parasites from the skin
of larger fish and swims into
their mouths to remove food
particles from between their
teeth. The saber-toothed
blenny has blue and black
markings like the cleaner and
imitates its swimming pat-
tern. In this disguise, it can
swim close enough to bite a
chunk of flesh from its prey.
Cheilinus is a flesh-eating
fish that takes on the colors of
several different plant-eating
fish. It may swim with grazing
goatfish and dart out when
prey comes within range.
~ MATCHI NG THE BACKGROUND
Many animals try to blend in
with their background. They
can then sit still and wait for
prey to come within reach. At
the same time, their disguise
protects them from larger
predators.
Instead of spinning a web,
the crab spider, which has a
pink body and legs, sits on
the petals of a pink flower.
Butterflies, hover flies, and
bees fly in to feed on the
flower's nectar. There they
are seized by the waiting
crab spider.
Left: The Borneo flower mantis
closely resembles the ginger plant
that it sits on.
Flower mantises use the
same method. Some are
green to match green petals
and others are pink to blend
with pink flowers. The color
markings and projections on
their bodies enhance their
resemblance to a flower.
The spotted scorpionfish is
well protected by poisonous
spines as it hides on the seabed.
Fleshy projections on its body
make it look like a harmless,
algae-covered rock, until prey
get too close. The anglerfish
also blends in well with the sea
bottom. A spine on top of its
mouth looks edible. The angler-
fish dangles the spine in front of
Left: The flow-
er mantis is
hard to dis-
tinguish from
surrounding
vegetation.
Right: The
vine snake
resembles a
vine and has a
tongue that
birds mistake
for an insect.
its jaws and waits for fish to take
the bait.
The barracuda is light under-
neath and dark on top. It has
light and dark stripes on its
sides that resemble rays of
sunlight filtered through the
water. These colors make it
difficult to see from any di-
rection. It hangs motionless in
the water until a fish swims by;
then it darts out to catch it.
As the slender trumpetfish
swims vertically among the
branches of soft corals, it
changes its color to match
its background. It is almost
invisible to the small animals
that it hunts.
Above: The predatory blenny
mimics the swimming pattern and
markings of the cleaner fish.
Left: The cleaner fish is harmless.
It feeds itself by cleaning the teeth
of larger fish.
ANIMAL ARCHITECTS
Humans are not the only builders of architectural wonders.
Elaborate and impressive constructions are also found
throughout the animal kingdom.
KEY FACTS
EXTRAORDINARY CONSTRUCTIONS
MASTER SPINNERS
Many spiders make webs to
catch prey. The most skilled
spinners are orb web spiders.
Spinnerets (special organs in
the abdomen) produce a
sticky silk thread that the
spider attaches to a twig and
throws to another point. The
web's frame is completed in
this way. Radial threads, like a
wheel's spokes, are added
next, followed by the spirals.
The completed web traps
flies, which the spider eats.
Right: The garden spider uses its
elaborate web to trap prey.
BUilDING BIG
Termites construct different
kinds of nests: small pillars
of hardened mud, pockets
of earth hanging from tree
branches, or extensive un-
derground chambers. Their
building materials include
earth, clay, soil mixed with
wood, and rock-hard mud.
The chambers of a pillar
left: The magnetic termite of
Australia always builds its nest
facing north-south.
left: The bea-
verdams a
lake before
building its
lodge. This
behavior en-
sures that the
lodge is always
underwater
and that the
water is deep
enough to
swim in.
nest reach into the ground.
Some chambers are nurser-
ies, while others contain fun-
gus "gardens" where food is
grown. The nest built by the
genus Apicotermes is divided
into several stories that are
connected by ramps.
Termite nests are designed
for efficiency. Many have
ventilation systems. The
nests of the genus Cubi-
termes have roofs to keep
out rain.
Although most animals build some sort of nest
or burrow, their structures are unremarkable
compared with the creations of the few great
animal builders. Among spiders, insects, birds,
and mammals, there are architects whose work
displays amazing organization and
a sophisticated sense of design.

The harvest mouse is the only
mammal that weaves a nest
like a bird's. It raises its young
in the ball-shaped structure
made of leaves and grass.
Many mammals dig simple
burrows, but the mole builds
a complicated network with
chambers for nesting and food
storage. The black-tailed prairie
dog ventilates its burrow by
building two entrances in a
Right: The
harvest mouse
weaves a nest
that is light
enough to be
held by a few
stalks.
Front inset
left: The
nautilus makes
a beautiful but
complex shell.
Front inset
center:
Weaver ants
can construct
a home out of
a single leaf.
Front inset
right: The
paper wasp's
nest is made
from chewed
wood fibers.
mound. The two entrances let
air move through the mound.
The beaver is the best-known
builder among mammals. It
uses logs cut with its large,
sharp front teeth to build dams
across lakes. The beaver makes
its lodge in the middle of the
lake. Underwater tunnels lead-
ing into the lodge let the bea-
ver enter without being seen
by predators on land.

Mollusks are invertebrates
(animals without backbones)
that usually have shells to
enclose and protect their soft
bodies. The hard shells are
made from the secretions of
special glands. The many
species of mollusk, including
the snail, produce a variety of
elaborate structures.

The larvae of the caddisfly con-
struct hard cases to protect
their soft bodies. The larvae
can be found under stones in
streams. Some species make
their cases from grains of sand,
pebbles, twigs, and leaves,
which they glue together with
a sticky substance they secrete.
Camouflaged to look like mov-
ing twigs, their constructions
help them catch prey.
The structures made by the
social insects-ants, bees,
wasps, and termites-house
thousands of individuals. The
weaver ant makes "tents" of
leaves, which may be held
together by the ants them-
selves or sewn together with
grass or plant fibers. Wasps
One of the most elegant
shells is formed by the nau-
tilus. Its perfectly coiled shell
consists of chambers of in-
creasing size. These cham-
bers contain gas that keeps
the animal afloat. The last,
largest chamber holds the
nautilus itself, which builds
new chambers as it grows.
make nests from wood fibers,
which they chew to produce
a substance like paper pulp.
Some species make small,
spherical nests, but others
make larger structures. The
hornet's nest is the size of a
football. Solitary wasps build a
variety of nests, from the tiny
mud pots of the potter wasp
to the chimney-shaped nests
of the mason wasp.
