Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Guide Book 3
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS
STRATEGY
3E
STRATEGY
RA
LS
AND
EN
TSI
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
RG
MI
N
HOW TO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS
This booklet is part of the 3E strategy series. It provides advice on practical ways of improving energy efficiency in compressed air systems. Prepared for the European Commission DG TREN by: The Energy Research Institute Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Cape Town Rondebosch 7700 Cape Town South Africa This project is funded by the European Commission and co-funded by the Dutch Ministry of Economics, the South African Department of Minerals and Energy and Technology Services International , with the Chief contractor being ETSU. Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on behalf of the commission, nor NOVEM, ETSU, ERI, nor any of the information sources is responsible for the use of the information contained in this publication The views and judgements given in this publication do not necessarily represent the views of the European Commission
HOW TO SAVE ENERGY AND MONEY IN COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS
Other titles in the 3E strategy series: HOW TO HOW TO HOW TO HOW TO HOW TO HOW TO SAVE SAVE SAVE SAVE SAVE SAVE ENERGY AND ENERGY AND ENERGY AND ENERGY AND ENERGY AND ENERGY AND MONEY:THE 3E STRATEGY MONEY IN ELECTRICITY USE MONEY IN BOILERS AND FURNACES MONEY IN STEAM SYSTEMS MONEY IN REFRIGERATION MONEY IN insulation
Copies of these guides may be obtained from: The Energy Research Institute Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Cape Town Rondebosch 7700 Cape Town South Africa Tel No: (+27 21) 650 3892 Fax No: (+27 21) 686 4838 Email: 3E@eng.uct.ac.za Website: http://www.3e.uct.ac.za/introduction.htm
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Energy Research Institute would like to acknowledge the following for their contribution in the production of this guide: Energy Technology Support Unit (ETSU), UK, for permission to use information from the Energy Efficiency Best Practice series of handbooks. Wilma Walden of Studio.com for graphic design work (Walden@grm.co.za). Doug Geddes of South African Breweries for the cover colour photography.
Table of Contents
UNITS ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................1 1. INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................................................................................3 2. ECONOMICS OF COMPRESSED AIR PRODUCTION.........................................................................................................5 2.1 Calculating electricity costs a simple calculation ...........................................................................................................5 2.1.1 For a compressor running at full load.........................................................................................................................5 2.1.2 A Calculation using Measurements ..............................................................................................................................6 2.2 A Calculation for Part Load Operation ...................................................................................................................................6 2.3 Savings from Performance Improvements...............................................................................................................................6 3. REDUCING COMPRESSED AIR DEMAND TO SAVE ENERGY .....................................................................................7 3.1 Compressed Air Usage........................................................................................................................................................................7 3.2 Assessing Air Needs ..............................................................................................................................................................................7 3.2.1 Air Quality...................................................................................................................................................................................7 3.2.2 Air Quantity - Capacity .......................................................................................................................................................8 3.2.3 Load Profile.................................................................................................................................................................................8 3.3 Compressed Air Misuse ......................................................................................................................................................................9 3.3.1 Unregulated End-Uses..........................................................................................................................................................9 3.3.2 Abandoned Equipment.....................................................................................................................................................10 3.3.3 Periods when Compressed Air is not Required ................................................................................................10 3.4 Leaks .........................................................................................................................................................................................................10 3.4.1 Estimating Amount of Leakage.....................................................................................................................................11 3.4.2 Leak Detection ......................................................................................................................................................................12 3.4.3 How to Fix Leaks .................................................................................................................................................................12 3.4.4 A Leak Prevention Program...........................................................................................................................................13 4. EFFICIENT COMPRESSED AIR DISTRIBUTION .....................................................................................................................14 4.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................................................................14 4.2 Distribution Main..................................................................................................................................................................................15 4.3 Water Drainage .....................................................................................................................................................................................18 4.4 Drain Traps................................................................................................................................................................................................18 4.5 Air Receivers ...........................................................................................................................................................................................19 4.6 Regulators..................................................................................................................................................................................................20 4.7 Distribution Network........................................................................................................................................................................20 4.8 Maintenance .............................................................................................................................................................................................21 4.9 System isolation.....................................................................................................................................................................................21
5. COMPRESSED AIR TREATMENT........................................................................................................................................................22 5.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................................................................................22 5.2 Dryers ........................................................................................................................................................................................................24 5.2.1 Desiccant Dryers..................................................................................................................................................................24 5.2.2 Sorption Dryers ....................................................................................................................................................................25 5.2.3 Deliquescent (Absorption) Dryers............................................................................................................................25 5.2.4 Refrigeration Dryers ..........................................................................................................................................................25 5.3 After Filters ..............................................................................................................................................................................................25 5.4 Air Intakes ................................................................................................................................................................................................25 5.4.1 Air Inlet