Module #1

Introduction
Whats this course about? Learning Obj ti L i Objectives
To introduce what this course is about. To introduce the concepts of deformation and failure. To introduce the assumptions used in mechanics. To introduce the fundamental aspects of deformation.

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Introduction
As engineers we use materials for various purposes. All materials have structures that can be defined at various length scales. Structure can have a large influence on properties, performance, performance and durability. durability Perhaps nowhere is this more important than in p p mechanical properties. In this course we will address the linkages between the structures of materials and their mechanical properties.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Introduction
All engineered structures must endure mechanical loads.
Most engineers: interested in rules for dimensioning components properly and/or selecting materials for a given application to satisfy specific performance criteria. Thus, Thus for most engineers, a detailed understanding of the engineers influences of microstructure on properties is secondary. Materials scientists/engineers: focus on understanding and applying physical processes that occur within a material during mechanical loading to satisfy specific performance criteria.

It is critical that engineers understand both approaches. In a few pages I will demonstrate why using a series of general engineering examples examples.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Mechanical Properties / Mechanical Behavior

Addresses how materials respond to forces/loads.
Macro-scale Micro-scale Nano scale Nano-scale Solid mechanics Micromechanics Nanomechanics

This subject involves the application of mathematics, j pp , chemistry and physics.* *The reader is referred to Chapter 1 in Mechanics and Materials: Fundamentals and Linkages (John
Wiley & Sons, 1999). This chapter describes the linkage between mechanics and materials.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Pertinent length scales in materials and structures

DETERMINE PROPERTIES AT THESE LENGTH SCALES
macro scale macro-scale 100 100 meso scale meso-scale

Engineered structure

I-beam or other structural member

Sheet polycrystalline continuum

100

100

1000

2.3

1.0 m

40 m

Atomic structure

Dislocation and solute elastic fields

Grains and precipitates

nano-scale

micro-scale

meso-scale

STRUCTURAL DEFECTS AT THESE LENGTH SCALES

Figure Relative length scales for a typical structural materials spanning thirteen orders of magnitude. Figure derived from R.H. Wagoner and J-L. Chenot, Fundamentals of Metal Forming, (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1996) p. 93.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Pertinent length scales in materials and structures

MATERIALS
Nanolevel Molecular scale Nanomechanics Self-assembly Nanofabrication Etc. Microlevel

STRUCTURES
Mesolevel Microns

INFRASTRUCTURE
Macrolevel Meters Beams Columns p plates Etc. Systems y integration Up to km scale Bridge systems Lifelines p Airplanes Etc.

Micromechanics Microstructures Smart Materials Etc.

Mesomechanics Interfacial structures p Composites Etc.

Figure adapted from A.P. Boresi K P Chong and J.D. Lee, Elasticity in Engineering Mechanics, A P Boresi, K.P. Chong, J D Lee Mechanics 3rd Edition, (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2010) p. 7.

Mechanical behavior spans all length scales. Therefore, p g , we need to understand how all length scales link together.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Lets start with a very general discussion of how materials respond to loading p g

Prof. M.L. Weaver

What types of forces act on engineering structures?

Surface forces / loads: forces from contact
f i ti friction, point load, etc

Volume forces / loads: forces that act over the entire body
gravity, magnetic forces, etc

Surface forces are usually more significant than volume forces; but there are exceptions
can you think of any?
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Different categories of surface forces

Static: Independent of time.
Constant in magnitude, Constant in direction, Constant in location.

Quasi-static: Vary slowly with time. Dynamic: Vary with time

Steady-state maintain the same character (frequency, y ( q y, amplitude, etc.) over a long time. Transient change their character with time (e.g., decay).

Prof. M.L. Weaver

What happens to a material or structure when it is exposed to mechanical or thermal loading?

1 Deformation
Macroscopically Microscopically Etc.

2 Fracture
Macroscopically Microscopically ???

In general these processes are not mutually exclusive.

Prof. M.L. Weaver

What is deformation?
Shape p Change
CATEGORIES of DEFORMATION:
Time Independent Elastic* Plastic* Plastic Time Dependent Viscoelastic* Viscoplastic (creep)* Viscoplastic

Prof. M.L. Weaver

TimeTime-independent deformation
1. Elastic deformation: reversible deformation.
Recovered immediately upon unloading. Analogous to the stretching of atomic bonds. Hookes law applies: = E.

2. Plastic deformation: permanent deformation.

NOT recovered upon unloading. Begins at the proportional limit. At this point the material is said to yield; we characterize by the yield strength o. Hookes law fails. Other empirical relationships developed to describe the relationship between and .