The honeybee'S comb is a
collection of perfect six-sided
cells. The cells are made by
worker bees from wax, and
each is slightly tilted to keep
honey from running out. The
queen bee lays eggs in some
cells, and nectar and pollen are
stored in others.
Some birds dig nesting cham-
bers in sandy banks. But most
birds construct nests, which
can be very elaborate.
African weaver birds make
roofed baskets with strips of
vegetation. They weave in
pieces of grass and even tie
knots to make the nests secure.
Each species makes a basket
with a distinctive shape.
Bowerbirds get their name
Left: A cross
section of a
nautilus shell
shows the
increasing size
of the cham-
bers. Byadjust-
ing gas in the
chambers, the
nautilus can
float or sink.
from the tentlike structures,
or bowers, made by the male.
In front of the bower a male
displays berries and other
colorful objects to attract a
mate. The golden bowerbird
builds a spectacular pair of
columnar structures about
10 feet high. They are built
around two saplings and con-
nected by a threshold of moss
and lichens.
Above left:
The South
American
ovenbird is a
constant nest
builder. Its
unique nest is
made from
damp earth,
clay, or grass
coated with
manure.
Left: The
caddisfly larva
builds a case
for itself that
blends in with
debris on the
riverbed. For
greater cam-
ouflage, the
larva may stick
pebbles, twigs,
and leaves to
the case.
MAMMAL SOCIETIES
GROUP 8: ANIMAL BEHAV
Mammal societies range from the complex organization of the
meerkat to the simple pair bond of the gibbon. All these societies
exist to provide an advantage in the fight for survival.
KEY FACTS
SPECIAL SOCIETIES
I WHALES AND DOLPHINS
All cetaceans (whales, dolphins,
and porpoises) have highly
developed social skills and
strong emotional ties to each
other. The pod (group) struc-
ture varies according to the
species, but all whales and
dolphins cooperate in caring
for their young and sick.
Whales are bound to each
other so strongly that pod
members will follow a stranded
member's distress call and
strand themselves as well.
Conservationists have found
that shooting the stranded
whale to silence its signals may
help save the rest of the pod.
ELEPHANTS
Elephants live in matriarchal
(female-dominated) societies
of females and juveniles. Males
leave the group at puberty to
live in small bachelor groups,
and breeding bulls lead solitary
lives. This system ensures that
much of the senior female's
experience is passed on before
she dies. Her teaching con-
tinues even after her breeding
time has ended.
THE NAKED MOLE RAT
This small African rodent lives
underground in a network of
burrows consisting of a main
nest site with tunnels to a
number of food storage cham-
bers and waste burrows.
Each society has a single
breeding pair. The breeding
female secretes special chem-
icals in the waste burrow that
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Left: Like all
cetaceans, the
dolphin has a
sophisticated
social structure
and a strong
bond with
other members
of its group.
The pod uses
its language
of clicks and
whistles to
work as a
team when
identifying
and rounding
up prey fish.
stop other mole rats from
breeding. The offspring born
to the pair become workers or
guards in a caste system more
common among insects. The
workers dig tunnels, hunt for
food, and care for the young.
The guards stay near the nest
chamber, helping to rear the
young and defending the nest.
Below: Elephants live in unique
groups where older females pass
on their knowledge.
Animals that live in societies or groups
usually have a leader-either a dominant male
or a dominant female-and a "pecking order" from
the leader to the youngest member. But a need
for leadership is not the prime reason for social
ranking. More important is the survival
of the society by living and working together.
~ PRIORITI ES
Mammals' desire to mate and
pass on their genes is so strong
that competition is often fierce.
Usually only the fittest animals
succeed and give birth to the
next generation.
Feeding and defense also
influence the wayan animal
lives. Flesh eaters that hunt
prey larger than themselves
usually live in a stable group.
The prey they hunt-mostly
grazing mammals-live in an
even larger group. A herd is
more likely to spot a predator
than a single animal. A herd is
also able to confuse a predator
by scattering.
~ TYPES OF SOCIETIES
Most birds are monogamous
(having one mate) because it
takes two to feed their young.
But with mammals, the females
nurse their young. As a result,
the males can mate with more
than one female, and most
mammal societies are polyga-
mous. Many are made up of
one male and several females.
Others, like the chimpanzee's,
consist of several males and
Right: The
badger lives
in a spatial
society, where
it shares a den
but forages
individually.
Since feeding
takes place at
night, there is
no advantage
to searching
for food as a
group.
several females living together.
In spatial societies, mammals
like badgers and foxes share a
den and family duties, such as
rearing the young and protect-
ing their territory, but they hunt
alone at night. Many mammal
societies are seasonal, coming
together for the breeding sea-
son, and then splitting into
loose groups for the remain-
der of the year.
~ LI FETI ME PARTNERSHI PS
Only a few mammals, such as
the wolf and the gibbon, form
lifelong partnerships. The ma-
jority of wolves live where food
is scarce in winter and the prey
are large. Communal hunting
and teaching young the likely
places to find food and how to
hunt large prey as a team help
them survive, as does sharing
~ HAREM SOCIETIES
The lion is the only sociable
big cat, and it lives in a harem
society. A male lion lives and
mates with all the females in
his harem. He earns the right
by being the strongest male,
fighting off rivals if necessary.
Sometimes two litter brothers
will defend the same harem.
Zebras, which are often
the duty of bringing back food
for the newborns.
Gibbons are the only apes
that form lifelong partnerships.
The reason may be that the
gibbon spends most of its time
in the treetops of the rainfor-
est, where visibility is poor and
it is easier for a pair to defend
its territory and young.
Above: The red deer lives
in a seasonal society,
which is reformed in each
mating season.
Left: The meerkat's high-
ly organized social struc-
ture provides a sentinel to
guard the group while
feeding.
Front cover insets: Di-
verse mammal societies
include lifelong wolf pairs
and seasonal groups of
fur seals.
prey to lions, also live in
harems. Each group has its
own territory, often over-
lapping that of other zebra
groups. During the dry sea-
son, finding food is critical.
The small groups join into a
large herd of zebras, which
travels around searching for
suitable grazing.
Left: Unlike
other apes, the
gibbon forms
a partnership
for a lifetime.
This setup
could be more
practical than
group living in
the dense tree
canopy of the
rainforest.
