COMB JELLY

PHYLUM
Ctenophora
CiROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
Comb jellies are among the many tiny animals that form plankton-a
floating mass that drifts through the sea. Unlike many planktonic
animals, comb jellies are predators that prey on their fellow travelers.
SIZE
Length: From 0.15 in.-3 ft.,
depending on the species.
BREEDING
Mating: Each individual ejects
both eggs and sperm into the
water for external fertilization.
Breeding season: Species vary.
Sea gooseberry, late summer.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Move through the surface
of ocean waters as part of zoo-
plankton. Solitary or move in
groups to increase the chances
of fertilization.
Diet: Floating marine animals that
are also part of zooplankton.
RELATED SPECIES
Comb jellies are classed in a phy-
lum of their own, containing about
100 species in 5 orders. Their struc-
ture is similar to that of jellyfishes
and sea anemones.
Range of comb jellies.
DISTRIBUTION
Comb jellies are found in all seas and oceans. They inhabit wa-
ter of any temperature, from tropical to extremely cold.
CONSERVATION
Comb jellies are rarely seen and rarely caught. They have no
commercial value and are not threatened by humans.
CROSS SECTION OF THE SEA GOOSEBERRY
Tentacles: Have numerous filaments
covered in adhesive cells. As they
trail through the water, they
trap prey and pass
it to the mouth.
Comb rows: Total of 8.
Each consisting of
plates made up of thou-
sands of upright cilia
(small hairs) that move
in a wavelike motion to
propel a comb jelly
through the water. Indi-
vidual plates move in-
dependently, controlled
by the nervous system.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Sense organ: Has a statocyst (balanc-
ing organ) , which lets a comb jelly sense
which part of its body is pointing upward
and if it has bumped into anything.
Digestive canals: Transport
nutrients from the stomach
to every part of a comb
jelly's body, especially the
comb rows.
Stomach: Lies at the center of
a comb jelly's body.
Gullet: Takes food from the
mouth to the stomach.
Mouth: Sucks in food brought
to it by the tentacles. Waste is
expelled through the mouth.
0160200651 PACKET 65
Comb jellies are barely more substantial than
the water in which they float. These ghostly bags
of translucent jelly are bathed in flickering rainbows
of light that are reflected from the rippling comb rows
along their flanks. Comb jellies exist in a fascinating array
of unusual shapes, and they vary in size from just a
fraction of an inch to as much as three feet long.
~ HABITS
Comb jellies are part of zooplank-
ton-the floating cloud of ani-
mals that drifts in the ocean's
surface waters. Most plankton-
ic animals feed on microscopic
floating plants, but comb jellies
prey on other zooplankton.
Although they tend to drift
with the current, comb jellies
can swim to a limited extent.
Some swim like jellyfishes, con-
tracting their bodies to force
water out and propel them-
selves forward. But a typical
comb jelly propels itself through
water with tiny plates arranged
in rows along its body. Each
plate is formed from a line of
cilia (small mobile hairs) joined
together. A row of plates resem-
bles a comb, which is how the
animals got their name.
Some comb jellies produce
light. Others reflect and scatter
light as they move, generating
flashes of color. The colors ripple
up the comb rows in an irides-
cent wave as the combs flick
over one at a time, starting from
the back. If a comb jelly bumps
into something, a sensory organ
reverses the wave, and the ani-
mal backs slowly away, glitter-
ing with light.
~ STRUCTURE
Comb jellies are some of the
strangest creatures in the sea,
with transparent bodies that
glow with light. Some look like
light bulbs floating in the water;
others resemble inflated plastic
bags. But no matter what they
look like, all comb jellies have
the same basic structure.
A comb jelly's body consists
of a thick layer of jellylike matter
between two thin layers of cells.
The body is spherical in many
species. In the middle of the
Left: A comb jelly's long tentacles
sweep through the water, catching
small creatures.
DID YOU KNOW?
Many comb jellies glow in
the dark. The light is gener-
ated in the linings of the di-
gestive canals through an
efficient chemical reaction
that produces no heat.
Small comb jellies such as
sea gooseberries may drift
ashore and become stranded
in rock pools at low tide.
body is a central stomach. Radi-
ating out from the stomach is a
system of canals leading to the
mouth on the body's underside.
The entrance to the mouth is
often fringed with tentacles or
fleshy lobes that help gather
prey. Some comb jellies have
huge stomachs and can engulf
prey almost as large as them-
selves. In other species the cavi-
ty is reduced to a long gullet,
and the animal resembles a
solid sphere of jelly.
Right: The sea-cucumber-like
Beroe cucumis sucks in its prey
straight through its mouth.
Some species no longer
live in plankton. They creep
along the seabed, searching
for prey.
At a comb jelly's upper end
there is a balancing organ
called a statocyst. If this or-
gan is damaged, a comb
jelly becomes completely
disoriented.
Comb jellies are hermaphrodites
-possessing both male and fe-
male sex organs. The sex organs
are located beside the digestive
canals. In the breeding season,
a comb jelly produces eggs and
sperm. After moving through
the stomach and gullet into the
mouth, the eggs and sperm are
ejected into the sea.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
The sea gooseberry is one of the
most common comb jellies in
northern waters. It looks like a
transparent gooseberry, except
for its "fishing lines," which are
two long tentacles trailing from
its sides. Each tentacle is fringed
with sticky filaments that trap
floating animals. After making a
catch, the sea gooseberry reels
in the tentacle, retracts it into a
deep pit, and passes the prey to
its mouth.
Other comb jellies catch prey
Left: As light is reflected from the
rippling combs, a beautiful range
of colors appears.
Spawning is triggered by the
presence of other comb jellies,
so some of the eggs are likely
to be fertilized by sperm from
other individuals. The fertilized
eggs develop into tiny replicas
of their parents and feed on mi-
croscopic marine organisms.
The young can reproduce im-
mediately after hatching.
in different ways. The Beroe cu-
cumis catches its victims directly
in its mouth and sucks them
into its body, while the closely
related B. gracilis uses this tech-
nique to feed exclusively on
sea gooseberries.
Prey is broken down inside a
comb jelly, and the fragments
are passed along a network of
canals for further digestion. The
canals deliver the nutrients to
every part of a comb jelly's body,
especially the comb rows. In this
way, the canals take the place of
blood vessels that do the same
job in more complex animals.
EDIBLE SEA URCHIN
ORDER
Echinoidea
FAMILY
Echinidae
GENUS fit SPECIES
Echinus esculentus
The edible sea urchin grazes in the Atlantic and the North Sea
the way a sheep grazes in a field. It strips plants and
animals from the rocks with its powerful gnawing teeth.
SIZE
Diameter: Up to 7 in.
BREEDING
Breeding season: Spring.
Mating: Eggs and sperm released
into water for external fertilization.
Larvae: Free-floating, planktonic.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: lives and feeds on the sea-
bed in rocky areas.
Diet: Marine algae, plants, and an-
imals such as sea mats and sea firs
that encrust underwater rocks.
lifespan: About 10 years.
RELATED SPECIES
Many short-spined sea urchin spe-
cies are found in rocky areas of the
North Atlantic, including the green
sea urchin, Psammechinus miliaris.
Long-spined sea urchins are more
typical of tropical seas.
Range of the edible sea urchin.
