"' CARD 31

PUFF ADDER
The puff adder is one of A f r i c a ~ most feared venomous snakes.
When threatened, this thickset viper puffs itself up and hisses
loudly before it strikes and possibly kills its attacker.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
Length: 2-5 ft.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: About 2 years.
Breeding season: October to
December.
No. of young: 20-30. May be
more than 50.
Incubation: About 5 months. Eggs
usually hatch inside the female.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary; mainly nocturnal.
Diet: Various small mammals,
birds, amphibians, and reptiles.
Lifespan: Maximum on record, 15
years in captivity.
RELATED SPECIES
There are 8 species in the genus
Bitis. The longest is the Gaboon
viper, Bitis gabonica, and the short-
est is the dwarf viper, B. peringueyi.
Range of the puff adder.
DISTRIBUTION
The puff adder is found throughout most of the African conti-
nent. It lives everywhere except at heights of over 6,500 feet,
in the rainforest interior, and in the most arid deserts. Its range
extends into the Arab peninsula.
CONSERVATION
Although it is hunted by other predators, and it is feared by
humans, the puff adder is not in any immediate danger.
FEATURES OF THE PUFF ADDER
Head: Broad, flattened, and spear-
shaped. Distinct from the rest
of the body. Contains large
jaw muscles and
venom-producing
glands.
Fangs: Sharp, .
hollow tubes
through which
venom passes
into the victim's
body. When not
in use, the fangs
fold back inside
the mouth.
,-
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Skin: Covered with rough scales that
dull the snake's colors. The colors
vary depending on habitat, but most
snakes are marked with V-shaped
bands. The female is more brightly
colored than the male.
Body: Thickset. Its belly is flat, and
its sides slope down in a triangular
shape. Its tail is easily distinguished.
The male is smaller than the female.
0160200611 PACKET 61
The puff adder's coloring varies to match
the sand or soil of its habitat. This camouflage helps
the snake to hide from predators and to ambush its prey
successfully. On the other hand, this excellent adaptation
makes the snake difficult for humans to notice. Many
people have been bitten and seriously poisoned after
treading on a well-camouflaged puff adder.

The puff adder is widely distrib-
uted throughout most of Africa.
It lives in a variety of habitats,
from deserts to tropical forests.
It may stray onto farmland and
prey on chickens and on the rats
it finds in grain storage areas.
The puff adder is usually about
three feet long with a thick body
and broad head. As it moves for-
ward, it keeps its body straight,
contracting muscles on its belly
to push its rough scales against
the ground. This is known as
rectilinear movement.
The puff adder is active mainly
at night when it feeds. During
the day it may climb into a shrub
to bask in the sun, especially if it
is pregnant. The snake may go
into water and at night often
lies on tarred roads that retain
heat from the sun.
The adder may be attacked by
birds of prey, mongooses, wart-
hogs, and other snakes. When
disturbed, the snake inflates it-
self and hisses. If necessary, it
raises the front of its body into
an S shape and lunges.

The puff adder breeds between
October and December. The
male snake engages in "com-
bat dances" with other males
to win the right to mate with a
particular female. When mat-
ing, he curls his tail beneath
the female's and inserts his sex
organs into a cavity at the end
of her body called the cloaca.
Fertilized eggs remain inside
the female until March or April.
The eggs are thin and often
tear as they are being laid, so
the young snakes have usually
hatched by the time they leave
the mother's body. Snakes that
Left: The puff adder transfers scent
from its tongue to the Jacobson's
organ, a scent organ in its mouth.
DID YOU KNOW?
The puff adder causes over
half of the serious snake bites
inflicted on humans in Africa.
The puff adder produces 100
to 350 milligrams of venom.
Just 100 milligrams is enough
to kill a human.
The puff adder stores a great
deal of body fat. Local doctors
collect the fat and use it as a
give birth to live young in this
way are called ovoviviparous.
Usually 20 to 30 young are
born at once, although births
of over 80 snakes have been re-
corded. The young are about
eight inches long and can im-
mediately kill small animals
such as mice and rats. At first,
however, the young usually do
not hunt. Instead, they molt
(shed their skin) and feed off
the yolk sac with which they
are born. During this time they
grow longer and wider. By the
age of two, the puff adder is
sexually mature.
Right: The puff adder is solitary.
The male and female do not stay
together after mating.
treatment for rheumatism.
In 1964 the director of the
Salt Lake City Zoo died from
a puff adder bite.
There is a deep pit above the
puff adder's nostrils, but its pur-
pose remains a mystery.
The Cape puff adder sub-
species lives only in a small
mountain area in South Africa.
DEFENSES
The puff adder's variable color-
ation is a vital adaptation to its
environment. Desert-dwelling
adders are light yellowish brown
with dark brown, pale-edged
chevrons (V-shaped bands). In
tropical forests puff adders are
dark brown with brown and
olive patterns that offer camou-
flage in the leaf debris.
FOOD & FEEDING
The puff adder preys mainly on
small mammals, but it also at-
tacks birds, amphibians, and
lizards. Camouflaged by its col-
oring, the snake may remain
motionless for several hours,
waiting for prey to come with-
in striking distance.
The puff adder does not need
to use its venom on small prey
such as frogs, which it can seize
in its jaws and swallow alive. It
Left: The puff adder's fangs fold
back on elastic hinges to allow
prey to be swallowed.
If it is discovered by a preda-
tor, the adder hisses loudly and
backs away. If this defense fails,
the snake strikes. A potent ven-
om is pumped from glands in
its head, through its fangs, into
the victim's body. The area near
the bite burns, swells, and blis-
ters. Fatal heart or kidney failure
usually follows.
bites larger prey with its fangs
and injects them with deadly
venom. The venom takes time
to affect its victim, so the ani-
mal may flee before dying. The
puff adder then follows the trail,
finds the corpse, and eats it.
When eating, the puff adder
seizes its prey with the teeth in
its lower jaw and swallows the
animal whole. It keeps its head
up, while muscular movements
carry the food down to its stom-
ach. A long period of rest and
digestion follows.
'" CARD 32
SLOWWORM
____________________ G __ RO_U_P __ 3:_R_E_P_TI_l _ES_& __
ORDER FAMILY GENUS &; SPECIES
Squamata Anguidae Anguis fragi/is
The slowworm may look like a snake, but it is really a lizard
without any legs. If it is alarmed, it may shed its tail
in order to distract an attacker.
'\l KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: 11-12 in. at maturity,
but may continue growing to a
maximum of 20 in.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: Male, 3 years.
Female, 4-5 years.
Mating season: Spring.
Gestation: From 4 months to
nearly a year, depending on
temperature.
No. of young: 6-12, occasionally
up to 20.
LIFESTYLE
Range of the slowworm.
DISTRIBUTION Habit: Solitary in summer. Often
hibernates in groups.
Diet: Mainly slugs, snails, earth-
worms; also insects and spiders.
The slowworm is found throughout mainland Europe,
southern Scandinavia, Great Britain, and southwest Asia.
CONSERVATION
RELATED SPECIES
The many snakelike lizards in the
family Anguidae include the large
European glass lizard and the
California legless lizard.
Although it is occasionally killed by people who think it is a
venomous snake, the slowworm is still common wherever its
habitat has remained intact.
HOW TO TELL A SLOWWORM FROM A SNAKE
The slowworm is a limbless lizard,
not a snake. Here are some ways that
snakes differ from slowworms.
Tongue:$nakes
have long forked
tongues (above) .