Cooling....................................................................................................................................................................26 5.5 Installation, Configuration and Sizing ......................................................................................................................................26 5.6 Treatment Systems Maintenance................................................................................................................................................27 5.7 Potential saving areas ........................................................................................................................................................................27 6. COMPRESSED AIR GENERATION ..................................................................................................................................................28 6.1 Positive Displacement Compressors ......................................................................................................................................29 6.1.1 Reciprocating Compressors...........................................................................................................................................29 6.1.2 Rotary Positive Displacement Compressors........................................................................................................29 6.2 Dynamic Compressors ....................................................................................................................................................................30 6.3 Energy Efficient Compressor Selection..................................................................................................................................30 6.4 Energy Efficient Compressor Control ....................................................................................................................................31 6.4.1 Individual Compressor Control ........................................................................................................................................32 6.4.2 Multiple Compressor Control ......................................................................................................................................34 6.4.3 The Importance of Pressure Control ......................................................................................................................35 6.5 Sizing ........................................................................................................................................................................................................36 6.6 Maintenance ............................................................................................................................................................................................36 6.6.1 Compressor Package..........................................................................................................................................................37 6.6.2 Compressor Drives ............................................................................................................................................................37 6.7 Heat Recovery........................................................................................................................................................................................39 6.7.1 Heat Recovery with Air-cooled Compressors....................................................................................................39 6.7.2 Heat Recovery with Water-cooled Compressors ............................................................................................40 6.7.3 Calculating Compressor Heat Energy Savings ....................................................................................................40 6.7.4 Use of Hot Compressed Air for Process Duties ..............................................................................................40 6.8 Site Integration to Save Energy ..................................................................................................................................................41
7. MONITORING OF COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEMS..................................................................................................................42 7.1 Monitoring ................................................................................................................................................................................................42 7.1.1 Compressors ..........................................................................................................................................................................42 7.1.2 Air Flow Meters ....................................................................................................................................................................43 7.1.3 Compressor House Airflow Metering......................................................................................................................44 7.1.4 Distribution Line Airflow Metering ............................................................................................................................45 7.2 Monitoring and targeting ................................................................................................................................................................45 8. COMPRESSED AIR AUDITS ..................................................................................................................................................................46 8.1 End Usage Audit ....................................................................................................................................................................................46 8.1.1 Leaks ............................................................................................................................................................................................46 8.1.2 End Users..................................................................................................................................................................................47 8.2 Distribution Network Audit..........................................................................................................................................................47 8.3 Air Treatment Audit ............................................................................................................................................................................47 8.4 Compressor House Audit ..............................................................................................................................................................47 APPENDIX 1: METER DETAILS ................................................................................................................................................................49 A1.1 Pitot Tube ............................................................................................................................................................................................49 A1.2 Orifice Plate........................................................................................................................................................................................49 A1.3 Turbine Meters..................................................................................................................................................................................50 A1.4 Vortex Shedding Meters ............................................................................................................................................................51
UNITS
Since South Africa mainly uses metric units, these are the first choice in this guide. However, Imperial units are often given as well in parenthesis. The units used are given in the table below:
Table 1: Unit Conversions Pressure absolute Pressure gauge Flow, volumetric l/sec Power Energy Specific energy Metric bar barg l/sec cfm kW kWh J/l Imperial psi psig cfm 1 l/s = 2 cfm (approx) hp Btu Conversion 1 barg = 14.7 psig 1 barg = 14.7 psi 1 l/s = 2 cfm (approx) J/l 1 kW = 1.34 hp 1 kWh = 3412.4 Btu
ABBREVIATIONS: psi: pounds per square inch psig: pounds per square inch gauge l/sec: litres per second cfm: cubic feet per minute J/l: Joules/litre kW: kilowatt hp: horsepower kWh: kilowatt-hour Btu: British thermal units Pressure absolute = pressure gauge + 1 bar 1 bar = 100 kPa Standard atmospheric pressure = 1.013 bar
1. INTRODUCTION
This guide has been written to provide those responsible for energy management and maintenance of compressed air systems with opportunities for optimising system performance in terms of cost. Significant cost savings can be realised as a result of implementation of the energy efficient measures outlined in this booklet. avoidable wastage. This can be done without compromising production at all. Another factor that should be taken into account is the awareness of end users, who often tend to regard compressed air as a free and convenient resource and usually overlook the high cost of compressed air relative to other energy mediums. With typical energy savings of 30%, the annual potential savings are illustrated in the table below for the various compressor capacities. This table has used Eskom's Megaflex tariff rate for energy charges only. The 40 hr week assumes an annual three-week shutdown period and the 168 hr week assumes continuous operation. These figures are approximate, and differences due to electricity tariffs and hours of operation as well as the utilisation of the full compressor capacity should be expected. This guide provides the compressed air user with information on how to improve or optimise the design, performance and operation of compressed air systems from an energy efficiency (and therefore cost) perspective.