~ SEASONAL SOCIETIES
Many mammal societies are
loosely organized but come
together during mating sea-
son. In such seasonal soci-
eties, males are much larger
than females. With red deer,
the adult male finds a good
patch of grazing ground to
attract females.
He defends his patch against
other males with antlers that
are specially grown for the rut
(mating season). The stag
mates with all the females in
his territory, and in turn the
females are given good graz-
ing. Seals and sea lions have
a similar social structure.
~ HIERARCHICAL SOCIETIES
The most common mammal
society has a dominant breed-
ing pair, with other pairs in the
group sometimes breeding
too. This lifestyle occurs where
group hunting or defense is
vital to survival, as in the dog
family. If the dominant male or
female is too old or is injured,
another animal overthrows it,
and the other animals in the
group move up in rank. In this
way the genes of the fittest
and strongest are passed on.
Nighttime creatures like
most civets tend to be solitary.
But the banded mongoose
and the meerkat, which are
active during the day, live in
groups. While the group feeds,
sentries are posted to warn of
danger. The group also shares
nursery duties and digs out
dens together.
Left: The zebra
lives in harem
groups that
have about six
females, but
territories can
overlap. Dur-
ing the dry sea-
son, smaller
societies form a
huge nomadic
herd.
ANIMAL FACTS AND FEATS
There is a tremendous variety of habitats in the world, filled with
animals of all shapes, sizes, and abilities. Every group
of animals has its record-breakers.
KEY FACTS
THE CHAMPIONS
Fastest land mammal: chee-
tah, which runs in short bursts
chasing prey at up to 53 mph.
Slowest land mammal: three-
toed sloth, which moves along
its branch at 0.07 mph.
Tallest mammal: giraffe,
which grows to nearly 20 ft.
Smallest mammal: pygmy
shrew; length: 1'/2 in.; weight:
0.052 oz.
Largest invertebrate: giant
squid; total length with ten-
tacles is about 43 feet.
Longest gestation period:
Asiatic elephant, 608 days.
Shortest gestation period:
American opossum, 12 days.
Longest lifespan: Marion's
tortoise, 150 years.
Longest migration: Arctic tern
flies from the North Pole to the
South Pole and back again
each year, a round trip of
about 25,000 miles.
DID YOU KNOW?
The common toad has been
found 5 miles up in the Hima-
laya Mountains and 1,115 ft.
down in a coal mine.
The common British click
beetle, about 0040 in. long,
throws itself up to 12 in. in
the air to escape predators.
The tuatara, a New Zealand
reptile, can survive up to an
hour without taking a breath.
The four-winged flying fish
can stay airborne for 3,300 ft.
The sooty tern does not
land or rest on water for its
first three or four years. It
rests on warm ,air currents.
Above: The largest flesh-eating
land mammal is the Kodiak bear
of North America.
Below: The peregrine falcon is
the fastest creature on earth. It
drops at 218 mph to catch prey.
The individual man-eating
record is held by the Cham-
paurat tigress, which killed 438
people in eight years.
The largest animal ever swal-
lowed was probably a 1 30 lb.
impala, which was swallowed
by a 1 Q ft. long African rock
python. Pythons dislocate their
jaws to swallow large prey
whole.
The smelliest animal in the
world is the African zorilla, or
striped polecat, which sprays a
pungent fluid at its predator
that can be detected almost a
mile away.
MCMXCI IMP BVIIMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILpM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Above: The aptly named "Ieast
weasel" is the world's smallest
flesh-eating mammal.
Below: The longest horns are
those of the Indian water
buffalo-I3 ft. from tip to tip.
Above: Capable of leaping over
16 ft., the South African sharp-
nosed frog is the biggest jumper
for its size.
01602004D1 PACKET 40
The appearance and extraordinary feats
of some animals are often amusing, but there is usually
a practical reason for them. Many oddities are just
extreme adaptations that allow animals to survive
in their particular environments.
~ GIANTS & MINIATURES
The blue whale, at up to 108
feet long and weighing about
1 77 tons, is the world's largest
animal. Its weight roughly
equals that of 30 elephants.
Animals can grow to such
huge sizes only in water,
which supports their bodies.
On land, the whale would
suffocate from its own weight
forcing the air out of its lungs.
The plankton on which the
whale feeds is made up of
small plants and animals,
some so small that it takes a
microscope to see them.
At 350 pounds, the ostrich is
the largest bird. It is 11 times
the mass of the heaviest flying
bird, the kori bustard, which
weighs 30 pounds. At this
weight the bustard just man-
ages to get airborne. The
ostrich and other flightless
birds cannot get off the
ground and have almost no
wings. Instead they have
strong legs to run very fast.
~ BEAUTY & THE BEAST
The anglerfish is ugly but fas-
cinating. The female dangles a
tiny "lantern" above her mouth
to attract prey.
The warthog, with its stubby
nose, curved tusks, and facial
carbuncles, is not a pretty sight.
Neither is the vulture, whose
head is bald so feathers will not
get matted with blood when
Right: The zorilla,
or striped polecat,
is the smelliest
animal.
Front insets: The
flight endurance of
the sooty tern (left)
makes it excep-
tional. The huge
gatherings of the
tiger moth (right)
are remarkable.
the bird gorges on carcasses.
Many birds are extremely
attractive. Some birds, like the
kingfisher, have exquisite colors.
Others, like the fairy tern, are
remarkably graceful. Many
butterflies are quite beautiful.
Swallowtails vary in size and
color, but all have elegant
trailing hind wings.
~ POISONOUS ANIMALS
Many animal families have
poisonous species, but the tiny
poison-arrow frog of South
America is the most lethal. It
produces enough poison to tip
50 arrowheads, and a fraction
of an ounce could probably kill
100,000 people. The frog's
bright colors and markings
warn predators to stay away.
Many poisonous insects have
similar warning marks. Some
insects acquire poison by
eating toxic plants and pass
the poison on to those who
eat them. The monarch butter-
fly is poisonous enough to kill
a weak human if it is eaten.
Other animals use poison to
catch their prey. The centipede
has a poisonous bite, but it is
not always fatal. The bite of
the north African fat-tailed
scorpion can kill a human
within four hours. One of the
Brazilian wandering spiders,
Phoneutria feral is the most
toxic spider. It bites several
times, usually killing the victim.
Some lizards are also poison-
ous. The large gila monster of
the southwestern United States
can produce enough venom in
one bite to kill two adults. But
it usually uses its poison only to
defend itself.