Siowworms
have notched
tongues.
Scales:
Snakes have
rough scales
(right). Slow-
worms have
smooth scales.
Eyes: Snakes
have lidless eyes __
that cannot be
closed (right).
Siowworms have
eyelids and are
able to blink.
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When in danger, the slowworm can
rupture special bones and shed its
tail. Muscles and blood vessels
also part to make a clean break.
The new tail is made of cartilage.
It is shorter and contains no
special bones, so the shedding
action cannot be repeated.
0160200461 PACKET 46
The slowworm is one of several legless burrowing
lizards that are found in different parts of the world.
This elongated creature both looks and moves like
a snake, wriggling its highly polished muscular body
through soil and vegetation. Although it cannot
be said to move quickly, the slowworm is not
as lethargic as its name suggests.
The slowworm relies on the
sun's heat to raise its body tem-
perature until its muscles and
internal organs work efficiently.
It hibernates in winter, when
the sun is weak and there is lit-
tle food. Up to 30 slowworms
may hibernate together in a
burrow or under a rock, lying
dormant until spring's warmth
penetrates their retreat.
DID YOU KNOW?
One captive slowworm
lived for 54 years.
A mature male slow-
worm may have so many
bright blue spots that it
looks blue all over.
The slowworm's skin is
embedded with bony
plates, forming an outer
shell that reinforces the
bones within.
FOOD & HUNTING
The slowworm prefers to hunt
easy prey such as slugs, snails,
and earthworms, but it occa-
sionally takes insects and spi-
ders. It is often welcomed by
gardeners because it eats the
small white slugs that cause
damage to vegetables.
The slowworm is most active
at twilight or after a rainfall,
Left: The slow-
worm's skin is
not slimy. The
scales are dry
and as smooth
as polished
metal.
Right: The
slowworm usu-
ally seizes prey
by the middle
of the body.
Here it bears
down on a net-
tled slug.

The slowworm mates soon after
it emerges from hibernation in
April or May. The males com-
pete for mates, seizing each
other by the head or neck,
entwining their bodies, and
writhing over the ground. The
act of mating looks similar but is
less violent and damaging.
The pregnant female spends
many hours in the summer sun,
raising her body temperature to
between 70 and 7l F to speed
the development of her young.
If the summer is warm, the
young may be born in late
August, but cool weather will
when slugs and earthworms
are most numerous. Gliding up
on its polished scales, it seizes
its victim in its small mouth
and slowly eats it. Unlike a
snake, it cannot stretch its
mouth around large prey, so
anything larger than a small
slug must be chewed thor-
oughly before it is swallowed.
delay the birth until October or
even the next spring.
The slowworm is ovoviviparous
-the female produces eggs
without shells that hatch inside
her body. The six to twelve
young are very active and can
feed themselves almost imme-
diately at birth, but they take
several years to grow to their
full size. The young are yellow
on top and black on the bot-
tom, with a dark stripe down
the back. Upon reaching adult-
hood they turn brown or sandy
gray. The female's flanks and
underside are darker.
DEFENSES
Frogs and toads prey on young
slowworms, and adults may be
attacked by snakes, hedgehogs,
foxes, and birds of prey.
If threatened, a slowworm
tries to escape. But if necessary,
it resorts to an extraordinary de-
fense tactic-it snaps in two.
The tail bones nearest the
body have weak areas that let
the bones snap cleanly and eas-
ily. If alarmed, the slowworm
ruptures the bones, and a por-
tion of the tail is thrown off. For
a few minutes the severed tail
writhes convulsively, distracting
the predator while its former
owner escapes.
The stump heals quickly, and
a new, shorter tail grows. The
tail bones are not replaced and
the new tail is made of carti-
lage, so the slowworm cannot
shed its tail again.
[g NATUREWATCH I
The slowworm basks in full
sun in spring but takes shel-
ter from direct heat later in
the year. It can often be
found in compost heaps or
piles of twigs. To the touch,
the slowworm is dry with
a glassy feel. If alarmed, it
may shed its tail, reducing
its future chances of survival.

NORTH AMERICAN

... CLASS ... ORDER FAMILY '" GENUS
'11IIIIIIII Amphibia '11IIIIIIII Salientia Hylidae '11IIIIIIII Hyla
North American treefrogs are a varied and colorful assortment
of amphibians. They are known for their loud calls and can be
easily recognized by their enlarged, adhesive toe pads.
'S:J---'S..EY FACTS
SIZE
Length: in., depending on the
species .
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 1 year.
Mating season: Varies in different
parts of the country.
No. of eggs: Several hundred to
2,000, depending on the species.
Hatching time: 2-10 days, depend-
ing on the species.
Metamorphosis: 1-2 months.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary except in the mating
season, when large numbers congre-
gate in ponds and marshes.
Diet: Small insects and spiders.
RELATED SPECIES
There are 600 members of the family
Hylidae in the world and 14 species
of Hyla in North America. Cricket
frogs (genus Acris) and chorus frogs
(Pseudacris) are other North Ameri-
can members of this family.
Range of North American treefrogs.
DISTRIBUTION
Found from southwestern Canada and the Maritime Provinces
south to western Mexico and the Gulf Coast but absent from
the Great Plains.
CONSERVATION
Most North American treefrogs are still common in their ranges,
but they suffer from pesticides and habitat destruction, especial-
ly of wetlands. The pine barrens treefrog is a threatened species.
FEATURES OF NORTH AMERICAN TREEFROGS
Spring peeper, Hyla crucifer:
Distinguished by its small
size, tan colori ng, and the
dark X-shape ...A ....
on its back. Throat pouch: This
organ is inflated by
the male to produce
a sound that attracts
a female.
Green treefrog, Hyla
cinerea: Colored bright
green, usually with a
white stripe running
down its side.
Gray treefrog, Hyla versicolor:
Easily identified by its mottled
coloring with dark blotches on
a predominantly greenish or
grayish background.
Toe pads: The swollen tips
of its toes enable a treefrog
to cling to vertical su rfaces.
Ic MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A. 0160200911 PACKET 91
North American treefrogs use their adhesive toe pads
to climb through foliage in search of insects. For most of
the year these small, well-camouflaged amphibians are
hidden in the woods and are rarely seen. But during the
mating season, large numbers gather near water.
~ HABITS
There are treefrogs on almost
every continent. The 14 species
in North America range in size
from the Cuban treefrog, which
is more than five inches long,
to the half-inch little grass frog.
The calls of some treefrogs,
such as that of the well-named
spring peeper in the East, are
recognized as one of the first
signs of spring. The Pacific tree-
frog, which is abundant in the
hills around Hollywood, has be-
come known for its loud, two-
part musical call . Its voice can
be heard on the soundtracks of
many movies.
Outside the breeding season,
most treefrogs are nocturnal,
forest-dwelling hunters of small
insects. To protect themselves
from drying out in hot summer
weather, some treefrogs coat
themselves with a layer of mu-
cus that seals in the moisture in
their bodies. In winter, many
species hibernate.
Above: The Pacific treefrog may be
green, tan, or black. It is the most
common treefrog on the West Coast.
I' >i1t.J NATUREWATCH
North American treefrogs,
such as the tiny spring peep-
er, are most often seen dur-
ing the mating season, when
males and females emerge
from the woods to mate
and lay eggs in ponds and
marshes. At other times of
year, these frogs are secre-
tive woodland creatures. But
the males' distinctive calls
may sometimes be heard in
warm months outside the
mating season-especially
during a shower or immedi-
ately after one.