DISTRIBUTION
The edible sea urchin is found below the low tidemark on the
rocky coasts of northwestern Europe, from Norway and Iceland
to Portugal.
CONSERVATION
Collecting of the edible sea urchin for its tasty roe and decora-
tive skeleton is a threat to some populations, but the species in
general is not endangered.
STRUCTURE OF A SEA URCHIN
Anus: Opening through
which the sea urchin dis-
poses of waste.
Intestine ~ ~ - = ~ ~ ~ 2 i
has a sucker on the
end to enable the
sea urchin to move
around.
Gills
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Entrance to water-vascular
system: Mechanism that pow-
ers the tube feet by pumping
fluid into them.
"Tooth"
the sea urchin's
underside so it can graze on
algae and animals encrusting rocks.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Genital opening: Where eggs
and sperm are released.
Attached to roe, which
has eggs and sperm.
Test: Strong
shell-like skele-
ton bristling
with moving,
sharp-pointed
spines and oth-
er defensive
systems.
0160200811 PACKET 81
A sea urchin has a similar body pattern to a starfish,
with five equal sections that radiate from its center.
This primitive animal does not have eyes or a brain. Its
shell, which is called a test, bristles with very sharp,
moving spines. The edible sea urchin is known for its
roe, or sex organs, which are considered a delicacy.
~ HABITS
Between a sea urchin's spines,
there are many hollow tenta-
cles called tube feet. Each ends
in a small sucker. By pumping
water into its tube feet, a sea
urchin can move them and
"walk" across the seabed.
Each tube foot has its own
fluid reservoir fed by canals in
the animal's body. Muscles in
the canal walls push fluid into
the tube feet to extend them,
while muscles in the tube feet
control direction.
Sharp spines protect a sea ur-
chin from large predators such
as fish . But they do not prevent
the tiny sea creatures that drift
in currents from settling on the
sea urchin's hard external sur-
faces. Whether these creatures
are parasites or simply "hitch-
hikers," the sea urchin must
get rid of them.
Many sea urchins have pin-
cerlike defense organs on short,
movable stalks between the
spine bases. Most of these or-
gans have three jaws that can
grip tiny creatures and remove
them. But some have glands
that can inject a strong venom
into an enemy such as a spiny
starfish, which might insert its
arms between the spines of a
sea urchin to rip it apart.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
Protruding from the mouth on
the underside of a sea urchin is
a set of five "teeth" for grind-
ing. These teeth are linked to-
gether in a cagelike structure
inside the mouth that is called
Aristotle's lantern. When the
cage is pushed down and out
of the mouth, the teeth close
together. But when the cage is
raised, the teeth open.
While the sea urchin creeps
along the seabed, it constantly
works its jaws, scraping off the
plants and animals that encrust
Left: The edible sea urchin lives be-
low the low tidemark, moving on
its many tube feet.
I DID YOU KNOW?
Many species of sea urchin
grind small depressions into
coastal rocks, where they stay
when they are resting.
The word urchin is derived
from a French name for the
hedgehog, another animal
protected by a coat of spines.
the rocks. If there are many sea
urchins that are active in the
same area, they may seem to
keep the rocks bare of life. Yet
they rarely run out of food be-
cause the currents constantly
sweep in new algae and larvae,
which settle on the rocks and
provide a fresh crop.
A sea urchin may travel sev-
eral miles in order to find rich
feeding grounds. But if food is
plentiful, it spends its entire life
in one area and goes over the
same ground again and again.
Right: As it "walks" along the sea-
bed, the edible sea urchin grazes
on algae and barnacles.
A sea urchin may cover itself
with seaweed and other de-
bris, probably as camouflage.
Seals and sea otters often
eat young sea urchins, which
have soft spines. But these
mammals avoid older, sharp-
spined sea urchins.
Left: Suckers
on tiny tube
feet surround a
sea urchin's
mouth. These
enable the ani-
malto climb
vertical rock
faces and even
to cling upside
down.
In spring, male and female sea
urchins release sperm and eggs
into the water, and the currents
bring the sperm and eggs to-
gether. Vast numbers of eggs
are produced because so many
are wasted. The few that are
fertilized develop into micro-
scopic larvae, which drift with
plankton. Many are eaten by
fish, sea anemones, and other
marine creatures. Those that
survive may travel far before
they settle on the seabed to
change into adult sea urchins.
Left: When the tide goes out, a sea
urchin may be left high and dry on
a rock.
MOON JELLYFISH
CLASS
Scyphozoa
ORDER
Semaeostomeae
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
FAMILY
Ulmaridae Aurelia aurita
The moon jellyfish inspires panic in swimmers, and its stinging cells
may produce a mild rash in humans. Its main victims, however,
are the tiny animals it filters from coastal waters.
CHARACTERISTICS
Medusa diameter: Up to 18 in.
Ephyra diameter: Less than ~ in.
Coloration: Almost transparent,
except for 4 purple horseshoe-
shaped reproductive organs.
BREEDING
Mating: By external fertilization.
No. of eggs: Many thousands.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Polyp is static, attached to
a rock. Medusa swims in schools
around coastal waters.
Diet: A variety of planktonic ani-
mals, such as oyster and barnacle
larvae and small worms.
RELATED SPECIES
The moon jellyfish is one of about
200 species in the class Scyphozoa,
which is divided into 5 orders. Oth-
er species include the lion's mane,
Cyanea capillata, which can deliver
a powerful sting.
Range of the moon jellyfish.
DISTRIBUTION
The moon jellyfish is found in shallow coastal waters in most
parts of the world. It is common around rocky shores.
CONSERVATION
The moon jellyfish is plentiful throughout its range. But in
some places it is adversely affected by pollution.
lI FECYCLE OF THE MOON JELLYFISH
4. Medusa: The familiar adult form, with
4 horseshoe-shaped sex organs visi-
ble through its bell. The mouth is
beneath the bell and extends
into 4 fleshy lobes. The
rim of the bell has
short, stinging
tentacles.
MCMXCVI IMP BV/IMP INC. WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
1. Planula:
The tiny first
development
from the fertilized
egg. The fine hairs on its
surface propel it from the medusa's
mouth. It remains near the mouth
lobes until big enough to swim.
2. Polyp: Has tentacles
that let it trap food. It
grows, attached to a rock
or seaweed, until grooves
appear along its body.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
3. Ephyra: Disklike
form that detaches
itself from the tip
of the polyp. Several
bud off from each
polyp, and each de-
velops into a medusa.
US P 6001 12076 PACKET 76
Found in coastal waters all over the world, the moon
jellyfish is one of the most common species of jellyfish. It is
named for the circular, almost transparent shape of the
adult form. The adult is also very easily identified by the
four horseshoe-shaped reproductive organs that are
located in the center of the jellyfish 5 body. The color
of these organs can range from lilac to a rich purple.
~ H A B I T A T
The moon jellyfish lives near the
surface in coastal waters world-
wide. The bell-shaped adult, or
medusa form, is frequently seen
swimming in schools. It moves
inshore at breeding time, to
~ DEFENSES
The adult moon jellyfish looks
defenseless, but it is covered
with several kinds of protective
stinging cells that can stun and
paralyze victims.
A poison-injecting cell, or ne-
matocyst has a small hair on the
outside that acts like a trigger. If
an animal brushes against it, a
areas with rocks and seaweed.