Marine life can be just as
dangerous. The blue-ringed
octopus, the cone shells, and
the stonefish are all poisonous.
One species of sea snake pro-
duces 100 times more venom
than any other snake.
Right: The anglerfish is very ugl}/J
but it has adapted well to life in
deep oceans.
Left:' The sea
snake, found
off the coast of
southwest
Australia, is
the most
poisonous of
all snakes.
Fortunatel}/J it
hardly ever
attacks people.
~ SAFETY IN NUMBERS?
The largest known gathering of
animals of the same species was
a swarm of krill (tiny shrimp)
found in Antarctic waters. The
swarm was estimated to weigh
10 million tons, and the num-
ber of individuals could not be
counted. A school of about
100,000 dolphins was once
sighted in the Black Sea, but
they are rare there now.
The passenger pigeon, now
extinct, was once so numerous
that flocks of millions clouded
the sky.
In the nineteenth century a
species of gazelle, called the
springbok, migrated across the
African plains in herds of about
Left: The poison-arrow frog pro-
duces the deadliest p ~ i s o n in the
animal kingdom.
10 million. Today their number
is greatly reduced, but the mass
migration of the wildebeest is
still an impressive sight.
At certain times of the year,
millions of tiger moths gather
in a grotto on the island of
Rhodes, off the coast of Greece,
covering trees and every avail-
able rock.
The annual migration of red
crabs across Christmas Island in
the Indian Ocean involves so
m'any individuals that it is
impossible to walk anywhere
without stepping on them.
Flamingos form one of the
most spectacular flocks of birds,
stalking the salty lakes of the
African Rift Valley, trawling for
shrimp. They often fly up in a
huge pink cloud, then land and
resume marching minutes later.
OCEAN TERRITORIES
The oceans of the world are not as uniform as they seem.
They conceal a patchwork of habitats, teeming with animals
that must defend their own space.
KEY FACTS
The defense of a food supply
may be linked to breeding,
as illustrated by the dwarf an-
gelfish, an inhabitant of coral
reefs. A group of four to seven
fish sets up a territory in an
area with abundant seaweed.
The male defends this area,
while his harem of females
feeds and produces young.
A strong male defends a ter-
ritory large enough to support
a group of females and their
offspring. Weaker males, less
effective at defense, attract
fewer females.
This pattern may be impor-
tant as a way of controlling
populations. When numbers
are high, weaker fish are forced
into less suitable areas, where
SEA LION TERRITORIES
During the breeding season,
from May to August, male
California sea lions establish
rookeries (breeding territories)
on isolated beaches. Female
sea lions come ashore to the
rookery to give birth. The
they are more susceptible to
disease and predators and less
successful at breeding.
newborn pups benefit from
the protection of the male,
who also protects his harem
of females from other males.
Shortly after they give birth,
the females are ready to breed
again and mate with the male
MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILET" PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Above: The stronger a male
angelfish is, the better the
territory he establishes.
whose territory they occupy.
The male sea lion patrols the
edge of his rookery both in
and out of the water, threat-
ening potential intruders. The
threats are usually for show,
with much barking, head shak-
ing, staring, and lunging. But
occasionally males are serious-
ly injured and are left scarred
from fights.
The male is so concerned
with defending his territory
that he usually stops feeding
for several weeks, relying on
his stored-up fat deposits. Out-
side the breeding season, the
sea lion is sociable and much
less aggressive.
Left: The combat of two male
sea lions may look and sound
dangerous, but it rarely is.
0160200441 PACKET 44
Ocean animals establish territories in all
but the most inhospitable waters.
All of these animals defend their territories
against individuals from their own or different species.
But territorial behavior is especially widespread
in inshore areas, where the competition for food
and a mate is intense.
~ OCEAN HABITATS
Nearly three-quarters of the
earth is covered by water, and
more than 93 percent of this
water is in the oceans. Within
the oceans, there are distinct
areas, each with different types
of marine life and habitats.
Shallow inshore waters are
home to the greatest variety of
habitats because they contain
the greatest water movement,
variations in temperature, and
salinity (saltiness). In some loca-
tions, twice-daily tides tempor-
arily expose the area between
Front cover:
Inshore waters
such as those
of the coral
reef provide
the highest
density of
territories.
Front inset
left: The
bright colors
of many coral
reef fish act as
a "no tres-
passing" sign
to other fish.
Front inset
right: If two
sea anemones
meet, a battle
over territory
may result.
high and low tide to the air.
The surface layers of the open
ocean are well lit and teem with
life. nny floating plants use en-
ergy from the sun to grow and
reproduce. They are eaten by
plankton, which in turn is eaten
by fish and whales.
Since light cannot penetrate
below about 650 feet, there is
far less life in the ocean depths.
Below 3,300 feet, the ocean en-
vironment is characterized by
low temperature, great pres-
sure, and total darkness.
~ TERRITORI AL FISH
Damselfish are very territorial
fish that live on tropical coral
reefs. They create seaweed gar-
dens by killing a patch of coral
and keeping other seaweed-
eating animals away. Soon a
patch of seaweed grows and
attracts tiny shrimp and crabs,
which the damselfish eats.
Many damselfish defend
their territories from plant-
eating fish that are larger than
themselves. But they often ig-
nore noncompetitive species
that feed on plankton.
Other fish, like the threadfin
butterfly, are aggressive only
about their nighttime resting
spots. The threadfin is not ter-
ritorial in daytime.
~ DEFENDING A HOIV1E, SPACE &: FOOD
Many ocean animals defend a
home, the space around them,
or a food supply. An aggressive
display may actually reduce
fighting. It usually consists of
posturing that warns other ani-
mals away.
The mantis shrimp is a well-
armored crustacean that lives
in small burrows or crevices on
coral reefs. If another shrimp or
a fish ventures into its home,
the mantis shrimp drives the
intruder away by snapping its
pincers shut. The loud noise
Left: The damselfish is one of the
most aggressively territorial in-
habitants of the coral reef.
that results intimidates the po-
tential competitor into fleeing.
Stuck to a rock with tentacles
waving, the sea anemone does
not seem very aggressive. But
it must compete with other
anemones for a space where
plankton and small fish are
borne by the current. If the
poison-tipped tentacles of two
anemones come into contact,
a battle may follow. The fight
continues until one combatant
concedes by slowly creeping
out of its opponent's range.