Prof. M.L. Weaver

TimeTime-dependent deformation
3. Creep / viscoplastic: permanent deformation.
Deformation occurs over a period of time. time Occurs at high homologous temperatures (i.e., T/Tmp 0.4). In I a material th t is subjected t a constant load or stress th t is t i l that i bj t d to t tl d t that i often far below the yield point.

4. Viscoelastic: reversible deformation.

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Deformation i recovered over a period of time. D f ti is d i d f ti Rubbery behavior. This behavior is exhibited by all materials (at some level).

What is fracture?
When something g separates into pieces.
CATEGORIES of FRACTURE:
Under Static Loading Brittle Ductile / ductile rupture Creep rupture C t Environmental Under Cyclic Loading High cycle fatigue Low cycle fatigue Fatigue crack growth F ti k th Corrosion fatigue

Prof. M.L. Weaver

How do we classify fractures?

1. Ductile: lots of plastic deformation prior to fracture. f t

2. Brittle: little or no plastic deformation prior to fracture.

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Is fracture the same as failure?

NOT NECESSARILY! Failure = anything that might cause a component to lose its structural tolerances, thus preventing it from serving its intended purpose. Generally this means: y (i) fracture, (ii) or plastic deformation, (iii) or excessive elastic d f i l ti deformation. ti We design and select materials to avoid failure.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

StressStress-dependent modes of failure

Elastic Stable S bl Plastic Excessive deformation Elastic (buckling) (static loading) Unstable Plastic (collapse, buckling) (collapse Creep (collapse, buckling) Excessive deformation (cyclic loading) Fracture (static loading) Fracture (cyclic loading) Not l l t N t solely stressdependent Combined modes

Incremental collapse
Brittle fracture Low-stress brittle fracture Creep rupture

Fatigue
Fretting, pitting, fatigue Fretting pitting corrosion fatigue, stress corrosion Creep and fatigue (cyclic creep) Fatigue followed by low-stress brittle fracture f ll db l t b ittl f t F ti

Table adapted from B. Derby, D. Hills, and C. Ruiz, Materials Engineering: A Fundamental Design Approach, (Longman Scientific & Technical, Essex, UK, 1992) p. 8. Prof. M.L. Weaver

Engineers approach for explaining mechanical behavior

1. Strength of materials / Continuum mechanics
a. b. c. c d. Stress Strain Elasticity Plasticity

2. Micromechanics / Material physics

a. Consider properties of constituents
i. Grain orientations / texture ii. Crystal / atomic structure iii. Defect content

b. Etc. b Etc
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Engineers Approach to Mechanical Behavior

Strength of materials approach (1)
Use of principles of elasticity and plasticity to predict material response. (statics, dynamics, and strength of materials, etc.). Applied regularly in engineering design. Very useful and easy (Finite e e e a a ys s/ ode g based o this) easy! ( e element analysis/modeling on s) The advantages are that relatively few constants are needed t predict mechanical b h i d d to di t h i l behavior. This approach requires some assumptions.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

General assumptions
The member is in static equilibrium e e be s stat c equ b u
Fi=0; Mi=0 (external forces = internal resisting forces)

The body is continuous

It contains no voids, holes, or spaces.

The body is homogeneous

It has properties that are identical at any point

Th b d i i t i The body is isotropic

Properties dont vary with direction or orientation.

Allows for simple mathematical treatment in design

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Problems with general assumptions

The member is in static equilibrium e e be s stat c equ b u
Fi=0; Mi=0 (external forces = internal resisting forces)

The body is continuous

It contains no voids, holes, or spaces. ALL materials contain flaws on some level.

The body is homogeneous

It has properties that are identical at any point ALL materials and structures contain local inhomogeneities.

Th b d i i t i The body is isotropic

Properties dont vary with direction or orientation. Crystalline materials are inherently anisotropic anisotropic.

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Engineers Approach contd.

Strength of materials approach (2)
Problem: general theories break down when the atomic nature of materials (i t f t i l (i.e., material structure) i i t d t i l t t ) is introduced. d Examples:
Generation and accumulation of dislocations leads to hardening. Creep (a form of high temperature deformation). Microstructure changes with time. Stress concentrations at crack tips. Local stress may be higher than global stress. stress Ductile-to-brittle transition temperature (DBTT) in steels due to . Fundamental changes in the material behavior cause a brittle solid to function like a plastic material. Etc.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Engineers Approach contd.