Compressed air as an energy-transmitting medium is versatile, flexible and safe, making it a popular choice and ensuring its continued use in industry.
Typically, compressed air accounts for about 10% of the total electrical power consumed by industry. For a time frame of 10 years, the cumulative costs of compressed air comprise of 10% maintenance, 15% capital and 75% energy. Therefore the implementation of a program to reduce energy consumption in compressed air systems (as outlined in this booklet) can translate into significant financial sayings.
Generally 30% of the total electrical energy used to compress air is wasted, and potential savings could be reaped through the introduction of simple cost effective measures that minimize this
Table 2: Potential Savings Compressor Capacity KW 18 90 160 315 litres/sec 55 250 500 1000 Cfm 110 500 1000 2000 Annual Potential Savings (Rands) 40hr/week 168hr/week 1,704 4,118: 8,520 23,590 15,146 41,937 29,818 82,563
The key areas that savings can be derived from are: The use/misuse/demand of compressed air (Chapter 3). The distribution of compressed air (Chapter 4). The treatment of compressed air (Chapter 5). Compressed air generation (Chapter 6). Compressed air control/monitoring (Chapter 7). The best approach to take to obtain these savings would be to tackle the main areas mentioned above sequentially and in a structured manner. For example leakage (coming under compressed air distribution, Chapter 3) and control (Chapter 6) of
compressed air systems are the biggest waste areas and could account for up to 70% of the total wastage. The guide looks at the recovery of the considerable amounts of waste heat generated via the thermodynamic process of air compression. Sections on system management and auditing are incorporated into the latter sections of guide. At the end of the guide, the potential savings that can be derived from the implementation of some of the energy efficient techniques described are illustrated in the presentation of three South African case studies.
The delivery of compressed air requires costly equipment that consumes large amounts of electricity and needs frequent maintenance. However many users are not aware how much money they could save annually by improving the performance of their compressed air systems. Electricity is the largest cost in producing compressed air. Initial capital costs are usually exceeded by electricity costs after a short period, about one-year (depending on the type of compressor, manufacturer and the electricity charges). Maintenance costs could be ten percent or more of the initial cost of the system depending on the system quality and usage. The following sections of this chapter deal with a simple calculation estimating annual electricity costs.
loaded as a percentage of the electrical consumption when fully loaded. For a compressor that runs fully loaded for 65% of the time and at 0.3 of full load for 35% of the time: Annual Electricity Energy Costs = 52 weeks Motor rating (kW) x 24 hrs x 7 days x 0.9 x 0.0746 R/kWh x (0.65 + 0.3 x 0.35) Electrical utilities such as Eskom bill industrial customers at different rates and have more complicated rate structures such as Megaflex. These charges include energy (R/kWh) and demand charges (R/kVA) and have different rates depending on the season, time of day and level of consumption. It may be possible to restructure demand to cheaper off-peak tariff times, this must be kept in mind when calculating potential savings.
Therefore, Annual Electricity Energy Costs = Full load amps x volts x Power factor 1000
3.2
Air needs are defined by the air quality, quantity and pressure required by the end uses in your plant. Assessing needs carefully will ensure that a compressed air system is configured properly.