The polyp, the other common-
ly seen form of this species, looks
like a small plant and is attached
to rocks or seaweed. It feeds by
catching prey in its tentacles.
coiled thin tube shoots out of
the cell and punctures the ani-
mal's skin. The end of the tube
then bursts inside the animal's
body and pumps out poison,
deterring an attacker or paralyz-
ing prey. Other cells hook into
the jellyfish's victim and help to
entangle it.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
As a young medusa, less than
an inch wide, the moon jelly-
fish is an active hunter. It preys
on small fish as well as crusta-
ceans, catching its victims with
its mouth lobes.
When it grows wider than an
inch, however, the moon jelly-
fish stops hunting and simply
floats on the current, waiting
for prey to drift into its path. As
it moves, tiny planktonic ani-
mals stick to the mucus on its
body, especially under the bell .
Left: A fringe of tentacles on the
edge of the bell helps the moon
jellyfish remain upright.
DID YOU KNOW?
The moon jellyfish is 96 per-
cent water. Even its skeleton is
made of water. The fluid-filled
canals that carry food and re-
move waste help to keep the
shape of the bell.
The moon jellyfish is able to
survive in both very cold and
very warm waters. The lowest
temperature in which it can
Paralyzed by stinging cells in
the skin of the jellyfish, the prey
is swept over the surface of the
bell to its edge by cilia (mobile
tiny hairs). The jellyfish's four
long mouth lobes pick up the
prey and transport it, by way of
the mouth, into the stomach,
where it is slowly digested. Be-
cause the moon jellyfish is al-
most transparent, it is possible
to see the digested food mov-
ing through the body along tu-
bular purple canals.
Right: The horseshoe-shaped sex
organs can be clearly seen from
above or below.
live is 32F. The warmest tem-
perature is 88F.
Although the moon jellyfish
is a marine animal, it can also
be found in the mixed salt
and fresh water of an estuary.
The jellyfish's bell is very shal-
low in this somewhat salty wa-
ter and much deeper in very
salty water.
~ NATUREWATCH
The moon jellyfish usually in-
habits shallow coastal waters,
at temperatures from 48to
66F. You may be able to spot
a school of adults by looking
over the side of a boat. At the
end of summer many may be
stranded on beaches at low
~ LlFECYClE
The moon jellyfish changes its
form several times during a life-
time. A jellyfish is either female
or male, with the horseshoe-
shaped sex organs producing
eggs or sperm. When the male
releases sperm into his stomach,
they float into the sea. When
the female releases eggs into
her stomach, they remain there.
The sperm then drift into the fe-
male's mouth and fertilize the
eggs in her stomach.
Each fertilized egg develops
Left: The moon jellyfish spends one
phase of its development rooted to
a rock.
tide. Their stinging cells may
cause a rash if touched.
The lion's mane is a related
species found on both coasts
of North America. The world's
largest jellyfish, it can reach
eight feet in diameter, but
most are three feet across.
into a planula, or larva. The plan-
ula is covered with cilia that pro-
pel it from the mouth into the
shelter of the mouth lobes. It
then grows until large enough
to swim into the sea, then set-
tles on a rock or seaweed. The
planula changes into a polyp,
which has tentacles and feeds
like an anemone. As it grows,
grooves appear around its body.
These deepen until the polyp
looks like a pile of frilly saucers.
The top "saucer" develops buds
and becomes an eight-lobed
larva, or ephyra. This grows in-
to the adult medusa form.
COQUINA CLAM
CLASS
Bivalvia
ORDER
Veneroidea
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
FAMILY
Donacidae
.... GENUS fit SPECIES
Donax variabilis
The coquina clam is also known as the butterfly shell. It comes
in an incredible variety of colors and patterns and is easy to
find on sandy beaches, so it is a favorite with shell collectors.
FACTS
SIZE
Length: /:1-% in.
BREEDING
Mating: Both eggs and sperm are re-
leased into the water, where they are
cross-fertilized.
Sexual maturity: 1 year.
Spawning season: From spring to
summer.
No. of eggs: 20,000-50,000.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Lives in loose colonies in the
sand at the low-tide line.
Diet: Small edible particles filtered
from seawater.
RELATED SPECIES
The family Donacidae contains about
50 species and is found worldwide in
warm temperate and tropical seas. A
close relative on the Pacific coast is
the bean clam, Donax gouldii.
Range of the coquina clam.
DISTRIBUTION
Found along sandy ocean beaches from New York south to
Texas and northern Mexico.
CONSERVATION
The coquina clam is a wide-ranging species and appears to be
l
in no danger at present. But, like all marine animals, it is vulner-
able to pollution.
FEATURES OF THE COQUINA CLAM
Feeding: When filtering food
particles, the coquina often
emerges from the sand with
its siphons extended.
"Foot ": The muscular lower por-
tion of the body is used to dig in
the sand.
C9 MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Siphons: Whet) it feeds,
the coquina draws water
containing food parti cles
throug'h one siphon and
expels the water and any
wast es through the other.
0160200941 PACKET 94
The coquina clam prefers the turbulent sand at the edge
of breaking waves, where it lives in closely packed groups
of hundreds or thousands. In any single group you can
find all the variations in color and pattern that give
this little mollusk its scientific name-variabilis.
~ HABITS
The small coquina clam can be
found on sandy beaches. It is
especially abundant at the low-
tide line and a few yards above
it. It rarely occurs much farther
out in coastal waters.
When a wave breaks, lifting
the loose sand, the colorful co-
quina is washed out onto the
shore and must quickly burrow
out of sight. After anchoring it-
self, it upends and digs down.
Most of the time the coquina
lives about one inch below the
surface of the sand. But when
the tide withdraws, it burrows
deeper for protection. It then
rests until the water returns.
The coquina clam is generally
found in a group that contains
hundreds or even thousands of
individuals. But there may be
long stretches of empty beach
separating these loose colonies.
The coquinas often suddenly
abandon one spot in favor of
another, although there is no
apparent reason for this.
~ BREEDING
At the start of the breeding sea-
son, the coquina clam releases
eggs and sperm into the water,
where fertilization takes place.
The members of a colony syn-
chronize their release of eggs
and sperm, so as many eggs as
possible are fertilized.
The eggs quickly hatch into
swimming trochophore larvae.
The trochophore soon changes
into a veliger larva, a tiny crea-
ture that already shows the ru-
diments of the adult's shell. The
rr\d NATUREWATCH
If you walk along the beach at
the point where the waves are
breaking, you may see a large
number of coquinas. The ac-
tion of the waves exposes the
~ FOOD & FEEDING
Like most bivalves, the coquina
clam is a filter-feeder. It draws
seawater in through one of its
two siphons, filters out the fine
particles of food, and then ex-
hales the water through its oth-
er siphon.
Once inside.the coquina, the
food particles are picked up by
the mucus on the surface of the
clam's gills and are then slowly
carried forward to the mouth.
In nutrient-rich water, a contin-
uous stream of particles flows
over the coquina's gills and in-
to its mouth.
Left: The coquina clam 5 siphons
have muscles in their walls so they
can be contracted or extended.
Above right: After a storm, huge
numbers of coquina clams are some-
times found lying on the beach.
veliger floats freely among the
plankton, gathering microscop-
ic particles of food.
The veliger drifts for several
weeks, and it may travel many
miles from the place where it
hatched. Eventually the larva
settles into the sand and trans-
forms itself into a miniature of
the adult coquina.