~ BREEDING
North American treefrogs spend
most of the warm months h u n t ~
ing insects in woodlands. How-
ever, once a year, usually in the
spring, huge numbers gather
in weedy ponds and marshes
to mate and lay eggs.
The male of each species has
a distinctive call, enabling the
females of that species to rec-
ognize him. When a female
appears, the male grasps her
just behind her front legs and
fertilizes the clusters of eggs as
she lays them. Most species lay
several hundred eggs, but a
few lay up to 2,000.
The eggs hatch in two to ten
days, depending on the species
and on the temperature of the
water. A tiny tadpole emerges
from each egg. In one to two
months, the tadpole metamor-
phoses, changing into a small
version of the adult. The young
frog hops into the woodlands
nearby and does not reappear
until the next breeding season.
DID YOU KNOW?
The spring peeper's species
name is crucifer, which means
"cross-bearer." It refers to the
cross on this tiny frog's back.
It has recently been discov-
ered that the gray treefrog is
not a single species, but rather
two outwardly identical spe-
cies that differ genetically. The
rate at which they call is also
different. Scientists have not
yet determined the ranges of
these two frogs.
The pine barrens treefrog is
the rarest treefrog in North
America. It lives in only a few
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
North American treefrogs feed
on a variety of insects such as
flies, leafhoppers, and beetles.
As their name implies, treefrogs
hunt mostly in trees or bushes,
Left: The spring peeper is named
for the high-pitched peeping sound
it produces in the spring.
Left: The male
gray treefrog is
often heard ut-
tering its loud,
shrill trill from
the trees. But,
because of its
mottled color-
ing, the frog
itself is usually
difficult to see.
The skin of the
gray treefrog is
wartier than
that of most
other treefrogs.
sandy areas with pines from
New Jersey to the Carolinas.
The bird-voiced treefrog is
a common southern species,
with toxic skin secretions that
can cause watery eyes and
nasal congestion in people
who handle it.
Most treefrogs are solitary
nocturnal hunters. But the
squirrel treefrog, which lives
in the Southeast, frequently
spends the day in a tightly
packed cluster. The group's
members conserve moisture
by huddling together.
employing their sticky toe pads
to cling to the leaves.
Like all other frogs, a treefrog
catches its insect prey by quick-
ly shooting out its tongue. The
instant an insect sticks to the
tongue, the treefrog pulls the
tongue back in .
BUSHMASTER
CLASS
Reptilia
ORDER
Squamata
GROUP 3: REPTILES &: AMPHIBIANS
FAMILY
Crotalidae
~ GENUS &: SPECIES
~ Lachesis muta
The bushmaster is the largest venomous snake in the Americas.
But despite its great size, it is rarely seen in the dense
vegetation of its rainforest habitat.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Average, 8-10 ft. Maxi-
mum, 12 ft.
Weight: 6-11 lb.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 2 years.
Breeding season: Probably spring.
Eggs: About 10; white.
Hatching time: 9 weeks.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary. Conceals itself by
day; hunts by night.
Diet: Mainly small mammals.
Lifespan: 20 years or more.
RELATED SPECIES
The family Crotalidae includes
rattlesnakes, moccasins, and sev-
eral species of fer-de-lance. Most
crotalids are found in the Americas,
but some inhabit the Old World.
Range of the bushmaster.
DISTRIBUTION
Found in tropical rainforests in Central America and northern
parts of South America from Costa Rica to Brazil. Also occurs on
the island of Trinidad.
CONSERVATION
Because of the bushmaster's habitat and lifestyle, precise popu-
lation figures are not known. But it can be assumed that it is
suffering from the destruction of the rainforests.
FEATURES OF THE BUSHMASTER
CARING FOR THE EGGS
Body: Slender, long (up to 10 feet),
and almost triangular in cross sec-
tion. The skin is covered in rough
scales with knobby protrusions.
Coloring: Pale or pinkish tan with
distinctive dark brown diamond-
shaped pattern along the back.
This provides camouflage among
the dead leaves of the forest floor.
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Head: Large and wedge-shaped,
tapering toward the front. Cov-
ered with small , irregularly
shaped scales.
Eyes: Large
vertical pupils
give good night-
time vision.
PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Laying: The female lays about
10 large white eggs in a hol-
low in the ground. The eggs
are larger than a hen's eggs.
Incubating: Unlike most other
snakes, the female bushmas-
ter guards the eggs by coiling
her body around them until
they are ready to hatch.
0160200571 PACKET 57
The bushmaster is one of a group of snakes
known as pit vipers. Like all of these snakes, the
bushmaster is equipped with special organs that detect
another animal's body heat, alerting the snake to passing
prey in the nighttime darkness of the forest. Once it has
located its victim, the bushmaster bends the front part of its
body into an 5 shape to make a lightning strike.
~ HABITS
The bushmaster lives in tropi-
cal rainforests or in forests on
the lower slopes of mountains,
where there is a minimum
rainfall of 79 to 158 inches a
year. The humid, dense jungles
of South America provide the
bushmaster with an ideal hab-
itat, since it needs a warm,
moist climate and prefers to
avoid direct sunlight.
The shy bushmaster avoids
contact with humans. During
the day it hides in dense under-
growth, where it is well cam-
ouflaged against the dead
leaves on the forest floor. It
emerges from cover only at
night to search for prey.
Like most venomous crea-
tures, the bushmaster uses its
toxin only to kill prey. It de-
fends itself by biting only in
extreme cases, preferring to
scare away its enemies rather
than waste its precious venom.
To deter predators, the bush-
master thrashes its tail against
vegetation. The hard, hollow
tail tip produces a warning
sound like that of a rattlesnake.
Right: The markings on the bush-
master's skin enable it to blend in
with dead foliage.
~ BREEDI NG
The normally solitary bushmas-
ter relies on a powerful scent to
track down a mate. The male
snake approaches the female,
stroking her chin with his head.
If she responds, the two snakes
entwine their bodies in an elabo-
rate courtship ritual before finally
mating.
The female lays about 1 0 large
white eggs in a shallow hole in
the ground and covers them
with damp earth to keep them
Left: The bushmaster is the largest
venomous snake in the Western
Hemispheres.
Deprived of its senses of
sight and smell in an experi-
ment, a bushmaster was still
able to strike its prey.
There are only 25 recorded
cases of bushmasters biting
humans. Five of these bites
were fatal.
According to a South Amer-
ican legend, the bushmaster
at the right temperature. She
coils her body around the eggs
to protect them until they hatch.
After about nine weeks the
young snakes break out of the
eggs, using a special egg tooth
that grows on the upper jaw
and drops off shortly after hatch-
ing. The fully developed young
can fend for themselves as soon
as they hatch. But they do not
reach sexual maturity until they
are at least two years old.
Right: The bushmaster is the only
pit viper that lays eggs. Other pit
vipers bear live young.
can put out fires. Different
legends tell of fully grown
snakes that suckled from
cows and sleeping women.
The bushmaster is called
"pineapple snake" because
of its rough, knobby skin.
Captive bushmasters do
not adapt well because they
refuse to eat.
~ FOOD &: HUNTING
The bushmaster feeds mainly
on rodents of various sizes. It
hunts at night, lying motion-
less in the undergrowth wait-
ing for an unsuspecting animal
to pass by.