Two commonplace examples of misuse are using compressed air for cleaning or cooling duties: alternatives exist for cleaning benches, and cooling duties can generally be carried out using high pressure fans or a lower pressure
Table 3: Ranges of Air Quality Plant Air Air tools, air-actuated valves, general plant air Instrument Air Process Air Laboraties, paint spraying, Food and pharmaceutical powder coating, process air, electronics climate control Breathing Air Hospital air systems, diving tank refill stations, respirators for cleaning and/or grit blasting
the dryness and contaminant level required by the end-uses, and is accomplished with filtering and drying equipment.The higher the quality, the more the air costs to produce. Higher quality air usually requires additional equipment, which not only increases initial capital investment, but also makes the overall system more expensive to operate in terms of energy consumption and maintenance costs. One of the main factors in determining air quality is whether or not lubricant-free air is required. Lubricant-free air can be produced with either lubricant-free compressors, or with lubricantinjected compressors that have additional separation and filtration equipment. Lubricant-free rotary screw and reciprocating compressors usually have higher capital costs, lower efficiency and higher maintenance costs than lubricantinjected compressors. However, the additional separation and filtration equipment required by lubricant-injected compressors will cause some reduction in efficiency, especially if systems are not properly maintained. Careful consideration should be given to the specific end-use for the lubricantfree air, including the risk and cost associated with product contamination, before selecting a lubricant-free or lubricant-injected compressor.
effective. In most cases, a thorough evaluation of system demand may result in a control strategy that will meet system demand with reduced overall compressor capacity. Oversized air compressors are extremely inefficient because most systems use more energy per unit volume of air produced when operating at part-load. In many cases it makes sense to use multiple, smaller compressors with sequencing controls to allow for efficient operation at times when demand is less than peak. If a system is properly designed and maintained but is still experiencing capacity problems, an alternative to adding another compressor is to re-examine the use of compressed air for certain applications. For some tasks, blowers or electric tools may be more effective or appropriate.
3.2.3.2 PRESSURE
Different tools and process operations require different pressures. Pneumatic tool manufacturers rate tools for specific pressures, and the process engineers should specify process operation pressure requirements. Required pressure levels must take into account system losses from dryers, separators, filters, and piping. As mentioned before, a rule of thumb is that every 0.14 bar (2psi) increase in operating pressure requires an additional 1% in operating energy costs.
Apply a vacuum system instead of making a vacuum using compressed air Venturi methods that flow high-pressure air past an orifice. Use blowers instead of compressed air to provide cooling, aspirating, agitating, mixing, or to inflate packaging. Use brushes, blowers, or vacuum systems instead of compressed air to clean parts or remove debris. Use blowers, electric actuators, or hydraulics instead of compressed air blasts to move parts. Use low-pressure air instead of highpressure compressed air for blowguns and air lances. Use efficient electric motors for tools or actuators where safe and appropriate. (Electric tools can have less precise torque control, shorter lives, and lack the safety of compressed air powered tools). Use dedicated high-pressure blowers rather than compressed air for air knives. On conveyors, these can be automatically switched off if the product stops passing beneath the knife.
Other improper uses of compressed air are unregulated end-uses and supply air to abandoned equipment, both of which are described below.
3.4 LEAKS
This subject, which comes under the general heading of misuse, is treated on its own in this booklet because it is the single, biggest waste area and yet one of the simplest and cheapest to control and obtain savings. A system with 5% of demand as leaks is said to be excellent and one with 10% is good. Systems with leaks as high as 70% of demand have been measured. Leakage is not only a direct source of wasted energy, but is also an indirect contributor to operating costs. As leaks increase, system pressure drops, air tools function less efficiently and production is affected. Often the only solution is to increase generation pressure to compensate for the losses. Increased running time can also lead to additional maintenance requirements and increased unscheduled downtime. Leaks can lead to adding unnecessary compressor capacity.
Table 4: Power wastage through leaks Hole Diameter mm 0.4 (pin head) 1.6 (match head) 3.0 Air leakage at 7barg l/s 0.2 3.1 11.0 Cfm 0.4 6.2 22.0 Power required to compress air being wasted kW 0.1 1.0 3.5
Table 5: Cost of Leaks in South Africa Compressor Capacity [kW] Annual Compressed Air Costs [R] 4Ohr/week utilisation [R] 75% 50% 18 90 160 315 4260 21300 7865 74545 2840 14200 25244 49697 l68hr/week utilisation [R] 75% 50% 11795 58975 104843 206408 7864 39317 69895 137605
10
While leakage can come from any part of the system, the most common problem areas are: Couplings, hoses, tubes, and fittings, Open condensate traps and shut-off valves, and Pipe joints, disconnects, and threadsealant. Leaking pressure regulators: Air cooling lines left open permanently; Air-using equipment left in operation when not needed.
test should be carried out to establish the percentage leakage from the system.