Right: Although the coquina clam
hides itself in the sand when the
tide is out, it readily emerges from
its burrow when the tide comes in.
clams for a few seconds. Since
they rarely burrow more than
an inch or so in the sand and
the sand is usually loose, they
are easy to collect.
DID YOU KNOW?
Fossil coquina shells form a
compacted rock that is called
coquina stone. It is used as a
building material in Florida,
Bermuda, and several tropical
countries. The stone is easy to
cut into blocks, and it hardens
with age.
The coquina clam does not
see its own or other coquinas'
bright colors because it lacks
eyes. The reason for the spe-
cies' colors, which range from
white or yellow to pink or pur-
ple, is unknown.
Shell collectors must bathe
coquinas in mineral oil to pre-
serve their colors. Otherwise
the colors gradually fade be-
cause the natural oils in the
clams' shells are destroyed by
contact with the air.
A very tasty chowder can be
made from coquina clams. -.J
MILLIPEDE
PHYLUM
Arthropoda
.. SUPERCLASS
"11IIIIIIII Myriapoda
CLASS
Dip/opoda
The name millipede comes from the Latin words for "thousands of
feet, " but these animals rarely have more than 200 legs. There are
nearly 8,000 millipede species, found almost everywhere in the world.
CHARACTERISTICS
Length: .08-11 in.
Coloration: Some are darkly
colored to provide camouflage.
Others are bright or luminous to
warn off predators.
BREEDING
Mating season: Spring and sum-
mer in North American species.
No. of eggs: 10-300, depending
on the species.
Hatching period: From 2 days to
several weeks. Eggs may overwin-
ter in temperate climates.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Usually active by night.
Diet: Mostly leaves, fruit, and simi-
lar plant matter.
lifespan: 1-7 years.
RELATED SPECIES:
There are about 8,000 millipede
species in the class Dip/opoda,
which is divided into 7 orders.
Range of millipedes.
DISTRIBUTION
Millipedes are found almost all over the world. Although some
millipedes live in temperate climates, they are most common
in tropical zones.
CONSERVATION
There are no population figures for many individual millipede
species. Destruction of the Amazon rainforest may threaten
many species.
FEATURES OF SOME MILLIPEDES
Defense: The pill milli-
pede has jointed back plates,
so it can curl up into a ball
when threatened.
MCMXCIV IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Snakelike millipedes: May grow to 10
inches long. The tough, smooth cuticle
has at least 40 segments, enabling the
body to bend when moving. Most seg-
ments have 2 pairs of legs.
Antennae: Short;
one on either side
of head. They have
sensory hairs for
feeling and senso-
ry cells for tasting
and smelling.
Pill millipedes: With their shorter, more rounded bodies,
these species can burrow in the soil. Found in all types of
habitat. Often mistaken for sowbugs.
PRINTED IN U.S.A. US P 6001 12067 PACKET 67
Because they have certain superficial similarities/
millipedes and centipedes are often grouped together
in the superc/ass Myriapoda. But these two animals
have very different habits. Centipedes eat flesh and are
relatively fast and aggressive. Most millipedes/ on the
other hand/ are slow, plant-eating creatures.
~ HABITAT
A millipede must live in moist,
damp surroundings because
its hard, protective cuticle (out-
er skin) lacks a waxy coating
and, as a result, is likely to dry
out. Millipedes are frequently
found in woods and gardens,
living underneath stones, in a
tree's bark, or buried deep in
piles of moss or rotting leaves.
Various species of millipede
have adapted their particular
body shapes to their habitats.
Burrowing millipedes have
smooth, cylindrical bodies and
rounded heads, while species
that hide in crevices, such as
the blue-keeled millipede, have
flattened bodies.
Some millipede species are
considered pests because they
may damage the root systems
of plants. One species of julid
millipede, found in Australia,
infests houses, living in cellars
and damp carpets.
Right: Tropical millipede species
tend to be the brightest in color.
~ DEFENSES
Millipedes are preyed upon by
hedgehogs, birds, spiders, and
centipedes. To compensate for
their lack of speed, they have
developed a variety of defenses.
Some are camouflaged by their
brown or black coloring, but
those with red, orange, or yel-
~ BREEDING
Both male and female millipedes
have their reproductive organs
on their undersides. The male
winds around the female, hold-
ing onto her while he deposits
sperm inside her.
The female lays the fertilized
eggs in tiny holes in the ground.
She may coil around the eggs
Left: A male millipede transfers
sperm to a female by using a
pair of modified legs.
DID YOU KNOW?
The most legs ever counted
on an individual millipede is
710, but most species have
fewer than 200 legs.
Millipedes are not able to
close their spiracles (breathing
tubes). As a result, they are in
danger of being drowned by
low coloring protect themselves
by secreting a toxic or repellent
fluid from special glands.
The setae (barbs) projecting
from a millipede's body are a
further protection, making it
unpalatable to anything that
attempts to eat it.
for a time before covering them
with grass and other debris. The
hatching time varies from a few
days to weeks.
The young have only three
pairs of legs and six body seg-
ments. They molt several times,
adding legs and body segments
until they reach the adult form.
Right: Some millipede species can
protect themselves by curling up
into a ball.
even an extremely light rain.
When hunting, flesh-eating
rock millipedes can move at
speeds of up to three inches a
second-almost twice as fast
as most other species.
Millipedes are sometimes
called diplopods.
I [ ~ : ; I a NATUREWATCH
Many species of millipede are The easiest way to find mil-
common in North America. lipedes is to set a trap. Fill a
Because they need shade and flower pot with damp straw
moisture, they are active at or shredded newspaper and
night and are usually discov- leave it in a shady spot. Af-
ered only if their daytime hid- ter a few days you may find
ing place is disturbed. some millipedes living in it.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
Most millipedes feed on decay-
ing leaves, fruits, and similar
vegetable matter. The food is
steadily absorbed as it passes
through a tube from the mouth
to the anus.
Millipedes usually have simple
mouthparts, but some tropical
species, known as sucking mil-
lipedes, have mouths that form
into pointed tubes. The animal
can then pierce plant cells and
suck out the contents.
Several burrowing pill milli-
pedes have a special adaptation
for life in the soil. They eat soil,
in much the same way as earth-
worms do, digesting the veg-
etable matter it contains.
Rock millipedes have adapted
to life in the desert. These flesh
eaters have fearsome jaws and
prey on worms and insects. To
cope with dry conditions, the
animal hunts mostly in the cool
nights and has a waxy cuticle
and special sacs at the base of its
legs to gather morning dew.
PINK CONCH
ORDER
Mesogastropoda
FAMILY
Strombidae
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
.... GENUS &: SPECIES
"11IIIIIIII Strombus gigas
The pink conch is famed for its lovely shell that has a pale, gracefully
curving lip. The animal that lives inside this beautiful covering can be
quite active and sometimes even leaps out of harm sway.
SIZES
Shell length: ~ - 1 ft.
Weight: Can be over 4 lb.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 3 months.
Mating: Any time between
February and October.
Gestation: Several weeks.
No. of young: Female lays be-
tween 180,000 and 460,000 eggs.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Day-active adults and night-
active young.
Diet: Mainly algae.
Lifespan: 10-25 years.