Right: The mantis shrimp uses
both a visual threat and a warn-
ing sound to deter intruders.
Left: The
threadfin
butterfly fish
uses selective
territorial be-
havior. Only if
disturbed at
night does it
chase intrud-
ers away by
threatening
them with its
spiny fins.
~ MARKING A TERRITORY
Aquatic animals use sound and
color instead of scent to mark
territorial boundaries. Fish, sea
lions, shrimp, and crabs use
sound to help maintain their
territories. Sea lions bark (even
below water) and shrimp and
crabs rub their legs together to
produce a sound that warns
trespassers away. Some fish
produce sounds by using bony
structures in their heads or
Left: Markings that differ from
the adult's protect young
semicircle angelfish.
even in their swim bladders.
Other fish, such as the ma-
rine angelfish and the butterfly
fish, have bright colors that
warn off similarly marked com-
petitors of the same or related
species. The bright colors can
be seen from great distances in
the clear waters of a coral reef.
Juvenile reef fish may have
completely different color pat-
terns from adults of the same
species. In this way they avoid
conflict with their elders until
they reach maturity.
HOW ANIMALS USE
CAMOUFLAGE
Camouflage is the way in which an animal disguises itself, usually to
surprise prey or hide from predators. While the animal ~ color and
pattern play important roles in camouflage, so too does its behavior.
KEY FACTS
COLOR CHANGE
The chameleon can change
color to fit any background.
It sees the colors of its back-
ground through both its eyes
and detectors in its skin. Col-
ored pigments in its skin cells
allow it to use many colors. It
takes as long as 15 minutes
for the chameleon to change
color because the messages
from its brain are carried to
the pigment cells as chemi-
cals in the bloodstream. Oth-
er animals, such as squids and
octopuses, can change color
PEPPERED MOTH
I Before the Industrial Revolution
only one form of the peppered
moth existed in Great Britain.
It was mottled gray and per-
fectly camouflaged against the
tree trunks on which it rested.
In the nineteenth century the
increasing number of factories
produced soot that blackened
the tree trunks. The moths
were easily seen against this
background and were eaten
by predatory birds. Later a few
black moths appeared that
were well camouflaged against
the dirty tree trunks. They es-
in seconds because the mes-
sages travel along nerves.
Flatfish such as flounder can
change to resemble the sea-
Left: In sum-
mer the rock
ptarmigan's
mottled plum-
age merges
into surround-
ing vegetation.
In winter its
feathers turn
white, blend-
ing with snow.
caped detection by predators
and were able to breed suc-
cessfully, resulting in a family
of black moths.
MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILET ... PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Left: The
Jackson's
chameleon is
also called the
three-horned
chameleon. It
can change its
skin color to
match its sur-
roundings so
it can hide
from prey.
bed, half burying themselves
for even greater effect. Frogs,
toads, crabs, and prawns may
become darker or lighter to
match their surroundings.
Some birds and mammals
molt their summer coats and
then grow a winter coat that
blends in better with the win-
ter environment: either gray
to match the leafless trees or
white to resemble snow. The
snowshoe hare, arctic fox,
rock ptarmigan, and ermine
all turn white.
Today, with cleaner air, the
original gray moth is increas-
ing in numbers, and both
forms of moth are found.
Left: The gray
peppered moth
on the right is
clearly visible
to predators,
but the black
moth is per-
fectly camou-
flaged against
the dark, sooty
tree trunk.
0160200411 PACKET 41
Examples of camouflage are found among
all kinds of animals, from insects to mammals. Some
animals blend into the surrounding vegetation, while
others resemble pebbles or bird droppings. Many
of the best examples of animal camouflage are
seen in nocturnal insects, which use sophisticated
patterns to hide themselves by day.
PLANT LOOK-ALIKES
Among the greens and the
browns of the forest, the well-
camouflaged animal is spot-
ted or striped with colors that
match its surroundings.
The praying mantis waits
motionless like a leafy twig
until its prey comes close. The
stick insect is difficult to see
among green shoots and

The distinctive colors and pat-
terns of the zebra and giraffe
help to break up their outline,
but the exact purpose of these
markings is unknown. The
Front left inset: Butterfly camou-
flage takes many forms.
Front right inset: In winter the
snowshoe hare turns white to
blend in with the snow.
dead twigs, and the geometer
moth caterpillar is so twig-
like that it even has a "bud"
growing out of its back. The
Malaysian horned frog has a
brown flattened body with
dark markings that resemble
leaf veins, so it can hide effec-
tively in the dead leaves on
the forest floor.
lion's sandy color blends into
the dry African plains and
conceals it as it stalks its prey.
The tiger's stripes help it
blend into the patches of light
and shade in the jungle.
The sloth of the rainforests
hides from its enemies in the
wet season when it turns green
from algae growing on its fur.
Left: Resting
motionless on
the floor of
the "forest, the
nose-horned
frog of Asia
is hardly no-
ticeable. Its
brown-green
skin color and
spiky shape
blend in with
surrounding
leaf litter.

Coloring may not be enough
to camouflage an animal. A
moth with vertical stripes rest-
ing horizontally on a tree trunk
will not match the bark's pat-
terns. The bittern's colored
stripes would be useless
anywhere but in a reed bed.
Animals that most resemble
their surroundings are active
only at night. They keep still
Left: Like
many other
flatfish, the
plaice's upper
skin resembles
the gravel bed
of coastal
waters. To
make it even
harder to spot,
it partly buries
itself in the
loose gravel.
during the day to avoid being
noticed. But they may still cast
shadows that give them away.
The Malaysian flying gecko
has flaps of skin between its
li mbs to help soften its out-
line against the tree trunks
on which it lives.
Right: The intricately patterned
lacewing moth is almost hidden
against a tree trunk.

The females of birds that nest
on the ground, such as the
pheasant and mallard, are
camouflaged by their dull
brown, speckled appearance,
which helps them blend in with
the vegetation near the nest.
The female killdeer lays her
spotted eggs in a gravel scrape,
where they blend in perfectly.
Her black, white, and brown
markings hide her from preda-
tors when she sits on the eggs.
In species where the male
broods the eggs, the male is
dull and the female is brightly
colored. In the case of the
woodcock, where the male
and female take turns incubat-
ing the eggs, the colors and
Left: The granular scales of the
Moorish gecko camouflage it
patterns of both sexes blend
in with the leaf litter around
their nest.