Like all pit vipers, the bushmas-
ter has two pit organs located
between the nostrils and the
eyes. It is thought that these
organs act as sensory devices,
responding to the heat given
off by other animals. The bush-
master uses its pit organs to de-
tect prey. Once it has located its
victim, the snake can strike. It
sinks its long, tubular fangs into
Left: The bush-
master has two
special pit or-
gans that can
sense the body
heat of other
animals. With
these organs
and its sensitive
eyes, the bush-
master can de-
tect prey from
a distance of
20 inches.
the animal's body and injects
a large quantity of venom into
its bloodstream. This venom at-
tacks the blood vessels, causing
a massive heart attack.
With its specially hinged jaws,
the bushmaster can open its
mouth wide enough to swallow
prey whole. The muscles of the
esophagus (throat) slowly move
the dead animal into the bush-
master's body, and powerful
juices in the stomach immedi-
ately begin to digest the prey.
The bones and hair are either
digested or passed out in the
feces later.
"" CARD 35
SPECTACLED CAIMAN
,, _______________________ G_R_O_U_P_3_: _R_EP_T_ll _E_S_& __ A_M_P_H_IB_IA __ N _ S _ ~ ~
... ORDER FAMILY GENUS & SPECIES
"IIIIIIII Crocodilia Alligatoridae Caiman crocodilus
A relative of the alligator, the spectacled caiman is found
throughout Central and South America. Its name refers to the
bony ridges above its eyes and snout that look like a pair of glasses.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Up to 8 ft.
Weight: Up to about 65 lb .
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: Usually by 8
years of age. Females have been
known to breed at 4 years.
Breeding season: Beginning of
rainy season; usually April to June,
but varies with location.
No. of eggs: 25-30.
Incubation period: 4-8 weeks.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Generally solitary; aquatic.
Diet: Mainly fish, crustaceans, and
mollusks.
Lifespan: Possibly to 60 years.
RELATED SPECIES
There are 4 other caimans: the
black caiman, broad-snouted
caiman, smooth-fronted caiman,
and dwarf caiman. All of them live
in the American tropics.
Range of the spectacled caiman.
DISTRIBUTION
Native to Central and South America, from Mexico in the
north to Paraguay in the south. Also found on some southern
Caribbean islands, including Trinidad.
CONSERVATION
The spectacled caiman's ability to survive in a wide variety of
habitats has enabled it to remain fairly numerous, despite its
being widely hunted.
THE SPECTACLED CAIMAN'S NEST
Nest building and maintenance: After mating, the female spectacled caiman
builds a nest close to the water's edge. First she scrapes up a pile of vegetati on
that may measu re 11f feet high by 3 feet wide. Then she crawls on top of the
pile and presses it down with the weight of her body in order to shape the nest.
Next she digs a hole in which she lays her eggs. Finally she covers the eggs
with vegetation to help them incubate.
!.0 MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
nearby to keep
away intruders.
PRINTED IN U.SA
Broad-snouted
caiman: Grows
up to 8 feet
long and has
a distinctive
wide snout.
Dwarf caiman:
One of the small -
est caimans,
reaching only 5
, feet in length.
01 60200491 PACKET 49
The spectacled caiman lives in a vast region
that stretches from Mexico in the north to Paraguay
in the south. Throughout this range four subspecies,
or races, occupy separate geographical areas.
They are the common spectacled caiman, the
brown caiman, the Apaporis River caiman
and the Paraguay caiman or jacare.
~ H A B I T A T
The four subspecies of specta-
cled caiman differ slightly in
appearance and habit. The
common spectacled caiman
has been studied most widely.
It is found in Venezuela, Co-
lombia, Ecuador, Guiana, and
the Amazon regions of Bra-
zil, and on Trinidad and a few
other Caribbean islands.
The common spectacled cai-
man lives in fresh water and
prefers ponds and lakes to riv-
ers. All races frequent marshes
and swamps except the Apa-
poris River caiman, which lives
only in the upper reaches of its
namesake river in Colombia.
DID YOU KNOW?
The spectacled caiman was
originally named Lacerta croc-
odilus by the great taxonomist
Linnaeus. So it became known
as Caiman crocodilus when the
genus Caiman was accepted.
But since caimans are more
closely related to alligators,
some experts feel this name
~ FOOD & HUNTING
The spectacled caiman preys
on a wide variety of fish and
invertebrates, including water
snails and crabs. Because it is a
cold-blooded reptile, the spec-
tacled caiman does not need
to consume as much food as a
warm-blooded animal of equal
size. As a result, it can afford to
be an opportunistic hunter,
snapping up whatever prey
comes within reach of its jaws.
Such prey may include mam-
mals and carrion (dead animals).
Right: The spectacled caiman will
snap up anything in its path.
is misleading. They prefer to
use the second-oldest name,
Caiman sclerops.
The baby "alligators" that
are often sold to tourists in
North America are, more
often than not, young specta-
cled caimans that have been
imported from Colombia.
Top left: The
cold-blooded
spectacled
caiman likes to
bask in the sun.
Left: A young
spectacled
caiman. Some
youngsters stay
close to their
parents for 18
months before
going offon
their own.
Right: The
spectacled
caiman be-
comes sexually
matureata
certain size,
not age.
~ SPECTACLED CAIMAN & MAN
Large anaconda snakes and
jaguars occasionally prey on
spectacled caimans. But hu-
mans are the caiman's main
enemy. Many of these reptiles
are shot by cattle ranchers who
mistakenly think they are a
threat to livestock. But the
majority fall victim to hunters
who capture them for the pet
~ BREEDING
The spectacled caiman is usu-
ally mature by its eighth year.
In breeding season, the gen-
erally solitary adults seek each
other out and then mate in
shallow water.
The spectacled caiman usually
hides its nest beneath a bush or
shady cypress so the eggs will
trade and for sale to tourists.
Because alligators are legally
protected, the spectacled cai-
man is now the most popular
and widely kept crocodilian.
The large-eyed young are ap-
pealing, but they do not make
good pets. Their specialized
needs make them unsuitable
for homes.
be protected from the sun. The
female digs a cavity in the nest,
where she deposits up to 30
eggs. The white eggs are about
two to three inches long and up
to one and a half inches wide.
Once the clutch is complete,
the female covers it with vege-
tation. The tropical heat and de-
caying plant matter provide
warmth for incubation.
When the young reptiles
hatch, they are 6 to 1 0 inches
long, and their yellowish bodies
are marked with black bands. It
is not long before they must
fend for themselves, and many
fall victim to predators.
'" CARD 36
MARSUPIAL FROG
_____________________ G_R_O_U_P __ 3:_R_E_PT_I_lE_S_& __
.. CLASS
Amphibia
.. ORDER
Anura
.. FAMILY
Hylidae
.. GENUS
Gastrotheca
Marsupial frogs are named for marsupial mammals such as the
kangaroo. Like these mammals, they carry their young in a pouch
to protect them until they are able to survive on their own.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
Length: 1-4 in .
BREEDING
Mating: Throughout the rainy sea-
son. Females come to calling males
when they are ready to release
their eggs.
No. of eggs: 4-200, increasing
with size of species.
Development: Tadpoles usually re-
leased after 3-4 months.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Generally solitary; active at
night.
Range of marsupial frogs.
DISTRIBUTION
Diet: Tadpoles eat algae from rocks
and plants. Adults eat insects and
similar small animals.
RELATED SPECIES
Found in Central and South America, from lowland rainforests
to plateaus in the Andes over 13,000 feet above sea level.