RELATED SPECIES
The genus Strombus includes sever-
al other species, such as the West
Indian fighting conch, S. pugilis,
the hawk-wing conch, S. raninus,
and the rooster-tail conch, S. gal-
lus, which has a graceful "tail" to
its shell.
Range of the pink conch.
DISTRIBUTION
The pink conch is found in the warm, clear waters of the Gulf of
Mexico, the Caribbean, and the West Indies.
CONSERVATION
The population is threatened by commercial exploitation, but
the pink conch is not considered an endangered species.
FEATURES OF THE PINK CONCH
Shell: Continually built up with secretions
first from glands in the conch's back and
later from the edges of its mantle, or cape.
Very old specimens have very thick-lipped
and encrusted shells. Older conchs grow
wing-like extensions on their shells. The /
conch's exterior tubercles (projections)
may be blunt or sharp and spiny. The I
shell is pink or orange on the inside
and dull brown on the outside.
Eyes: Mounted on the tips of long stalks that protrude from
the head. The conch usually keeps one eye extended and
the other tucked in close to the shell's lip.
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200841 PACKET 84
Unlike many of its more docile relatives, the pink conch is an
alert creature that often becomes aggressive. If it is disturbed
from its leisurely grazing, it may thrash around wildly with
its muscular foot. Near the end of the foot, a jagged, clawlike
projection called the operculum acts as a trapdoor closing
the animal inside the shell. The pink conch can also use its
operculum to inflict nasty wounds on an attacking predator.
~ H A B I T A T
The pink conch flourishes in the
warm, clear waters of the West
Indies. The adult settles near the
coast at depths of 1 to 65 feet. It
also lives near coral reefs and is-
lands and on submerged banks
between the reefs and shore.
Immature pink conchs have a
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
The pink conch feeds by day. It
grazes on algae that grows on
submerged blades of turtle and
eel grass. First the conch secretes
a sticky mucus that helps trans-
fer the food from its mouth to
its stomach. It then scrapes the
more adventurous existence.
They are swept out to sea, hun-
dreds of miles from their birth-
place. Up to two months may
pass before they drop to the
seabed to finish growing. Only
a few individuals survive this
dangerous journey.
algae off the grass with its radu-
la, a tonguelike band with rows
of inward-curving teeth. A flexi-
ble, rodlike organ winds in the
mucus ribbon from the mouth,
drawing the food into the ani-
mal's stomach cavity.
~ BREEDING
The pink conch mates almost
year-round. The female lays a
mass of eggs in sand or turtle
grass beds. The egg mass is a
coiled tube about two to three
inches long. It may hold nearly
half a million eggs. The eggs
hatch in three days.
The creamy white larva has a
paper-thin shell. Called a veliger,
it can swim at once. Its heart is
visible through its flesh and be-
gins to beat a day after the veli-
ger hatches. Soon the veliger
Left: The curved clawlike opercu-
lum projects from the underside of
the pink conch's foot.
DID YOU KNOW?
The pink conch is at times
host to a small cardinal fish
known as the conch fish. This
species hides inside the man-
tle of the conch for protection.
As many as five cardinal fish
have been found within a sin-
gle conch.
Before they acquired metal,
Carib Indians used the lip of
grows delicate wings that help
it move through the water. It
feeds on planktonic plants.
After a two-month voyage on
the open sea, the conch comes
to rest on the seabed. Its other
organs now finish developing.
The conch is still only about an
inch long, and its shell is very
thin. It is active only at night un-
til the shell hardens enough to
withstand the attacks of such
enemies as hermit crabs, lob-
sters, and eagle rays.
Right: The large, empty shells of
dead pink conchs often wash up
on Caribbean beaches.
conch shells to make knives,
chisels, and even ax heads.
In Greek mythology the Tri-
tons used trumpets made out
of empty conchlike shells. The
pink conch has at times been
used in "shell orchestras." Al-
though it has a musical repu-
tation, a conch shell does not
usually have a pleasing sound.
~ PINK CONCH &: MAN
For centuries, Caribbean people
have prized the flesh of the pink
conch. They wade into shallow
turtle grass beds to pick it up, or
they hook it with a pole into a
boat. Where conchs are abun-
dant, a two-person crew can
gather 500 to 600 a day.
Conch flesh also makes good
fishing bait, so conchs have de-
~ BEHAVIOR
Although the pink conch may
appear to be unaware of its sur-
roundings, it is always watching
for predators. It can see better
than most other gastropods, or
single-shelled mollusks.
While grazing, the conch rests
its right eye in a shallow dip in
the lip of its shell that is called
the stromboid notch. The other
eye watches from the tip of a
longer stalk nestled in another
dip. If an enemy approaches,
the animal retreats into its shell .
Left: If overturned by currents, the
pink conch can push the operculum
against its shell to right itself.
clined near fishing ports in the
Florida Keys, Jamaica, and the
Bahamas. In a few harbors, piles
of discarded shells are so high
that they are a hazard to ships.
In other places the pink conch
is collected for its beautiful shell .
Artists once made cameos from
it. Today the shell is widely sold
to tourists as a souvenir.
It then holds its hard operculum
against the narrow opening and
shuts out the aggressor.
The conch is very mobile. It
has a muscular foot, which is
long and narrow with a high
arch. Attached to the back of
the foot is the operculum. This
curved claw is a good weapon
and allows the conch its unique
form of locomotion. By sinking
the claw into the sand and ex-
tending its body, the conch can
move over the seabed in a series
of jumps. If threatened, it rapid-
ly moves to safety, covering half
its own length with each jump.
GREAT POND SNAIL
ORDER
Gastropoda
FAMILY
Lymnaeidae
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
... GENUS &: SPECIES
~ Lymnaea stagnalis
The great pond snail is related to the common garden snail
but lives in fresh water, where it grazes on the organic
debris that most other animals ignore.
SIZES
Shell length: 1 ~ - 2 in.
Shell width: ~ - 1 in .
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary; lives in still or
slow-flowing waters.
Diet: Organic debris and algae
scraped off submerged surfaces;
also some live prey.
Lifespan: 2-3 years.
BREEDING
Breeding season: Whenever
water is warm enough in spring
or summer.
Mating: Hermaphrodite, but 2
individuals cross-fertilize.
Eggs: About 500 per batch, laid in
jelly and glued to submerged ob-
jects. Young hatch fully formed.
RELATED SPECIES
Other pulmonate water snails in-
clude the wandering snail and the
great ramshorn, an aquarium fa-
vorite with a flat-coiled shell.
FEATURES OF A FRESHWATE
Ramshorn snail: This
lung-breather is related
to the great pond snail
but is much smaller. It
is common in still
water, where it may
be seen riding on
the shell of its
larger relative.
Foot: Lacks an
operculum (plate) .
This is one way of
distinguishing a
lung-breathing
snail, such as this
species, from a
gill-breather. The
. latter uses its op-
erculum to seal
the shell after
withdrawing
inside.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Range of the great pond snail.
DISTRIBUTION
Still and slow-flowing fresh water in chalk- or limestone-rich
areas throughout Europe, east across southern Asia as far as
northwestern India. Also occurs in northwestern Africa.
CONSERVATION
Although not directly threatened, the great pond snail has suf-
fered from the drainage and pollution of wetlands throughout
its range.
Sense or-
gans. Flat-
tened on the
sides and
triangular in
shape. In con-
trast many oth-
er snail species
have thread-
like tentacles.