The bittern's vertical body
stripes blend in with the reeds
where it makes its nest. When it
is disturbed, it stretches its neck
upward and sways with the
reeds, becoming almost invisi-
ble. The South American great
potoo, with its head pointing
toward the sky, resembles a
broken branch.
Most birds of the tree cano-
py have green on their back
and lighter colors below. This
countershading hides them
against a dark background
when seen from above and
against a light background
when seen from below. Fish
such as barracuda use counter-
against gnarled bark. shading to conceal themselves.
OTHER DISGUI SES
No bird would eat its own
droppings, so the caterpillars
of swallowtails, pug moths,
and Chinese character moths
resemble bird droppings. A
tropical crab spider wraps its
legs around its body and sticks
itself to a leaf with silk threads.
The spider crab attaches live
sea anemones and sponges to
its shell to make itself blend
in with the seabed. Some
caddis fly larvae make cases
of stones and sticks in fresh-
water streams to camouflage
themselves and to hide from
their prey.
Below: A swallowtail butterfly
larva is disguised as a bird
dropping to deter predators.
HOW MIMICRY
PROTECTS ANIMALS
Mimicry is an important survival tactic for many animals.
Some animals have even evolved to look like toxic or unpleasant
species that predators have learned to avoid.
KEY FACTS
BATES IAN MIMICRY
The edible viceroy is protected
from predators because its
appearance mimics that of the
inedible monarch butterfly.
This form of mimicry is called
Batesian mimicry, after the
nineteenth-century English
naturalist Henry Walter Bates,
who proposed that a harmless
species could gain protection
by imitating a toxic species or
a distasteful one.
Certain monarch butterflies
can also benefit from Batesian
mimicry as not all monarchs
are poisonous. As caterpillars,
monarchs may feed on either
poisonous or nonpoisonous
left: All mon-
archs may look
I : . . , i.
alike, but not
all are toxic.
Right: The
viceroy mimics
the monarch
for protection.
, , .'# ': .
MULLERIAN MIMICRY
The hoverfly provides an ex-
ample of Batesian mimicry. It
looks like a yellow jacket, so
predators assume it can sting
and avoid it.
Some wasps, including the
yellow jacket, benefit from an-
DID YOU KNOW?
Worker termites feeding un-
der leaf debris collectively
make a snakelike "hiss" to
scare away predators.
other form of mimicry. They
have black and yellow mark-
ings like those of the cinnabar
moth caterpillar and taste just
as unpleasant to predators. A
bird that learns to avoid the
distasteful caterpillar will also
left: The
hoverfly does
not sting, but
predators
avoid it.
Right: The
yellow jacket's
sting deters
predators.
If threatened, a dormouse in a
dark hole will hiss like a snake to
scare off an attacker.
One orb-weaver spider spins
MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A
milkweed. If a bird eats a but-
terfly reared on toxic milkweed
the bird vomits, and it learns
to avoid any butterfly with the
same markings. So monarchs
that eat nonpoisonous milk-
weed are mimics of their toxic
relatives. Mimicry within one
species is called automimicry.
avoid the wasp. A bird that is
stung while eating a wasp will
avoid the caterpillar. This kind
of imitation-where appear-
ance is shared by different but
equally unpalatable species-is
called Mullerian mimicry.
two blobs of gossamer on its
web that look like the spider
itself. A bird is likely to attack
the wrong "spider./I
0160200451 PACKET 45
There are three forms of mimicry that animals use
to defend themselves against predators. Some
animals protect themselves by looking like harmful
or inedible animals. Other species mimic their
background with appropriate colors and body
shapes. Still others pretend to be injured
or dead to confuse potential attackers.
~ WHAT IS MIMICRY?
Mimicry-looking, acting, or
sounding like something else
-is a form of deception prac-
ticed by a variety of animals.
For many animals, a key prob-
lem is how to eat without being
eaten. By mimicking something
else, they increase their chances
of survival.
There are three strategies for
fooling predators. One is to use
camouflage, blending into the
background. Another is to re-
semble a species that is distaste-
Front cover:
The grass
snake pretends
to be dead to
fool potential
attackers.
Front inset
left: Birds
avoid preying
on the hornet
moth because
it looks like a
yel/ow jacket.
Front inset
right: The hor-
net's sting pro-
tects it and its
nons tinging
mimics from
predators.
ful or threatening to the preda-
tor. The third is to use deceptive
behavior whenever a predator
is about to attack.
Animals that are protected by
their likeness to a dangerous
species are the most successful
mimics. They do not have to
change their behavior or stay
against a safe background to
disguise themselves. Because
their appearance says "keep
away," they can go about their
daily business with little danger.
Left: The
drongo tastes
unpleasant to
predators, who
avoid it.
Right: The
edible black
flycatcher fools
its enemies by
resembling the
drongo.
~ LOOKING DANGEROUS
Harmless insects often mimic
stinging insects. The hornet
moth looks like a hornet, the
bumble bee moth resembles a
bumble bee, and the buprestid
beetle mimics a wasp.
Other insects survive by look-
ing like a distasteful species that
predators avoid. Female mocker
swallowtails mimic poisonous
butterflies like the friar and the
African monarch. The males do
not mimic and are at risk.
Some birds and reptiles also
practice this type of mimicry.
The black flycatcher is a bird
Left: The harmless king snake
bears a convincing resemblance
to the deadly coral snake.
that resembles the unpalatable
drongo. The African rufous fly-
catcher looks like the ant thrush,
which tastes of formic acid from
its diet of ants. Among reptiles,
the king snake has markings that
resemble those of the poison-
ous coral snake.
This type of mimicry is not a
conscious action. Over time
evolution has produced animals
that resemble harmful species.
The resemblance offers protec-
tion, so these animals survive
and produce young that look
like their parents.
Right: Predators avoid the poi-
sonous coral snake and its simi-
larly marked mimics.
~ CONFUSING PREDATORS
If discovered by a predator,
some animals try to convince
their attacker that they are
dangerous. The hawk moth
caterpillar waves its body like a
snake. Its two eyelike markings
add to the illusion.
Other animals like the grass
snake pretend to be dead. The
Virginia opossum rolls over and
lies still with its mouth open
Left: "Playing possum" saves the
opossum from predators that take
only live prey.
and a glassy look in its eyes.