CONSERVATION There are 39 Gastrotheca species
and 21 very similar species in 6
other genera. All belong to the
true tree frog family, Hylidae,
which has 637 species through-
out the world.
Several species of tropical frogs have disappeared in recent
years for no obvious reason. Marsupial frogs remain fairly com-
mon, but many may be threatened by the destruction of their
rainforest habitat.
FEATURES OF MARSUPIAL FROGS
Dorsal pouch: Present only
on females. Outside the
breeding season, the pouch
looks like a small slit on the
frog's back. As fertilized
eggs develop inside the
pouch, it stretches to ac-
commodate them. This
makes the frog look
swollen.
Birth of young:
When the young
are developed
enough, the fe-
male opens her
pouch and re-
leases them. If
she is "giving
birth" to tad-
poles, she posi-
tions herself
carefully so that
they fall into a
pool of water.
Coloration: Varies greatly
among species. Most
have green or-brown
markings that'provide
camouflage In their
tropical forest habitat.
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
loses water. The
, frogs must stay
in damp, shady
places where the
skin will not
dry out.
Have long
toes with suc-
, tion disks that
help the frogs
grip leaves and
branches.
0160200601 PACKET 60
Female marsupial frogs are model parents.
They produce relatively few eggs and keep them in
a pouch. After the eggs hatch/ the young may develop
further inside the pouch/ which increases their chances
of survival. Most other frogs/ by contrast/ produce huge
numbers of eggs to compensate for the fact that most
will die or be eaten before reaching maturity.
~ HABITS
Marsupial frogs live in the trop-
ical forests of South and Cen-
tral America. They spend their
lives in the trees foraging for
food and rarely descend to the
ground. Their long toes have
suction disks that give them a
powerful grip, so they can leap
and climb with ease.
Marsupial frogs are active
mostly at night. As amphibians,
they risk deadly dehydration if
they are exposed to the sun. Be-
cause amphibian skin is usually
not waterproof like the skin of
reptiles and mammals, frogs are
able to soak up water when they
need it. But their skin also lets
water in their bodies evaporate.
Marsupial frogs, like most tree-
dwelling frogs, do not have easy
access to pools of water in which
to replenish moisture. As a re-
sult, they must conserve what
water they have.
By day most marsupial frogs
lie in a damp, dark spot. They
are concealed from enemies by
the shade and by their green
and brown coloring. In several
species this camouflage is en-
hanced by fleshy "horns" that
break up the frog's outline and
make it less likely to be recog-
nized for what it is.
Right: After releasing the young
from her pouch, a female leaves
them to fend for themselves.
~ FOOD &: FEEDING
Marsupial frogs feed mainly on
insects. Some species are agile
hunters, leaping up and snatch-
ing flies from the air. But most
species hunt insects that rest
on leaves or twigs.
As long as an insect stays still,
it is safe. But the tiniest move-
ment catches the frog's atten-
tion. For a few moments the
frog studies its prey and moves
closer. If the insect does not
Left: With her pouch full of devel-
oping young, this female marsu-
pial frog appears swollen.
DID YOU KNOW?
Marsupial frogs have a patch
of very thin skin on their bel-
lies. They use this skin like a
sponge to soak up moisture
from damp leaves.
Gastrotheca, marsupial frogs'
genus name, means "stomach
pouch." The frogs were given
this name when they were first
discovered, and the purpose
move again, the frog may lose
interest. But if the insect moves
again even just a little, the frog
opens its mouth and its victim
is gone, snatched in a flick of
the frog's long tongue.
To swallow its meal, the frog
performs an unusual maneu-
ver-it forces food down its
throat by retracting its eyeballs
down to the roof of its mouth
to create needed pressure.
Right: In some species the young
marsupial frogs do not emerge
until they are fully developed.
of the pouch was not clear.
Some tree frog species have
a different way of protecting
their offspring. The poison-
arrow frog carries its tadpoles
to a specially built nursery
pool to develop in safety.
In some marsupial frog spe-
cies, the female's pouch holds
200 eggs.
~ BREEDING
Rather than laying large num-
bers of eggs and abandoning
them, marsupial frogs care for
their young until they have
developed enough to survive.
The female has a pouch on her
back that serves as an incuba-
tor and nursery. The pouch has
an opening near the female's
egg duct. As she lays her eggs,
they are fertilized by a male
that is clinging to her back. He
then stuffs the eggs into the
pouch with his hind feet.
The eggs develop and hatch
inside the pouch. In some spe-
cies, the young develop in the
pouch into tiny, fully formed
frogs. Since the young are not
Left: A male
marsupial frog
has a big vo-
cal sac, and
he calls every
night until he
attracts a mate.
After mating,
he leaves the
female, who
cares for the
young alone.
released as tadpoles, the par-
ents do not need to go near
water in order to reproduce.
In other species, the young
are ejected from the female's
pouch after a period of three
to four months, while they are
still tadpoles. The female finds
a pool for them, either on the
ground or in a bromeliad-a
plant that grows high in the
trees and traps moisture in
its vaselike foliage. Using the
long toes of her hind feet, she
opens the pouch and scoops
the tadpoles into the water.
There they change into tiny
frogs and climb out to begin
life in the trees.
"'CARD 37
GAVIAL
_____________________ G __ RO_U_P __ 3:_R_E_PT_I_l _ES_& __
... CLASS
'11IIIIIIII Reptilia
ORDER
Crocody/ia
... FAMILY
'11IIIIIIII Cavia/idae
GENUS &: SPECIES
Cavia/is gangeticus
The gavial of India is one of the largest and strangest crocodiles.
With its slender, sharp-toothed jaws, it is well equipped
to feed almost exclusively on fish.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Male, up to 21 ft., possi-
bly longer. Female, up to 13ft .
Weight: Up to 2,200 lb.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: 10 years.
Breeding season: From late winter
to spring.
No. of eggs: Average, 40; but up
to 97 recorded in 1 clutch.
Incubation: 2-3 months.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Usually solitary or lives in
small groups.
Diet: Mainly fish; also some water
birds, crabs, and small mammals.
Range of the gavial .
DISTRIBUTION
RELATED SPECIES
The gavial is classified in a family
of its own. But the false gavial,
Tomistoma sch/ege/i, is grouped
among the true crocodiles in the
family Crocodi/idae.
Found in the Indus River system in Pakistan and western
India. A larger eastern population occurs in the rivers Ma-
hanadi, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Kaladan, and Irawaddy.
CONSERVATION
The gavial is recovering from a serious decline, thanks to a
concerted conservation and captive breeding program. But
it is still listed as endangered.
FEATURES OF THE GAVIAL HOW THE GAVIAL FEEDS
Hide: Very tough and protective.
Highly prized by hunters for the skin
trade, although the gavial now re-
ceives some legal protection.
suit the gavial's
aquatic life. Female uses them to dig
a nest and to manipulate her eggs.
Movement: Unlike most crocodiles,
the gavial cannot raise its massive
body and tail off the ground to walk.
Instead, it drags itself slowly forward.
Snout tip: A protruding lump of tissue
develops on the mature male. Its pre-
cise function is unknown. It may be
used to amplify the calls uttered by
the male in the breeding season.
Snout: Very narrow
for a crocodilian. More than 100
teeth intermesh when the jaws are
cl.osed. The gavial has no lips to keep
out water. But like all crocodiles it
can breathe through its nostrils
while its mouth is full of water.