It is estimated that UK industry wastes up to 100m (a billion Rand) each year on air leaks. Table 4 gives an example of how even very small holes can contribute to energy wastage. Leaks can be a significant source of wasted energy in an industrial compressed air system, sometimes wasting 20-30% of a compressors output. A typical plant that has not been well maintained will likely have a leak rate equal to 20% of total compressed air production capacity. On the other hand, active leak detection and repair can reduce leaks to less than 10% of compressor output. The first step in tackling leaks is to recognise the costs involved and make a commitment to a plantwide awareness program. Regular, continuous attention to the compressed air system coupled with proper maintenance will lead to effective progress in minimising leaks.
Leakage (l/sec) = (Q x T)/(T + t) Leakage (%) = [(T x 100)/(T + t)] Where: Q = air capacity of the compressor (litres/sec).
11
Leakage (litres/sec) =
Derivation of the equation above: System volume = V (m ) Initial pressure of system = P1 (barg) Final pressure of system = P2 (barg) Time for pressure decline = T (secs) Atmospheric pressure = Pa 1.013 bar Initial quantity of free air = {(P1+Pa) 3 Initial quantity of free air = {(P1+Pa)/ x V (m ) Initial quantity of free air = Pa} Final quantity of free air = {(P2+Pa) 3 Final quantity of free air = {(P2+Pa)/ x V (m ) Final quantity of free air = Pa} Therefore, flow-rate Therefore, flow-rate Therefore, flow-rate =(V P1+Pa - P2+Pa 3 = (m /sec) = T Pa Pa =(V/TP1-P2)/Pa} 3(m /sec) =(V/T) x {(P(m3 /sec) =(T PPa (m /sec) The above temperature. ( V/T) x (P1-P2) since Pa 1 (V/TP1 P2 since Pa 1 T ) x (P P2) since Pa 1 assume constant
3 3
An Ultrasonic Leak Detector is a more effective leak detection method as it can detect leaks against a background of other equipment noise. The detectors work by picking up the very high frequency sound emitted by a leak, inaudible to the human ear.They are simple to use and do not pick up frequencies emitted by the mechanical actions of machines. These portable units consist of directional microphones, amplifiers, and audio filters, and usually have either visual indicators or earphones to detect leaks
( ) ( ) ( )
equations
Having established the size of the problem, a realistic target for leakage rate (say 10%) should be set. No-load tests should then be carried out regularly, approximately every two to three months, with inspections when necessary during shutdown conditions.
12
will result in reduced leakage rates. Stabilising the system header pressure at its lowest practical range will minimize the leakage (as well as minimize compressor load and thus electrical demand). Where a system cannot be shut down to test for leaks this method is recommended. Once leaks have been repaired, the compressor control system should be re-evaluated to realize the total savings potential.
A leak prevention program should be part of an overall program aimed at improving the performance of compressed air systems. Once the leaks are found and repaired, the system should be re-evaluated. Having established the size of the leakage problem, an aggressive campaign of leak reduction should take place. Targets should be set and careful monitoring of results conducted. This work will involve inspections during silent hours checking for pipe work and tool leaks, and checking hoses and couplings for air tightness. Following this program the leakage rate should be re-measured and the work continued until the target is met. This is an ongoing exercise, which must be repeated every six months at least, otherwise problems, and energy and money losses will return.
13
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Having investigated possibilities for reducing the end usage of air and having determined the extent of leakage, the next step is to examine the distribution network. The main factors that affect energy consumption at this stage are: Pressure losses due to inadequate pipe sizing; Water condensing in the lines, causing damage to components and also reducing pipe cross-sectional areas which leads to additional pressure losses; Air leakage from pipework and end-using equipment, due to poor maintenance and in many cases permanently open condensate drain valves.
A typical compressed air system is outlined in Figure 1 below.The following sections refer to this diagram, describing the main design criteria and components.
14
isolate areas operating different working patterns; Alteration or extension of the distribution system is made easy.
Ideally a ring main should be placed around each building and a single branch point should feed the main, enabling each area of the network to be metered by a single meter. An example of such a network is given below.
15
Airline diameters are usually based on calculations of throughput velocities. A figure of approximately 6.0 m/s is the accepted target value, because this is sufficiently low to prevent an excessive pressure drop.Table 6 utilises the maximum recommended flow in various line sizes based on a 7 barg output pressure. For a quick reference the nomographs outlined in Figures 3 and 4 are a useful guide to sizing distribution lines. The distribution system should be designed to cause no more than 0.2 bar pressure drop at full demand at the point of use.