Strength of materials approach (3)
In spite of the deficiencies, strength of materials p g approaches are still used in engineering design. However to effectively design or properly select a However, material for long term application, the structure of the material must be considered (at some level). Macrostructure (1) Microstructure (106) Nanostructure (109)
Prof. M.L. Weaver

All are important!

Fundamental Areas of Study

[mechanical properties / behavior of materials] materials]

Elasticity Plasticity Fracture Fatigue Creep

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Lets consider a couple of real materials p problems to p things into p p put g perspective

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Process Engineering Problem

You are a process engineer at a metal stamping plant that produces cans from 304L stainless steel. You produce 20 cans/minute. First 1000 cans form perfectly. Ten of the next 200 cans fail during stamping. Then, 25 of the next 200 fail. After that, 100 of the next 200 fail. Production is summarized in the table below. # cans 1,000 1 000 200 200 200 total # cans 1,000 1 000 1,200 1,400 , 1,600 #failures 0 10 25 100

What i th Wh t is the cause f these failures? Wh t i th solution? for th f il ? What is the l ti ?

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Whats going on?

Deformation characteristics change with time. Dislocation generation and motion; W kh d i Work hardening; Heating/cooling during processing:
Phase transformations (Ms, Mf martensitic); Change in deformation behavior;

Transformation induced plasticity.

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Whats going on? contd

Die temperature rises above the Ms temperature during processing. processing work h d i rate d i processing. k hardening t during i the amount of uniform plastic elongation; but, also makes it more difficult to deform the material uniformly. The solution involves physical metallurgy and intrinsic materials properties, mechanics, and processing method. t i l ti h i d i th d
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Materials Engineering Problem

W light bulb filaments Produced via powder metallurgy. The filaments fail after a few thousand hours.

Why/how do they fail? Can we do anything to increase their service lifetimes?

Prof. M.L. Weaver

P. Schade, 100 years of doped tungsten wire, International Journal of Refractory metals and Hard Materials, 28 (2010) 648-660

(a)

Whats happening?
1. The filament can creep under its p own weight leading to sagging (see picture on next page). This can lead to overheating in the sag or shorting due to the touching of adjacent coils. Excessive vibrations in service can also lead shorting. 2. Microstructure also changes due to recrystallization during service and can lead to failure. 3. Evaporation can lead to filament thinning d th d l thi i and the development of t f hot spots. (corrosion!)

WEIGHT

(b)

(a) The statics of a horizontal light bulb filament. (b) The creep-failure of a tungsten filament. Torsional creep causes the windings to touch, causing overheating or shorting. Figures adapted from H.J. Frost and M.F. Ashby, Deformation-Mechanism Maps, (1982) Pergamon Press, Oxford, England, pp. 150-153.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

No sagging in a doped W filament.

Sagging of an undoped W filament.

Interlocking grain structure prevents sag.

Non-interlocked grain structure promotes sag.

Figures from J.R. Davis editor, ASM Specialty Handbook on Heat-Resistant Metals (ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1997) p. 370.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Whats happening? contd

As-drawn A d

Recrystallized R lli d

Drawn wire has fine-grained microstructure w/ grains elongated in the drawing direction. direction After high temperature exposure, pure W wires recrystallize producing a bamboo structure (i.e., grains w/ diameters = wire diameter, grain lengths >> wire diameter, and grain boundaries essentially perpendicular to the wire axis). Under the stress produced by gravity, these boundaries can slide past one another via diffusion related mechanisms (i.e., creep) leading to rapid failure. ( , p) g p
Figures from C.J.M. Denissen, J. Liebe, and M. van Rijswick, International Journal of Refractory & Hard Materials, 24 (2006) pp. 321-324. Prof. M.L. Weaver

Whats happening? contd

(a) (b)

1 m

(c)
0.2 m 100 m

Micrographs of undoped tungsten. TEM micrographs of (a) as-drawn wire and (b) following annealing at 1300C. Note that annealing has resulted in abnormal grain growth. (c) Optical micrograph of hot pressed and recrystallized W laminate revealing the formation of bamboo-like grains Figures (a) and (b) from D B bamboo like grains. D.B. Snow, Metallurgical Transactions A, 10A (1979) 815-821. Figure (c) from P. Szozdowski and G. Welsch, Scripta Materialia, 41 (1999) pp. 1241-1245
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Gravity

Fig. 14.12 Offsets in an undoped W filament caused by prolonged operation at high temperatures. Grain growth followed by grain boundary sliding leads to premature burnout of the filament. Figure adapted from A.M. Russell and K.L. Lee, Structure-Property Relations in Nonferrous Metals, (John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 2005) p. 241.