MCMXCII IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
The snout is ideal for a swift un-
derwater attack. Presenting little
resistance to the water, it can be
flicked to one side to slice into
fish or snap shut to trap them.
0160200651 PACKET 65
The gavial has long been hunted for its smooth, durable
hide, which can be polished to a lustrous finish. Because
the remaining population has lost much of its freshwater
habitat to intensive rural development, sanctuaries have
been established in an attempt to save this endangered
species. But even though there are widespread captive
breeding programs, the gavial faces an uncertain future.
~ HABITS
The gavial basks on sandbanks
but rarely goes far from water. It
prefers clear, fast-moving rivers
with an occasional deep pool
where it can lie half-submerged,
with only its eyes and nostrils
above the surface.
Reptiles depend on external
warmth to maintain their body
temperature. Water is often the
warmest place to be because
Right: With
more than a
hundred teeth
in its slender
jaws, the ga-
vial is well
equipped to
trap fish.
water temperature is more sta-
ble than air temperature. Since
the gavial lives farther north
than most crocodilians, it often
spends winter nights in the wa-
ter. It sinks to the bottom, where
the water is warmest. Its body
processes slow down, so it needs
little oxygen. If it has to breathe,
it surfaces for air but soon re-
turns to the warm depths.
~ FOOD &: HUNTING
Most crocodilians grab any food
that comes their way. But the
gavial is a specialist that preys
almost exclusively on fish. It lies
in ambush and snatches them
in its slender, elongated jaws.
After seizing its victim, the ga-
vial surfaces to juggle the fish
around so it can be swallowed
headfirst. Sometimes it thrashes
the fish in the water to break it
up. Because it is cold-blooded,
left: The gavial spends most of the
day basking in the sun to warm its
massive body.
DID YOU KNOW?
Crocodiles swallow pebbles
to grind up food in their stom-
achs. Gavials that have been
the gavial needs little food ener-
gy. One bellyful lasts for a week.
A large gavial also takes water
birds and small mammals if it
can catch them, but it is virtual-
ly harmless to humans. Gavials
from the sacred Ganges River
have been found with human
remains in their stomachs. But
it is almost certain that they fed
on corpses floating down the
river in Hindu funeral rites.
Right: The gavial tosses fish head-
first down its throat to avoid chok-
ing on the gills.
on catfish, which in turn prey
on tilapia fish caught by local
fishermen. The decline of the
found with anklets and brace- gavial has caused a popula-
lets in their stomachs proba- tion explosion among catfish,
bly swallowed them for the which have eaten most of the
same purpose, getting the tilapias. So the more catfish-
jewelry from human remains eating gavials there are, the
in the Ganges River. more tilapias there will be for
L The gavial preys primarily __ I_ndian fishermen. _
~ GAVIAL &: MAN
The gavial has been widely killed
for its skin. In addition, it has lost
much of its habitat as rivers have
been dammed to provide elec-
tricity and irrigation to drought-
prone rural India.
By 1975 fewer than 70 gavials
lived in the wild, and the Indian
government set up a breeding
program. Eggs were taken and
~ BREEDING
In late winter or spring, the male
gavial tries to gather a harem of
three or four females. He attracts
them with whistles and hisses,
then mates with each female in
the water. When mating, the
pair sinks to the bottom with
bodies entwined.
Like all crocodilians, the female
gavial lays eggs. She digs a small,
shallow hole some 30 feet from
the river and deposits about 40
brittle-shelled eggs in the nest.
She chooses the site with care
to ensure the best possible con-
ditions for incubation. The fe-
left: Each hatchling opens its shell
with an egg tooth, then croaks to
attract its mother.
young gavials reared to a length
of about four feet before being
released. At that size gavials can
usually look after themselves.
Today, the wild population is
about 2,000, but most of the
animals are too young to breed.
With fewer than 20 sexually ma-
ture males now in circulation,
the species is still in danger.
male stays near the nest, often
lurking in the water nearby, and
chases off egg thieves such as
monitor lizards and jackals.
The warmer the weather, the
sooner the eggs hatch. After
two to three months, the hatch-
lings emerge. Their mother digs
the nest open and guides the
tiny gavials to the safety of the
water. She often carries them in
her mouth, with their tiny legs
protruding between her teeth.
Despite this maternal care,
many of the young die. They
are snatched by predators or
swept away to drown in the
seasonal floods. Of the whole
clutch, only one may survive.
COMMON TOAD
"''--------
.... CLASS ORDER
'11IIIIIIII Amphibia Safientia
CARD 3 8 ~
GROUP 3: REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS
FAMILY
Bufonidae
GENUS & SPECIES
Bufo bufo
Many people fear the common toad because of its appearance and
poisonous skin. But this shy and docile amphibian is usually
harmless to humans, and it may even be a help to gardeners.
KEY FACTS
SIZES
Length: Male, 3 in. Female, 5 in.
Weight: Male, ~ - 2 oz. Female,
)4-40z.
BREEDING
Sexual maturity: Male, 4-5 years.
Female, 3-4 years.
Mating: February to April.
No. of eggs: 3,000-12,000 (2 or 3
larvae survive to adulthood).
Larva to adult: About 12 weeks.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Mainly solitary.
Diet: Various invertebrates. Range of the common toad.
DISTRIBUTION
Call: Male emits a rapid, high-
pitched sound when alarmed and
a slower, longer croak during the
mating season.
Lifespan: 30-40 years.
Found in most of Europe, but not in Ireland, Corsica, Sardinia,
or the Balearic Islands. Also found in northwestern Africa and
temperate Asia as far east as Japan.
RELATED SPECIES
CONSERVATION
The 227 known species in the fam-
ily Bufonidae include the American
toad, Bufo americanus, and Wood-
house's toad, B. woodhousei.
Although the common toad is widespread, its habitat, like that
of all aquatic and semiaquatic species, is threatened by indus-
trial pollution and the urbanization of rural areas.
FEATURES OF THE COMMON TOAD
Coloration: A mottled skin in shades
of yellow and brown provides the
toad with excellent camouflage in
much of its natural habitat.
Poison: To deter
predators, two
kinds of venom
are secreted
from glands on
the back and
chest.
Eyes: A transparent pro-
tective "third eyelid,"
called the nictitating
membrane, allows the
toad to see underwater.
Tongue: Up to
4 inches long, pink, and
sticky. A hinge at the front of the
mouth allows the toad to flick it in
and out with amazing speed. It is
activated by a reflex mechanism.
Limbs: Forelimbs are used to
grasp prey and enable the
male to clasp the female
when mating. Forefeet are
not webbed. The larger,
more powerful hind
limbs propel the
toad forward.
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In emergencies the common toad defends itself with a thick,
white poison. Secreted by glands surrounding the "warts" on
the toad's back, this poison works by paralysis. Although
enough venom can be produced to kill a dog, it is so sour
that it repels most dogs after a single sniff. Other predators
such as grass snakes, owls, or crows are not greatly affected
by the toad's venom, so they continue to attack the animal.
~ HABITS
The common toad spends the
summer alone but often hiber-
nates with other toads. Although
less active when hibernating, it
does not actually sleep. It stops
feeding and lives off fat stored
in its body. It does not eat again
until it mates in spring.
If alarmed, the toad can pro-
duce two kinds of poison from
glands on both its back and
chest. One poison is colorless
and smells like mushrooms and
vanilla. It has a numbing effect.
Right: If threatened, the common
toad puffs up its body to display its
venomous, warty skin.
The other thick, white venom is
secreted only in emergencies.