Table 6: Maximum recommended flow rates Pipe Bore mm 10 25 50 65 80 100 150 Max Flow Cfm 10 55 220 375 500 875 1,900
16
When sizing ring mains it is advisable to err on the high side as future demand may increase. The consequence of under-sizing is very significant in energy efficiency terms, because air velocity will be excessive leading to high-pressure drops and nonseparation of condensed water. The table below shows the power wasted for different pipe diameters with a flow rate of 500 l/s (1,000cfm) at 7barg pressure. Compressor house to ring main feeds should be
oversized to avoid pressure drop problems. As a guide it is recommended that a pipe of twice the cross-sectional area of that used for the ring main be selected. Higher air velocities (up to 20 m/s) are acceptable where the distribution pipe-work does not exceed 8 meters in length.This would be the case where dedicated compressors are installed near to an associated large end user.
17
All drain traps require occasional maintenance, to remove any build-up of oils or emulsions, which may be present in the condensate. If oil or emulsion build-up is heavy, consideration should be given to using drain trays, which have a blast action discharge.
18
4.5
AIR RECEIVERS
Air receivers are designed to provide a supply buffer to meet short-term demand spikes, which can exceed the compressor capacity. They also serve to dampen compressor pulsation, separate out particles and liquids, and make the compressed air system easier to control. Installing a larger receiver tank to meet occasional peak demands can even allow for the use of a smaller compressor. In most systems, the receiver will be located just after the dryer. In some cases it makes sense to use multiple receivers, one prior to the dryer and one closer to points of intermittent use. Storage can be used to control demand events (peak demand periods) in the system by controlling both the amount of pressure drop and the rate of decay. Storage can be used to protect critical pressure applications from other events in the system. Storage can also be used to control the rate of pressure drop in demand while supporting the speed of transmission response from supply. Many
systems have a compressor operating in modulation to support demand events, and sometimes strategic storage solutions can allow for this compressor to be turned off. Storage can also help systems ride through compressor failure or short energy outages. Receivers have three main functions:
Providing storage capacity; Acting as a secondary cooler; Creating more stable pressure conditions, effectively acting as pulsation dampers. On most installations, the receiver is fed from the after-cooler and further cooling will take place in the receiver. On installations where the compressor plant is small, an after-cooler may not be fitted, making the receiver the point at which most condensed liquid will be found. If liquid is allowed to build up in the receiver, carry-over into the ring main is likely, with resulting efficiency implications. The receiver, therefore, needs to be fitted with both automatic and manual drain traps, in order to remove the condensate and any carryover solids such as dust, scale, carbon and so on.
19
4.6
REGULATORS
Some applications, such as control and instrumentation, require air at a pressure lower than the main supply and in these circumstances, if a separate pressure system cannot be installed, then regulators should be fitted. Figure 6 illustrates a direct-acting regulator. Excellent savings can be achieved by reducing pressure at the usage point as opposed to over supplying the pressure. The air consumption of most air-using devices, such as air tools, spray guns and air knives, increases in proportion to the operating pressure ratio. Reducing pressure to the minimum acceptable saves energy.
and other air line component sizing which cause high flow velocities and pressure drops. All systems should be designed to minimise pressure drops. It is worthwhile obtaining a flow/pressure profile of the distribution network to establish where the bottlenecks occur and how they can be overcome. Air velocities should not exceed 6 meters per second in the main components of a distribution system. The distribution system should be designed to cause no more than 0.1-0.2 bar pressure drop at full demand at the usage points. The nomograph shown in Figure 7 is a useful method of arriving at pipe sizes. In conjunction with establishing the correct pipe diameters for the flow, a check on the pressure drops caused by the major valves and fittings should be made.Table 8 gives the equivalent pipe length for these components at the relative nominal pipe diameter. The equivalent lengths should be added to the actual pipe length to be used, and the total length should then be used with the nomograph shown in figure 7 for finalising the pipe diameter.