This behavior deters predators
such as cats, that need to kill
before they feed.
When the pale prominent
moth plays dead, it resembles
an inedible wood shaving, so it
is doubly protected. The hog-
nosed snake also pretends to
be dead and may even give off
a rotting smell. Before it resorts
to this, however, it mimics a
rattlesnake, raising its head as
if about to strike and making a
rattling sound.
HOW REPTILES SEE
The eyes of reptiles are specially adapted to their habits. These
vital sense organs are in various ways. Some species
shed tears, some have eyelids, and some even have /I eyeglasses. "
KEY FACTS
MONOCULAR AND BINOCULAR VISION
A reptile's vision depends on
the position of its eyes. A
reptile with monocular vision
has eyes on either side of the
head. The area that one eye
can see does not overlap the
area the other eye can see.
Land tortoises, crocodiles,
and many lizards have mon-
ocular vision.
A reptile with binocular
vision has both eyes facing
forward. The area that each
eye can see overlaps. Reptiles
with binocular vision, like the
snapping turtle, focus both
eyes on their prey and can
accurately judge its distance.
A chameleon's eyes swivel
independently-back and for-
ward through 180 degrees-
and also up and down. This
allows it to scan a wide area
for prey. When it finds a vic-
tim close enough to kill, it
focuses both eyes on its prey.
Right: The chameleon uses both
monocular and binocular vision.
HEAT DETECTION IN SNAKES
Some snakes detect prey by
sensing their body heat. Boids
(members of the boa family),
including boa constrictors and
pythons, have a row of up to
12 heat-sensitive organs.
Pit vipers, including rattle-
snakes and moccasins, are
named for the heat-sensitive
pit organ between the eye and
the nostril on either side of the
head. The tiny pit detects infra-
red heat radiated by its poten-
tial prey. This information is fo-
I cused onto a surface of several
thousand nerve endings and
passed to the brain, where it
is "seen" like signals coming
from the eyes. The result is a
"heat picture" that reveals the
location of any warm-blooded
creature nearby. A pit viper can
detect temperature changes as
small as half a degree.
Pythons and pit vipers also
use heat sensors in the mouth
to guide them when prey is
near enough to kill.
HEAT SENSORS IN PIT VIPER
The North American water moccasin is a pit viper. Its well-defined, highly
sophisticated pit organ (shown in red) enables it to detect the presence of
warm-blooded animals and sense minute temperature changes.
HEAT SENSORS IN BOlD SPECIES
The reticulate python is more primitive than a pit viper, having evolved from a
different origin. It has a row of several heat-sensitive organs (shown in red) ,
but they are less sophisticated than those of the pit viper.
MCMXCI IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200441 PACKET 44
Not all reptiles see their surroundings in the same ways.
The position of the eyes, the shape of the pupils,
and the number and type of light-sensitive cells
determine the range, depth, and color of a
reptile's view. Some snakes can even "see" an
image of warm-blooded prey by detecting
the heat that the animal gives off.
~ REPTILES' EYESIGHT
The class Reptilia includes croco-
diles, alligators, snakes, lizards,
worm lizards, tortoises, turtles,
and tuataras.
A reptile needs to recognize
the shape, and sometimes the
color, of prey. It also needs to
monitor the movements of
mates, offspring, and predators.
Reptiles that live primarily un-
derground or in muddy water
have very small eyes. Day-active
reptiles that live aboveground
often rely on sight more than
on their other senses.
A reptile's eye works much
like the human eye. Light waves
Right: A tree
snake focuses
by aligning its
pupils with the
grooves on its
snout.
Front cover:
The caiman's
eyes are high
on its head.
Front cover
insets:. The
snapping tur-
tle (left) has
binocular vi-
sion. The tua-
tara (right)
has a tiny
"third eye"
on its head.
that are reflected from objects
pass through a "window" in
the eye called the cornea and
enter a slot in the iris (the col-
ored part) called the pupil. The
light waves then pass through
the lens, which focuses the im-
age. They finally reach the back
of the eye, or retina, which is
made up of two types of cells
that send messages to the
brain: rod-shaped cells that
convey objects' shapes and
cone-shaped cells that convey
their colors. The brain interprets
these messages as an image,
which is what the reptile sees.
~ COLOR VISION
Many lizards seem able to dis-
tinguish between colors. For
example, some can recognize
the red and black markings on
insects that are harmful to eat.
Giant tortoises can see in color,
and some terrapins seem sensi-
tive to red light. They also ap-
pear to see infrared rays, which
are invisible to humans.
~ PUPIL SHAPE
Some reptiles, including croco-
diles, pythons, vipers, tuataras,
and geckos, are active at night
but also spend time basking in
the sun. Their pupils are usual-
ly vertical slits, which can be
closed more completely in
bright light than round pupils.
The gecko'S pupils close in
daylight, leaving four tiny pin-
holes in each one. Only a small
amount of light enters through
these holes, but the gecko's
view is sharpened because it
Left: The pupils of a crocodile
close to narrow openings in
bright sunlight.
Crocodiles and snakes, how-
ever, are color-blind. In low
light, American night lizards
see shape rather than color.
Their retinas contain more
shape-sensitive rod cells than
color-sensitive cone cells.
Right: In poor light the granite
night lizard's eyes distinguish
shapes rather than color.
is composed of four superim-
posed images.
Right: In sunlight the tokay
gecko's pupils become thin slits,
each with four small pinholes.
Below: The green turtle sheds
salty tears, causing sand to stick
to its face.
~ EYE PROTECTION
Certain reptiles have eyelids to
protect their eyes. But the eye-
lids differ from those of mam-
mals as the reptile's lower eye-
lid is usually larger and more
movable than its upper one.
Snakes do not blink because
they keep dust out of their
eyes with fixed, transparent
"eyeglasses" that are called
brilles. Geckos also have brilles,
which they sometimes lick
clean with their tongues.
Other reptiles have a third
Left: A snake cannot see when
shedding its skin, as its transpar-
ent eye-covering turns opaque.
eyelid called a nictitating (wink-
ing) membrane. This transpar-
ent fold of thin skin is regularly
drawn across the cornea to
clean and lubricate its surface.
Crocodiles draw this mem-
brane over their eyes when
they swim underwater.