The common toad is agile and
has a good sense of direction. It
climbs walls and trellises and can
leap up to six inches.
~ FOOD Est HUNTING
The adult common toad feeds
on invertebrates such as spiders,
ants, earthworms, slugs, cater-
pillars, beetles, and bees. It can
handle poisonous prey, and it
readily eats young frogs, newts,
and lizards.
The toad hunts primarily at
night. It can swim well and walk
fast but is generally sedentary. It
may move slowly, looking for
signs of prey, but much of the
time it sits and waits. When the
toad sees prey, a reflex mecha-
Left: After it becomes an adult, the
common toad leaves the pond but
returns each year to breed.
I DID YOU KNOW?
The common toad can live
underground for three years
without food. It loses weight
and survives on very little air.
The Greek philosopher Aris-
totle gave one of the first de-
scriptions of the toad's pale
pink tongue.
In medieval times, people
thought the toad had the evil
nism activates its tongue. The
sticky tongue flicks out, attaches
itself to the prey, and returns in
a split second. Because the toad
lacks teeth, it crushes the prey
against the roof of its mouth. It
then swallows by retracting its
eyeballs deep into its head to
push the food down.
Toads compete for their food
by shoving each other out of
the way. They rarely attack one
another but may eat the young
of their own species.
Right: The common toad feeds
heavily on earthworms and other
invertebrates after breeding.
eye and could cast spells. It l
was suspected of turning wine
to vinegar and suckling milk
from cows. Some believed
there was a magical golden
stone in the toad's head.
The English dish "toad-in-
the-hole" was named for the
toad's habit of hiding under
the ground.
I 1- :,d NATUREWATCH
The common toad breeds in
water but lives most of its life
in woods, fields, gardens, or
sheds. Active mainly at night,
it chooses a dark den in a tree
stump, under stones, beneath
thick plants, or in a hole in
the ground.
~ BREEDING
After hibernation, the adult
male common toad heads for
the nearest pond. Attracted by
his nightly croaking, the female
arrives up to two weeks later
and is seized by the male. Using
the swollen "nuptial pads" on
his thumbs, he grips her around
the stomach. Only one male
can mate with a female. Others
try to dislodge him, and the
competition lasts for days.
The female lays two strings of
jelly-covered eggs, which the
Left: Clasping the female, the male
fertilizes the strings of jelly-covered
eggs she releases into the water.
In October the toad hiber-
nates in a deeper shelter. It
may use its hind legs to dig a
hole in sandy soil or to bury
itself in a manure heap. In
early February it heads for
ponds to breed, then returns
to its solitary life in summer.
male then fertilizes in the water.
Spawning takes 10 to 28 hours.
Parents do not tend the young.
Over the next 20 days, the
offspring grows from an eye-
less organism that cannot eat
into a tadpole with a long tail,
eyes, a mouth, and two rows of
teeth. It eats plant matter and
breathes through feathery gills.
Four limbs gradually emerge,
and the tadpole reabsorbs its
tail, loses its teeth, and forms
a membrane over its gills. It
becomes a tiny toad, able to
breathe internally, crouch,
walk, and swim.
'" CARD 39.-J
SKINK
,, ____________ G_ RO_ U_P_3: REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS
... CLASS ... ORDER ,. FAMILY
~ Reptilia ~ Squamata ~ Scincidae
Skinks are an extremely varied group of lizards. These reptiles have
developed such a wide range of adaptations that it is hard to
believe they all belong to the same family.
KEY FACTS
SIZE
Body length: 1-24 in., depending
on the species .
BREEDING
Method: Some skinks bear live
young; others lay eggs.
No. of young: Usually 1-25,
depending on the species. Maxi-
mum on record, 67.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Burrowing, tree-climbing,
or ground-dwelling. Mostly active
by day.
Diet: Small species eat inverte-
brates; large species usually eat
plants.
RELATED SPECI ES
There are over 1,200 species of
skink worldwide, grouped in 85
genera. Their closest relatives are
spiny girdle-tailed lizards, family
Cordylidae, such as the sungazer,
Cordylus giganteus, of Africa.
DEFENSES OF SKINKS
Blue-tongued skink: Uses shock tactics for
defense. When threatened, it opens its
mouth and sticks out a startling
bright blue tongue,
often hissing
menacingly
at the same
time.
MCMXCI V IMP BV/IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILETM
Range of skinks.
DISTRIBUTION
Skinks are found in a wide variety of habitats in tropical and
temperate regions throughout the world. The majority of
species inhabit Southeast Asia and Australasia.
CONSERVATION
The majority of skinks are in no immediate danger, although
at least four species are classified as rare.
American five-lined skink: If attacked, it
wriggles its bright blue tail conspicuously
while keeping the rest of its body still.
If the predator seizes the tail, the
skink casts it off and ret reats
Stump-tailed ski nk: Deters
attackers with its bright blue tongue.
Also has a fat tail that serves as a decoy.
Predators are fooled into attacking this tough
stump instead of the more vulnerable head.
PRINTED IN U.S.A. us P 6001 12 068 PACKET 68
Left: The giant
Solomon Island
skink can grow
to two feet long.
Its strong limbs
and claws are
perfect for life
in the trees.
Skinks are the most numerous, widespread lizards in the
world. They live in all kinds of tropical and temperate
rainforests to deserts and grassy plains to
rocky mountains. Skinks have evolved a wide variety of
features to suit their environments. Some are blind, legless
burrowers, while others are powerful climbers and swimmers.
CHARACTERISTICS
Skinks have a wide range of fea-
tures. But most skinks are small
and short-legged with smooth,
shiny brown scales and long,
slender tails.
Like most lizards, a skink usu-
ally walks by moving diagonally
opposite legs and wriggling its
body in a snakelike motion at
each step. But some skinks have
evolved differently to suit their
habitats. Some species have no
legs, while others have virtually
useless remnants. For example,
the sandfish of Africa "swims"
through the desert sand like an
eel, retracting its almost useless
legs into recesses in its flanks. In
contrast, the green-blood skink
is suited to climbing, with adhe-
sive toe pads and strong legs.
The giant Solomon Island
skink climbs with the aid of a
muscular, prehensile (gripping)
tail. The stump-tailed skink, on
the other hand, has only a short
tail, but it helps to protect the
animal from predators.
BREEDING
Skinks have a variety of breed-
ing habits. Some species, such
as the giant Solomon Island
skink, give birth to one large,
fully formed infant.
Other species lay clutches of
up to 25 eggs. In certain spe-
cies, such as the great plains
skink of North America, the
female incubates her eggs by
Left: Over a foot long, the stump-
tail, or shingleback, inhabits dry
areas of Australia.
DID YOU KNOW?
The green-blood skink is
unique among vertebrates in
having green blood, green
scales, a green tongue, and
green eggs.
Most skinks have smooth
scales, which make the ani-
mals very hard to catch. But
L-
curling her body around them.
She also helps the young hatch
by licking them clean as they
emerge from their shells.
The females of other species
abandon their eggs. Although
they produce larger clutches
than their more protective rela-
tives, a large proportion of their
eggs may be lost to predators.
Right: The female southeastern
five-lined skink guards her eggs
before and during hatching.
Left: Like the
rainbow skink
of southern
Africa, most
typical skinks
feed mainly on
insects and
other small
invertebrates.
Cunningham's skink has spiny
scales with which it wedges
itself into cracks.