20
Equivalent Pipe lengths in meters Inner Pipe Diameter (mm) Item Gate valve Fully open Gate valve Half closed Diaphragm valve Fully open Angle valve Fully open Globe valve Fully open Ball valve (full bore) Fully open Ball valve (red. bore) Fully open Swing check valve Fully open Bend R=2d Bend R=d Mitre bend 90 Run of tee Side outlet tee Reducer 15 0.1 20 0.2 32 0.6 1.5 2.7 0.5 3.4 1.0 2.6 4.8 0.2 4.9 1.3 0.1 0.2 0.6 0.6 0.2 0.3 1.0 0.3 1.0 0.3 25 0.3 5 1.3 4 7.5 0.2 2.4 2.0 0.3 0.4 1.5 0.5 1.5 0.5 40 0.5 8 2.5 6 12 0.4 2.2 3.2 .5 0.6 2.4 0.8 2.4 0.7 50 0.6 10 3 7 15 0.3 5 4 0.6 0.8 3 1.0 3 1.0 80 1.0 16 4.5 12 24 0.4 2.6 6.4 1.0 1.3 4.8 1.6 4.8 2 100 1.3 20 6 13 30 0.3 4.1 8 1.2 1.6 6 2 6 2.5 125 1.6 30 8 18 38 0.5 3.3 10 1.5 2 7.5 2.5 7.5 3.1 150 1.9 40 10 22 45 0.6 12.1 12 1.8 2.4 9 3 9 3.6 30 60 0.6 22.3 16 2.4 3.2 12 4 12 4.8 200 2.6
4.8 MAINTENANCE
Piping systems need regular inspection and maintenance. Inspections for leaks, checking drains and blowing down contamination are all worthwhile measures to avoid energy losses.
do not require compressed air. In these cases the compressed air system in the idle plant should be isolated from the active plant. For example, an assembly department should be isolated during non-productive hours to prevent wastage due to leakage or misuse. Manually or electronically operated zone isolation valves can be installed in the distribution network to shut off at properly arranged times.
21
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Air treatment is often required in order to provide compressed air of the quality required at the point of use.This avoids product contamination, product spoilage and poor control of, or damage to, air-using equipment. Treatment needs energy in terms of additional generation pressure, and possibly additional compressed air or electrical demand depending on the type of treatment used. Compressing air concentrates the contaminants per unit of volume of air delivered at pressure. Compressed air can be contaminated by water vapour; condensate; particulate matter (either airborne or pipe-scale); oil in vapour or liquid state (either inhaled by the compressor from the atmosphere or added during compression); and microbes. The amount of treatment will depend on the users needs. The desired air quality in terms of dirt water, oil and microbial burden is achieved by treatment after compression.The higher the quality specified, the greater the energy consumed by the treatment system, and the higher the additional generation pressure needed to overcome losses during treatment. Table 9 gives the ISO/DIS recommendations on air quality classes. Treatment systems range from a simple aftercooler, which is neatly always supplied with the compressor package, through to filters and refrigerated, sorption, deliquescent and desiccant dryers.There are many variations of each system; Some are more energy efficient than others. The requirement for high quality compressed air is increasing as production methods become more sophisticated. A general breakdown of recommended standards for different manufacturing applications is included in Table 10. This table is intended for guidance only; in practice there are very many other combinations needed. There is a very wide range of requirements for air quality. It is important to install the right equipment, and equally important to keep the energy requirements within reason. Every effort should be made to avoid unnecessary levels of treatment. The type of compressor used is important. An oilfree machine could save one filtration stage over an oil-injected compressor, so for high quality air requirements an oil-free machine should be purchased wherever possible. In addition to the treatment savings, other benefits include increased efficiency and longevity, and in cases where a desiccant dryer is used there is no chance of contamination of the desiccant by compressor oil. However, when oil-free machines are used in heavily polluted atmospheres, it is still necessary to remove oil by filtration. Many plants need only part of the air treated to very high quality. In these cases, treating all the generated air to the minimum acceptable level and improving the quality to the desired level close to the usage points can achieve excellent savings Ambient air typically contains 12.5g of water for every 1 m3 of free saturated air at 15C. If a compressor produces air at 500 1/sec (1,000 cfm),
22
Table 9: Air quality classifications ISO/DIS 8573.1 QUALITY CLASS DIRT Particle size (micron) 0.1 1 5 15 40 DIRT Concentration (mg/rn3) 0.1 1 5 8 10 WATER OIL Pressure dew point (including vapour) (C (ppm vol) at (mg/m3) 7bar) -70(0.3) -40(16) -20(128) +3(940) +7(1240) +10(1500) No Spec 0.01 0.1 1 5 25 N/A N/A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Table 10 General Recommended Standards for Air Purity Application classes Air agitation Air bearings Air gauging Air motors Brick and glass machines Cleaning of machine parts Construction Conveying, granular products Conveying powder products Fluidics, power circuits Fluidics, sensors Foundry machines Food and beverages Hand operated air tools Machine tools Mining Micro-electronics manufacture Packaging and textile machines Photographic film processing Pneumatic cylinders Pneumatic tools Process control instruments Paint spraying Sand blasting Welding machines General workshop air Oil 3 2 2 4 4 4 4 3 2 4 2 4 2 4 4 4 1 4 1 3 4 2 3 4 4 Typical Quality Classes Dirt 2 3 4-1 4 5 4 3 4 21 4 3 5-4 3 5 1 3 1 3 4 2 3 3 4 4 Water 2 3 5 4 5 3 2 4 2 5 1 5-4 5 5 1 3 1 5 4 3 3 3 5 5
23
the compressed air produced each hour will contain 22.5 l of water. Provided the free air is maintained at about 15C, the water will remain as vapour: however, if the air is cooled or compressed the water will be condensed. The temperature at which water condenses is known as the dew point. The rise in air temperature in the compressor generally prevents condensation, but when the air passes though the after-cooler a large amount of water could condense. Typically the air temperature following the after-cooler will be around 35C and water content will have been reduced. Water will, however, still be present as vapour and if the air temperature falls there will be further water condensation. Figure 8 shows the amount of water removal required for differing end temperatures. To remove significantly more water from the compressed air than can be achieved by aftercooling, a dryer is necessary. Air dryers typically take the air from the compressor after-cooler at a maximum temperature of 35C.