Some reptiles use tear glands
for protection, but sea turtles
use their tears to get rid of ex-
cess salt. The tears are most
noticeable when a sea turtle
comes ashore to dig a nest on
a sandy beach. The tears cause
grains of sand to stick to the
turtle's eyes and face.
HOW MAMMALS MOVE
From the super-swift cheetah to the ponderously slow sloth,
different mammals move in their own distinctive ways. The design
' of an a n i m a / ~ body determines its characteristic way of moving.
KEY FACTS
AIRBORNE MAMMALS
GLIDERS
A few animals, such as flying
squirrels, flying phalangers,
and sugar gliders, move by
gliding. These animals have a
membrane of skin stretching
from their forelegs to their
hind legs. When the sugar gli-
der leaps from a tree branch,
it spreads its limbs so that the
membrane acts like a para-
chute. In this way it is able to
glide almost 150 feet.
MAMMALS IN FLIGHT
The bat is the only mammal
that uses true flight to move.
Its body is designed for flying.
The skeleton is delicate, but
the forelimbs are well devel-
oped, with powerful shoulder
joints to bear the weight of
the body. The long forearm
is webbed by a thin double
layer of skin that forms the
wing membrane and the bat's
flying mechanism.
With the wing membrane
extended, the bat flies just like
a bird, using a series of beat-
ing wing movements. But
since it can use tendons in
its arm muscles to flex all its
joints, the bat has perfect
control of its wings and is
better able to maneuver in
DID YOU KNOW?
The cheetah can reach a
speed of over 60 miles an
hour, but can sustain this for
only about a quarter-mile.
Then it has to stop and catch
its breath before it is ready
for another chase.
flight than other flying crea-
tures. When the bat is not in
flight, its wings can be folded
over so they do not interfere
with walking. _
The bat's hind legs are also
used in flight. When they are
Pumas and leopards can
jump 16 feet into a tree; a red
kangaroo can jump over ob-
stacles about 10 feet high.
The slowest mammal, the
three-toed sloth, moves at an
average of 6 feet a minute. But
MCMXCI IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A
left: When the
sugar glider
stretches the
membrane
between its
legs, it can
glide from
tree to tree.
Below: The
bat's complex
flying mech-
anism enables
it to maneuver
in the air.
extended the bat can kick
downward, adding power
to its wing beat. The arrange-
ment of bones and tendons
in the bat's leg allows it to
rest hanging upside Clown
by its claws.
it can speed up to 12 feet a
minute in response to a dis-
tress call from its young.
The gibbon can move be-
tween trees at 10 miles per
hour, faster than a human
can run across the ground.
0160200431 PACKET 43
Movement is essential to an animal's survival,
enabling it to search for food and to escape
from enemies. Mammals are among the animal world's
most versatile movers, with species adapted to a full
range of motion, from swimming through water
to gliding or flying through the air.
~ LIMB MOVEMENTS
Most mammals walk using the
same limb movement as a
crawling baby. First the right
forelimb is raised, then the left
hind leg, next the left forelimb,
and finally the right hind leg.
In this way the animal is sup-
ported by three limbs and can
stop short without falling.
When trotting, one limb is
lifted before the previous one
touches the ground, leaving a
moment when only the two
feet diagonally opposite each
other are on the ground. The
animal stays stable by replac-
ing its feet rapidly.
A few mammals, such as the
Right: Otters
are more agile
in water than
on land.
Front cover:
The red kan-
garoo uses its
powerful legs
and tail to
leap along.
Front insets:
The hanging
sloth (left) is
the slowest-
moving mam-
mal, and the
cheetah (right)
is the fastest.
horse, can sustain swift move-
ment like galloping when only
one foot is on the ground at
any time and when all feet are
in midair at given moments.
The horse's movement stems
from its legs, and its back mus-
cles play little part. The cheetah
arches and stretches its flexible
spine so its hind legs land in
front of its forelimbs, increas-
ing the force and length of its
stride. In this way it reaches
speeds of over 60 miles an
hour for fairly short distances.
Right: The giraffe, like most four-
legged mammals, uses the
diagonal limb sequence to walk.
Aquatic mammals like whales,
dolphins, and porpoises swim
as skillfully as fish. The bottle-
nose dolphin, for example,
has a streamlined body that
enables it to move underwater
at almost 20 miles an hour. It
uses its muscular tail as a pro-
peller and its fin-shaped front
flippers for steering and bal-
ance. By leaping out of the
water as it surfaces to breathe,
the dolphin avoids turbulence
and maintains its speed.
Semiaquatic otters move
easily in water. Using their
backs and tails when swim-
ming, they can reach speeds of
Left: Like
other members
of the gibbon
family, the
siamang has
powerful arms
with mobile
joints that
enable it to
move quickly
through the
treetops.
15 miles an hour. But otters
usually paddle underwater by
using hind-leg movements,
interspersed with bursts of fast
swimming and gliding. To see
and breathe, they raise their
heads and chests above the
surface while treading water.
They also float stomach down,
with their eyes, ears, and nos-
trils above water. On land, ot-
ters move awkwardly, with
neck and head held low, hips
and lower back arched, and
muscular tail extended behind.
Right: The torpedo-shaped body
and muscular tail of the bottle-
l10se dolphin help it swim.
Left: Trotting,
a horse has
moments with
only two feet
on the ground.
Galloping at
full speed, as
shown here, it
may even have
all four feet in
the air at the
same time.
~ JUMPING, CLIMBING & SWINGING
The kangaroo moves by hop-
ping and jumping, using its
long, thick tail as a support
and a counterweight. Like
other leaping mammals such
as the jerboa and kangaroo rat,
it propels itself with its large
hind legs. The kangaroo can
travel up to 30 feet in one
bound, keeping its tail raised
for balance. When it hops, its
bent tail acts as a third leg.
Climbing and leaping are .
movements characteristic of
leaf-eating monkeys like the
colobus and proboscis. These
mammals use their hind legs
to propel themselves into a
leap, and they grasp vegeta-
tion with their forelimbs as
they land on their hind legs.
Moving along a branch they
use their hands and feet in the
diagonal limb sequence.
The gibbon grasps branches
with alternate hands, hurling
itself along with each grasp. Its
long arms and mobile wrists
and shoulders even let it cross
gaps between trees.
South American monkeys
and most tree-climbing mar-
supials have a prehensile (grip-
ping) tail, which they can wrap
around branches, leaving the
body suspended while feeding.