Shell: A hardened secretion
of calcium. The snail obtains
THE SNAIL'S EGGS
The snail lays about 500 eggs in
each batch, embedding them in a
mass of jelly to guard them from
predatory fish.
calcium from the hard water Within the jelly, each egg embryo
in which it lives. develops into a perfect miniature
replica of the snail. It may take
about a year to reach maturity.
PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200801 PACKET 80
Unlike most other aquatic mollusks, the great pond snail
breathes air instead of absorbing oxygen from the water.
It is therefore able to colonize stagnant ponds that contain
little oxygen but that have plenty of nutritious, decaying
plant and animal life. As a result, the great pond snail
can thrive in the most unpromising places, with little
competition from other, more oxygen-hungry animals.

Most aquatic mollusks have gills
that take oxygen from the wa-
ter. But just like the land snails
that it is related to, the great
pond snail is a pulmonate: it has
a lung cavity laced with minute
blood vessels that absorb oxy-
gen from the air.
This lung system is somewhat
of a disadvantage because the
snail may need to surface every
15 minutes or so to draw in a
lungful of air. But since it does
not rely on oxygen dissolved in
water, it can colonize stagnant,
deoxygenated pools with plen-
ty of food and little competition
from other animals. In such wa-
ters the great pond snail often
hangs from the surface, gliding
on its long, slimy foot.
In an oxygen-rich pond, the
snail breathes by carrying an air
bubble in its lung, into which
oxygen diffuses from the sur-
rounding water. This enables
the snail to live on the pond
bed, where food is abundant.
Right: The great pond snail will
feed on dead or dying animals.

The great pond snail is a herma-
phrodite, possessing both male
and female sex organs. Never-
theless, it always mates with an-
other snail, each fertilizing the
other. The snail lays its eggs in
batches of approximately 500,
which it glues in a sticky band of
jelly to the underside of a sub-
merged leaf.
Within each egg the snail em-
bryo develops as a tiny replica
of its parents, complete with
Left: Although great pond snails
can produce both eggs and sperm,
they mate with other adults.
Right: A thick and gelatinous cas-
ing prevents fish from eating the
snail's tiny eggs.
DID YOU KNOW?
The closely related dwarf
pond snail lives in wet pas-
tures. It is a notorious host of
liver fluke parasites, which in-
fect cattle and sheep.
The pond snail's shell is usu-
ally sinistral (left-handed) but
is occasionally dextral (right-
handed). Hold a shell upright
by its ends-if the opening
shell. It is fully formed and inde-
pendent when it hatches. The
newborn snails move away im-
mediately but are so vulnerable
that few survive to maturity.
Right: Even though it breathes out
of the water, the great pond snail
rarely travels on land.
lies to the right of the central
axis, it is dextral. Sinistral shells
open to the left.
Water snails are beneficial
in garden ponds and aquari-
ums because they help clean
up debris. But the snails breed
so quickly that they take over
unless they are kept in check
by natural predators.
.-
NATUREWATCH
The great pond snail lives on- in aquariums, where it scrapes
Iy in hard water, which pro- algae off the glass. The snail
vides the calcium it needs to also creeps across the surface,
build its shell. As long as it has hanging from the tension on
calcium, the snail can survive the top of the water. Touch it
almost anywhere, from ponds gently and it will drop to the
to slow-flowing rivers. bottom like a stone, having
L--_T_h_is_s_n_ai_1 a_l_so_d_o_e_s_v_e_ry_w_ e_II __ ejected the air from its lung. J
FOOD &: FEEDING
In any pond or lake submerged
plants, stones, and mud are cov-
ered with decaying plant and
animal remains, microscopic al-
gae, and tiny animals. The great
pond snail feeds on this materi-
al, scraping it up with its radula,
a rasping tongue.
Made of chitin the horny ma-
terial that also forms insect skel-
etons, the radula resembles a
coarse-toothed file. It is always
growing: as the front teeth wear
down, sharp back teeth move
forward to replace them. Some
flesh-eating snails use their rad-
ulae to scrape through the shells
of prey. But the great pond snail
uses its radula more like a scour-
ing pad, to clean algae off rocks.
This snail also feeds on other
animals' eggs and larvae and
attacks small fish and newts, es-
pecially dying ones. As the snail
eats it grows, adding to its shell
at the lip. When conditions are
bad, as in winter, growth stops.
Such interruptions appear as
lines on the shell, giving a visible
record of an adult's life history.
RAZOR CLAM
... PHYLUM
~ Mollusca
... CLASS
~ Bivalvia
GROUP 6: PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
FAMILY
Solenidae
GENERA
Ensis, Solen, Siliqua, etc.
Razor clams are familiar mollusks that are often found on
sandy beaches. But the empty shells on the beach do not reveal
how these animals have adapted to shore life.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Up to 10 in.
Width: Up to 1 in .
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Stays in one place, burrow-
ing into beach sand.
Diet: Food particles that are fil-
tered from seawater.
lifespan: Up to 10 years.
BREEDING
Breeding season: Spring.
Eggs: Huge numbers released into
water along with sperm and fertil-
ized externally.
Larvae: Planktonic, drifting to new
sites to settle.
RELATED SPECIES
Of the 100 or so species in the
family Solenidae, 13 are found in
North America. These include the
Atlantic razor clam, Siliqua cos to to;
the Pacific razor clam, S. patula;
and the rosy jackknife clam, Solen
rosaceus.
Range of razor clams.
DISTRIBUTION
Razor clams are found in shallow coastal waters in all temper-
ate and tropical seas.
CONSERVATION
like all beach-dwelling animals, razor clams are vulnerable to
shore pollution. Because they live near the tide line, they are
not greatly affected by the summer crowds that swarm over
many beaches.
THREE SPECIES OF RAZOR CLAM
Curved razor
clam
Pod razor clam
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Grooves: As a
razor clam
grows to full
size, distinct
ridges appear
on its shell
-one for
each year of
the clam's life.
ligament mus-
cle: Holds the 2
halves of the
shell together.
Even when the
animal is dead,
the shell remains
hinged by this
strong muscle.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Siphon tubes:
One draws wa-
ter in, while the
other expels
water, with
the waste it
carries.
Gills: Absorb
oxygen from the
water drawn in
through the
siphon.
Foot: Very strong.
Pulls the body down
into the sand.
0160200871 PACKET 87
When they are alive, razor clams are invisible inhabitants
of sandy beaches that survive by taking in seawater and
filtering it for morsels of food. These primitive animals are
burrowers. They are equipped with powerful muscles
and streamlined shells that enable them to disappear
underneath dense, wet sand in the blink of an eye.
~ HABITS
A razor clam spends most of its
life buried in the sand below the
low tidemark, out of sight of its
enemies. When the tide is in, it
generally lies vertically with the
top end of its shell just project-
ing out of the sand. Two short,
snorkel-like siphon tubes pro-
trude to draw in water, which
contains all the food and oxy-
gen the animal needs.
A razor clam rarely moves. But
if a very low tide exposes its bur-
row, it withdraws as much as
a foot and a half below the sur-
face and waits for the next tide.
If suddenly threatened, a razor
clam can move extremely fast. It
thrusts its long, muscular foot
deep into the sand, inflating the
foot with blood to anchor it. The
razor clam then pulls itself down.