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Whats happening? contd When a light bulb is turned on, the filament undergoes h li h b lb i d h fil d thermal expansion along its length. This expansion is transient and non-uniform. Leads to a tensile force along wire length a force GBs.

After a long enough p g g period of operation, the force will p become large enough to cause intergranular fracture of the filament.

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Solution
HOW DO WE SOLVE THE PROBLEM? O O SO O ? Inhibit creep and recrystallization. recr stalli ation Non-sag (NS) W is produced by doping with potassium [1] [1]. Insoluble in W. Forms bubbles along GBs (see next page). These bubbles inhibit normal recrystallization of the W wire, leading to the development of an interlocked grain structure that inhibits grain boundary sliding and increases creep resistance [2]. The i Th images on the next few pages detail this. h f d il hi
[1] J.L. Walter and C.L. Briant, Tungsten wire for incandescent lamps, Journal of Materials Research, 5 (1990) pp. 2004 2022 2004-2022. [2] C.L. Briant, O. Horacsek, and K. Horacsek, The effect of wire history on the coarsened substructure and secondary recrystallization of doped tungsten, Metallurgical Transactions A, 24a (1993) 843-851.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Solution contd
(a) (b)

0.2 m 2 m
(a) Scanning electron micrograph of the fracture surface of a K-doped W ingot after initial sintering but before drawing into fine wire. The larger voids (~1 m) are ordinary sintering pores. They are empty and will collapse during swaging and wire drawing. The smaller defects (~100 nm) are K bubbles that formed during initial sintering. These smaller bubbles will also collapse during subsequent cold work, but they contain minute amounts of solid K that will elongate during the swaging and wire drawing. (b) TEM micrograph showing the bubble arrangement in doped W wire. When the light bulb filament is first turned on, these needle-shaped K phases vaporize, forming a string of 10 nm diameter bubbles that pin grain boundaries and prevent filament sag. Figures adapted from C.L. Briant, O. Horacsek, and K. Horacsek, Metallurgical Transactions A, 24 (1993) 843-851. Figure (b) from
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Whats happening? contd

Recrystallized structure of W wires. (a) Doped lamp grade exhibiting interlocking grain structure. structure (b) Undoped grade exhibiting equiaxed structure and the beginning of abnormal grain growth growth. (c) Finger-like grain growth in doped W wire. Figure adapted from J.R. Davis, editor; ASM Specialty Handbook on HeatResistant Materials (ASM International, Materials, International Materials Park, OH, 1997) p. 370.
(c)
Prof. M.L. Weaver

(a)

100 m

(b)

100 m

100 m

A Typical Materials Selection Problem

Engineers designing computer systems for long-term use in Earth orbit or in space deliberately use 1980s 1980 s era microprocessors as opposed to modern ones. Why? Wh ?

Macro- and micro-structures play a role! M d i t t l l !

Are there solutions that could potentially allow the use of modern microprocessors?

Prof. M.L. Weaver

Solution
Semiconducting devices are very susceptible to radiation damage (see ref. [1] for an introduction). I t Intense and prolonged irradiation produces point defects [2]. d l d i di ti d i t d f t [2] Can impede dislocation motion and hardens the material, Can agglomerate to form dislocation loops and voids. When present, point, line, and volume defects degrade the performance of semiconductor devices.

[1] A.M. Russell and K.L. Lee, Structure-Property Relations in Nonferrous Metals, John W ey So s, obo e , Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ (1990) pp. 98-100. ( 990) 98 00. [2] G.S. Was, Fundamentals of Radiation Materials Science, Springer, New York, NY (2007).
Prof. M.L. Weaver

Solution contd
M d Modern microprocessors h i have much smaller feature sizes than 1980s h ll f i h 1980 microprocessors. Makes them more susceptible to failure due to solar flare radiation and cosmic rays. As a result, older technology is generally incorporated into spacecraft. An account is provided in Ref. [3]. This paper summarizes observations from NASAs Galileo program. This paper is worth reading! (Sometimes you can learn more from old papers than newer ones)
[3] F.L. Bouqet, W.E. Price, and D.M. Newell, Designers guide to radiation effects on ate a s o o Jup te y bys a d o b te s, ansactions Nuclea materials for use on Jupiter fly-bys and orbiters, IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science, v. NS-26, n. 4 (1979) pp. 4660-4669.
Prof. M.L. Weaver

What does it mean?

Must take in to account more than continuum considerations. considerations Must consider structures of materials. Sometimes structures change in service. Thus properties can change. Must be accounted for. Particularly important where long term mechanical long-term performance is concerned.

Prof. M.L. Weaver