Several burrowing skinks do
not have legs or any sense of
sight. They rely on vibrations
and scent to detect their un-
derground invertebrate prey.
FOOD & FEEDING
Large skinks like the Solomon Is-
land skink often eat plants. Small
species like the sandfish eat in-
sects, spiders, and millipedes.
Some species have more spe-
cialized diets. The marine skink
preys on small crabs and sand-
hoppers on the rocky shores of
HABITS
Most skinks are active by day.
These secretive creatures spend
much of their time hiding be-
neath logs, among fallen leaves,
or even underground. But some
species live in trees. The Solo-
mon Island skink, for example,
spends almost all its time in the
branches, rarely descending to
the ground.
Like all cold-blooded animals,
Left: The Cape legless skink can
burrow under the sand to escape
the intense midday heat.
Left: The sand-
fish possesses
a streamlined
head with a
pointed snout
for pushing
through sand.
Its mouth
opens under
the snout.
its habitat. Other shore-dwelling
skinks eat scraps that seabirds
drop during their breeding sea-
son. This food is so abundant
that the skinks can live off their
energy reserves for the rest of
the year, after the birds with
their scraps have disappeared.
a skink needs external warmth
to raise its body temperature.
As a result, it usually basks in
the morning sun before forag-
ing for food. By noon a skink
may start to overheat, so it re-
treats into the shade to cool
off, emerging later for anoth-
er period of activity. When the
temperature drops at the end
of the day, a skink is forced to
go back to its shelter. There it
spends the night in a semidor-
mant condition.

PARADOXICAL FROG
"
.. CLASS
'1IIIIIIII Amphibia
.. ORDER
'1IIIIIIII Anura
GROUP 3: REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS
FAMILY
Pseudidae
.. GENUS & SPECIES
'1IIIIIIII Pseudis paradoxa
The paradoxical frog looks normal enough, but the same cannot
be said for its tadpoles. Three times the size of their parents,
these enormous babies actually shrink as they mature.
KEY FACTS

SIZE
Length: Tadpole, up to lOin.
Adult, up to 3 in .
BREEDING
Mating: In tropical wet season.
Eggs: Laid in a mass of jelly in
the water.
LIFESTYLE
Habit: Solitary outside the breed-
ing season.
Diet: Adult eats insects and small
crustaceans. Tadpole eats plant
matter such as algae.
51 RELATED SPECIES
There are 4 species of pseudid, or
shrinking, frogs including Pseudis
bolbodactyla of Brazil. The para-
doxical frog is the largest of the
family. All 4 species are related to
the true frogs, which include the
North American bullfrog, Rana
catesbeiana; the green frog, R.
clamatans; and the leopard frog,
R. pipiens, of North America.
Range of the paradoxical frog.
DISTRIBUTION
Found in scattered locations in eastem South America, from the
northern tip south through Amazonia to northern Argentina.
Also on the island of Trinidad, off the coast of Venezuela.
CONSERVATION
The paradoxical frog is in little immediate danger from humans
because it lives in very remote areas. Local populations are vul-
nerable to habitat loss, however.
OF THE PARADOXICAL FROG
Adult: Only a few inches long when
fully grown.
Eyes: Large and bulging. Often the only
part of the frog that is visible in the water.
Fingers: Extended like the toes. An
opposable thumb enables the frog
to grip prey tightly.
Young (shown to scale):
At10 inches long, the
tadpole is 3 times the
size of its parents.
MCMXCII IMP BV/ IMP INC WILDLIFE FACT FILpM PRINTED IN U.S.A.
Skin: Extremely slippery,
enabling the frog to escape
the grasp of predators.
Feet: Large and webbed.
Each toe has an extra joint
called a phalanx that allows
the frog to extend its reach.
0160200621 PACKET 62
The paradoxical frog is seldom seen and rarely caught. It
lives in marshes and forest pools, where it hides under thick
vegetation. Only very determined zoologists have been able
to observe this elusive creature in the wild. For many years,
their observations were disputed because the facts about the
paradoxical frog were considered too strange to be true.
~ HABITS
One of a number of unusual
things about the paradoxical
frog is its highly aquatic way
of life. All frogs must stay moist
in order to survive, but most
species do not linger in the
water. They return to land to
search for prey in the damp
grass or leaf debris.
By contrast, the paradoxical
frog breeds, feeds, and sleeps
in water, rarely leaving it. It is
usually seen floating in a pool
of water, with just its eyes and
nostrils protruding above the
surface. It prefers still waters
with thick, floating vegetation
that offers plenty of cover. If
the frog is alarmed, it dives be-
neath the foliage and disap-
pears from view.
The paradoxical frog favors
the more remote swamps and
marshes of Trinidad and Ama-
zonia, far from human habita-
tion, and its elusive habits make
it hard to find. As a result, little
information exists about its be-
havior in the wild.
Right: The adult paradoxical frog
grows very little and is dwarfed by
its oversize offspring.
~ FOOD & FEEDING
The adult paradoxical frog eats
small water animals. Like most
frogs, it has powerful hind legs
with large webbed feet. Each
of its long projecting toes has
an extra joint called a phalanx.
These extra joints make its toes
more dexterous and enable the
frog to extend its reach. These
toes facilitate combing through
mud and flushing out insects
and small crustaceans.
The frog's fingers are extended
in the same way as its toes. The
innermost finger acts as an op-
posable thumb, so that the frog
left: The paradoxical frog is more
aquatic than most frogs and rarely
leaves the water.
DID YOU KNOW?
A noisy creature, the para-
doxical frog is more often
heard than seen. It produces
coughing grunts like those of
a pig.
When the paradoxical frog
and its tadpoles were first
described, most scientists
can capture prey in its hands.
The larva, or tadpole, of the
paradoxical frog feeds only on
plant matter. Like most larvae,
it eats as much as possible in
order to build up the energy
supplies necessary for its meta-
morphosis into an adult. The
tadpole uses its horny teeth to
scrape algae off rocks and wa-
ter plants. It digests the tough
plant cells in its elongated gut.
The gut of the adult is propor-
tionately much shorter, since
its diet of animal matter is easi-
er to digest.
Right: The adult paradoxical frog
is only a few inches long, but it is
the largest frog in its family.
assumed that they were differ-
ent species. The true relation-
ship between the adult frog
and its young was finally
proven by captive breeding.
In South America the huge
tadpoles are caught and sold
as delicacies in food markets.
~ BREEDING
Most frogs lay their eggs in
water in a mass of jelly. Small
aquatic larvae, called tadpoles,
hatch from the eggs. As each
tadpole develops, it exchanges
its gills for lungs, grows legs, and
loses its tail. By the time the tad-
pole changes into a tiny frog, its
body has grown only slightly. It
then grows into the much big-
ger adult frog.
The paradoxical frog devel-
ops in much the same way, with
one major exception: the main
growth stage occurs when it is
still a tadpole. When it hatches,
left: The para-
doxical frog is
well adapted
for escaping
from predators.
It is well cam-
ouflaged,and
its slippery skin
is very difficult
to grasp.
the tadpole looks normal, but
it grows at an amazing rate. A
fully grown specimen may be
10 inches long-three times the
size of its parents.
As it undergoes its metamor-
phosis into an adult, the tadpole
sprouts legs, loses its tail, and
develops the features typical of
all frogs-a broad mouth, bulg-
ing eyes, and a short, angular
body. The tadpole keeps shrink-
ing day by day. By the time it
becomes a recognizable frog,
it is only one-third of its origi-
nallength.