The effort may send a spout of
water three feet or more into
the air. In seconds the animal is
out of reach of predators.
DID YOU KNOW?
In Ireland and Orkney, peo-
ple catch razor clams for food,
forcing them to the surface by
pouring salt in their siphon
tubes. Anglers sometimes use
them as bait for cod and bass.
I A razor clam is able to live in
muddy sand that contains no
~ BREEDING
Razor clams rely on currents to
bring about the fertilization of
their eggs and to disperse their
young. All razor clams in one
area spawn at about the same
time in early spring, producing
very large numbers of eggs and
sperm. These mingle, and those
that fuse together grow into lar-
vae that float with plankton.
The larvae are vulnerable to
fish, sea anemones, and filter-
feeding mollusks that consume
plankton. Surviving larvae may
drift a long way before settling
on a sandy beach and develop-
ing into adults.
Left: Cold weather may kill razor
clams, leaving their empty shells
scattered on the shore.
Right: A razor clam's two siphon
tubes are occasionally exposed at
low tide.
oxygen, breathing through its
siphon tube. The bacteria that
blacken the sand also turn the
razor clam black.
Razor clams have extremely
sharp edges and are named I
for their resemblance to old-
fashioned razors.
[ :J NATUREWATCH
You are unlikely to see a live
razor clam on the beach since
it burrows down if a low tide
exposes it. You may see one
feeding at the water's edge,
ejecting a fountain of waste
water. If you attempt to ex-
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
The shallow coastal waters teem
with food particles, from decay-
ing fragments of dead animals
and plants to floating eggs and
larvae. All a razor clam has to do
is strain a meal out of the water.
The animal draws water into
its body through one of its two
siphon tubes. It forces the water
through a sievelike gill network.
Left: A razor clam's long shape
and muscular foot enable it to bur-
row easily in sand.
tract it, it will dig down, some-
times spouting water as it goes.
Empty shells are very easy to
find higher up on the beach.
Notice the growth rings and J
the strong, supple ligament
that hinges the two halves.
The blood-flushed gills absorb
oxygen from the water and get
rid of carbon dioxide. The gills'
cilia (minute, hairlike structures)
trap food particles, smothering
them with mucus. This food is
carried on a sticky conveyor belt
to the stomach.
After digesting any edible ma-
terial, a razor clam expels shell
fragments, silt, and other debris
back into the sea through its
second siphon.
EUROPEAN LOBSTER
___ PRIMITIVE ANIMALS
PHYLUM
Crustacea
CLASS
Malacostraca
ORDER
'11IIIIIIII Oecapoda
GENUS & SPECIES
Homarus vulgaris
Protected by its hard shell, the European lobster scavenges
on the seabed. It uses its large, powerful claws to crush
the shells of dead crustaceans, including other lobsters.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Up to 20 in.
Weight: Normally up to 10 lb. In
unusual cases, may weigh as much
as 151b.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 5-6 years.
Breeding season: Summer.
No. of eggs: Up to 150,000.
Gestation period: 9-1 2 months.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary; active at night.
Diet: Dead crabs, snails, and other
crustaceans. Also some live prey,
including fish.
Lifespan: Up to 20 years.
RELATED SPECIES
Close relatives include the north-
ern lobster, Homarus american us,
found in the Atlantic off the coasts
of Canada and New England, and
the rock lobster, Palinurus interrup-
tus, of the Pacific Coast.
Range of the European lobster.
DISTRIBUTION
The European lobster is found in the coastal waters of most of
Europe and North and West Africa, including the Atlantic Ocean,
Mediterranean Sea, and North Sea.
CONSERVATION
A popular delicacy, the European lobster is trapped in large
numbers for food. Although it is not as common as it once
was, it does not seem to be in danger.
FEATURES .OF THE EUROPEAN LOBSTER
Structure: The body has 19 parts, each covered by a
section of shell. The shell is thin and soft where the
parts join, enabling the lobster to bend and move.
Sensors: The legs,
antennae, and shell
are covered with
millions of tiny, hair-
like sensors. These
detect chemicals in
the water and help
the lobster find food.
limbs: Of the 5 jointed pairs, 4 are used
for walking. The large fifth pair (the pin-
cers) are used to kill and handle food.
o
o
<0
a..
if)
::J
lE
W
...J
u:::
I-
o
it
w
LL
::i
o
...J
:;;
o

a..
2

co
a..

'>
o
X
2
o
2
@
The European lobster is one of the largest
of the world's 35,000 species of crustaceans. It is
certainly the biggest crustacean found in Europe.
Because of its rich and tasty flesh, this lobster has been
hunted for many centuries. Yet it is still found living
in substantial numbers throughout most of the coastal
waters of Europe as well as North and West Africa.
~ CHARACTERISTICS
By day the European lobster
hides in a cave or crevice on the
seabed, with only its long an-
tennae and powerful claws pro-
truding. If it cannot find shelter,
it digs a burrow under a rock.
At night the lobster emerges
to forage on the seabed. It walks
slowly on four pairs of legs and
holds out its front claws to bal-
ance its heavy tail. If danger
threatens, it flicks its tail under
its body and drives itself back-
ward through the water to safety.
The lobster's heavy shell acts
as armor against attack. But it
has a major disadvantage--
once the shell hardens, it does
not stretch. The only way the
lobster can grow is to burst out
of its shell, discard it, and devel-
op a new one.
By the time the lobster starts
to feel pinched, it has already
grown a soft, new shell inside
the old one. At the right mo-
ment it retreats to a safe place
and draws water into its body,
pumping itself up to pry the old
shell apart. The pressure splits
the shell along a special line of
weakness. The lobster then
crawls out and waits for the
new shell to harden.
~ BREEDING
The female lobster first mates in
the summer when she is five or
six years old. She initially pro-
duces a few thousand eggs, but
in later years she may lay up to
150,000. After the eggs are fer-
tilized by the male, the female
does not release them into the
water. Instead, she carries them
with her, clasped under her tail.
The eggs take 9 to 12 months
to hatch, depending on the wa-
ter temperature. The shrimplike
larvae that emerge look very dif-
Left: When first exposed, the new
shell is soft, leaving the lobster vul-
nerable to attack.
DID YOU KNOW?
There are fossilized remains
of lobsters dating from 200
million years ago.
If one of a lobster's limbs is
seized, it may snap off to en-
able the lobster to get away.
Another limb eventually grows
to replace it.
The lobster's compound eyes
are made up of hundreds of
ferent from their parents. For
about three weeks, the larvae
live near the surface of the wa-
ter, feeding on floating microor-
ganisms and drifting with the
currents to new areas.
At this stage many larvae are
eaten by plankton-feeding fish.
The survivors settle on the sea-
bed, where they molt (shed
their coverings) several times
while developing into small
adults. They grow slowly and
steadily for the rest of their lives.
Right: To avoid predatory fish, the
lobster retreats into its shelter, with
its claws held out in defense.
tiny mirrors that reflect light
onto receptor cells to form
an image.
When a lobster sheds its shell,
it often eats some of the old
shell to recycle the materials
in it.
The male European lobster
is called the cock, and the fe-
male is called the hen.
r ~ . ; . ~ NATUREWATCH
The European lobster is abun-
dant off the Atlantic coasts of
westem Europe. It rarely comes
ashore, but may get caught in
a tidal pool. Usually, however,
lobsters live well below the low
tidemark. The best way to see
a live lobster is to watch lob-
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
Despite the fierce look of its pin-
cers (claws), the European lob-
ster is primarily a scavenger. It
creeps across the seabed at
night, testing the water with its
long antennae and sniffing its
way toward decomposing flesh.
Dead and dying animals pro-
vide easy food, but sometimes
the European lobster attacks live
prey, such as mollusks, crabs,
and fish. It may even eat anoth-
er lobster.
To facilitate feeding, each of
Left: The lobster's formidable pin-
cers are its main weapons for at-
tack and defense.
ster boats being unloaded.
A live lobster is not red-its
shell turns red only when it
is cooked. It is important not
to handle a live lobster of any
kind because, even when it is
out of water, it can hurt a per-
son with its pincers.
the lobster's two massive front
pincers is adapted for different
tasks. The larger left pincer has
several substantial teeth and is
used to crush shell or bone. The
smaller, more finely toothed claw
seizes prey and functions like
shears, cutting flesh into man-
ageable chunks.
The lobster's mouthparts con-
sist of a pair of jawlike mandi-
bles and three pairs of maxillipeds,
highly modified limbs that shred
food into tiny pieces for swal-
lowing. The food is ground up
even more in the lobster's giz-
zard for easy digestion.
SEA SLUG
PHYLUM
Mollusca
CLASS
Gastropoda
,. ORDER
"'IIIIIIII Nudibranchia
Sea slugs are among the most beautiful of all invertebrates. But
these dazzling marine creatures have much in common with the
drab, slimy terrestrial species that badly damage gardens.
SIZE
Length: Up to 1 ft.
BREEDING
Mating: Sea slugs cross-fertilize
in shallow water.
Breeding season: Usually summer.
No. of eggs: Tens or hundreds
of thousands, embedded in rib-
bons of jelly.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Some adults can swim;
others glide across the seabed.
Larvae drift on currents.
Diet: Some species eat flesh such
as sponges, jellyfish, and anemones.
Others eat various seaweeds.
lifespan: 1-2 years.
RELATED SPECIES
The sea butterflies, Thecosomata
and Gymnosomata; sea hares,
Anaspidea; and bubble shells,
Cepha/aspidea, are among the
many varied species of sea slugs.
FEATURES OF SEA SLUGS
Skin: Often covered
with warts and brightly
colored to camouflage
the slug or warn off
predators.
'"
~ ."
. ..
Cerata: Branched
outgrowths. Often
numerous, they
cover the slug to
give it a furry
appearance.
Contain branches
of the intestine
and store defen-
sive stinging cells
near the tips to
fire at an attacker.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Range of sea slugs.
DISTRIBUTION
The many species of sea slug are found throughout the seas
and oceans of the world, generally in relatively shallow water.
CONSERVATION
Although sea slugs are threatened by pollution and marine de-
velopment, they are not exploited by humans. Sea slugs repro-
duce in such quantities that numbers remain constant.
Dorid
sea slug
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Gills: A ring of 9
or more retractable
plumes around the
anus. The animal
breathes through
its gills.
Tentacles: Usually 2
or more pairs,
known as
rhinopores. They
pick up chemical
signals emitted by
nearby prey.
0160200621 PACKET 62
Most species of sea slug can perform a remarkable
trick. They can feed on toxic animals and take in their
poison cells. In this way sea slugs are able to repel their
own enemies by using the weapons of other creatures.
Sea slugs also keep predators away with acid and
with dazzling displays of glowing color.
CHARACTERISTICS
Sea slugs look like underwater
flowers, but they are essentially
similar to their garden slug rel-
atives. Both have lost the shells
that characterize other mol-
lusks. Both are gastropods, a
word that means "stomach
foot" and refers to the slimy
soles of garden slugs.
Some sea slugs glide like gar-
den slugs over seaweed and
rocks. Others are agile swim-
mers, propelled by muscular
flaps on their flanks. Still oth-
ers live on the water's surface,
hanging upside down from it.
While garden slugs breathe
air through a simple lung, sea
Right: Some sea slug species may
mimic both the color and form of
certain seaweeds.
slugs get oxygen from the wa-
ter. Some species absorb oxy-
gen straight through their skin.
Others breathe through feath-
ery gills that sprout from their
bodies. This is the origin of their
scientific name, Nudibranchia,
meaning "exposed gills."
Right: A sea slug's jaws consist of
two plates that rub together to
crush prey.

Like most mollusks, sea slugs
possess both male and female
sex organs. Most species cross-
fertilize, migrating to shallow
waters in summer to exchange
sperm and lay eggs. The eggs
are produced in vast quantities
-300,000 at a time-and em-
bedded in a long ribbon of jelly.
The young hatch as tiny veli-
ger larvae, which float among
Left: Disruptive coloring breaks up
a sea slug's shape, making it less
visible to predators.
DID YOU KNOW?
The soft bodies of some
sea slugs are reinforced with
needles of calcium carbonate
that act like skeletons. Other
mollusks use calcium carbon-
ate to build their shells.
The floating sea slug, Glau-
cus atlanticus, attacks the Por-
the microscopic plants and ani-
mals known as plankton. Each
larva has two winglike lobes of
tissue covered with tiny, beat-
ing hairs called cilia that drive
it through the water and trap
food. After drifting for several
weeks, the larva absorbs its
"wings" and sinks to the bot-
tom, where it changes into a
miniature adult sea slug.
Right: Sea slugs congregate to
mate in summer, when they
exchange eggs and sperm cells.
tuguese man-of-war, immune
to the poison that paralyzes
other creatures in seconds.
One group of sea slugs has
broad, winglike lobes on each
side. Since they use these to
"fly" through the water, they
are known as sea butterflies.
l
SPECIAL ADAPTATION
Some sea slugs feed on corals
that harbor ti ny plants, which
use sunlight to convert water
and carbon dioxide into food.
When a slug eats the coral, it
also ingests these plants, keep-
ing them alive and transfer-
DEFENSES
Some sea slug species, known
as aeolids, have long, brightly
colored projections called cera-
to. The tips of these cerata are
loaded with stinging cells. When
fired at an attacker, the stinging
cells enter the body through the
skin pores. A sea slug does not
generate these cells. They origi-
nate in toxic corals, hydroids,
and anemones. When a slug
FOOD &: FEEDING
Some sea slugs eat plants, some
attack animals (including other
sea slugs), and some scavenge
for debris and bacteria. Most
sea slugs graze on the mats of
animals and plants that encrust
submerged rocks.
The mouthparts of different
ring them to its long, flat cer-
ata (see Defenses below). The
slug t urns its cerata to catch
the sunlight, so t hat the plants
can manufacture food. The
slug then absorbs most of this
food into its own system. ---1
preys on these creatures, it di-
gests the body tissues but saves
the stinging cells in working or-
der. The cells accumulate in the
tips of the cerata, where they
are stored for defense.
Other sea slug species defend
themselves by squirting acid at
attackers. The dazzling colors of
many sea slugs also act as a de-
fense, warning off predators.
sea slug species vary. Many spe-
cies remove prey from a rock
using a filelike, toothed tongue
called a radula. Other species
have bladelike teeth for cutting
softer prey. Still others lack teeth
and have mouths that can suck
out creatures like barnacles.