5.2 DRYERS
5.2.1 DESICCANT DRYERS
For class 1.1.1 quality air, heated or heatless twin tower desiccant dryers with special desiccant and drying cycles are employed. Oil removal filters, water removal filters, dust removal filters and an activated carbon absorber unit are also needed. This type of system consumes a lot of energy, requiring up to 15% of the compressed air or electrical equivalent for desiccant regeneration, and there is pressure drop across the filters, when in service, of up to 1.5 bar, which will require additional generation pressure. The example 500 l/s, compressor, when supplying 1.1.1 quality air, would cost 21% per annum more due to the treatment devices than if it were simply delivering after-cooled air. As the requirement for air quality becomes less intense than 1.1.1, the energy requirement reduces.
Figure 8:Water removal each week from 500 l/sec of 7 barg air. (Source: ETSU)
24
The example compressor, when supplying air of 2.2.1 quality, would only cost 15% more than delivering after-cooled air if it used a lower specification desiccant dryer with pre- and afterfilters performing at 40C pressure dew-point.
25
waste energy. Ducting between air intake and compressor should be short, straight and have a generous diameter. The condition of the air entering the compressor is extremely important, since fouling of inlet filters and high ambient air temperatures can result in significant energy wastage. For every 4C drop in intake temperature, there is a 1% increase in efficiency. For every 25 mbar pressure lost at the inlet, the compressor efficiency is reduced by 2%.
the compressor manufacturer, otherwise problems may occur with possible damage to the compressor and overloading of, the main drive motor.
To justify air inlet cooling, high annual utilisation is needed, producing payback on the capital cost of between two and five years depending on local conditions.
Dryers should be installed in well-ventilated areas. For continuous processes, all filters should be duplexed with changeover valves for ease of maintenance. A dryer by-pass should also be installed for emergency maintenance; this must be locked off during normal running to prevent accidental operation, which would contaminate the dry air main.
Filters should be adequately sized for the duty. As mentioned previously, if the filter connections are considerably smaller than correctly sized pipe-work, they will cause pressure drop problems. It is better to pay more at the outset and thereby avoid pressure drop and energy wastage.
26
unnecessary levels of treatment. Many plants only need part of the air treated to very high quality. In these cases, excellent savings are achievable by treating all the generated air to the minimum acceptable level, and improving the quality to the desired level close to the usage point.
A good example of this would be a car production plant where 70% of the requirement is for 4.4.2 quality air, which can be supplied by a refrigeration dryer and oil removal filter. The energy requirement of a refrigeration dryer is much less than that of a desiccant dryer, and the pressure drop across the filter will be 0.2 bar.
30% of the air is required at 1.2.1 quality, for the special requirement of the paint and engine assembly areas. The desiccant dryers and special filtration needed for this quality can be installed in the usage areas. Energy cost savings of around R20,000 per annum for every 5001/s (1,000 cfm) delivered can be achieved by only treating to required levels. In addition, savings will be achieved from reduced dryer maintenance and consumables, such as filter elements and desiccant replacement.
27
Opportunities for more efficient energy use arise when new compressed air facilities are being designed, particularly when choosing the most appropriate compressor. The features of the main compressor types and their efficiencies are included in this section. Many modern industrial air compressors are sold packaged with the compressor, drive motor and many of the accessories mounted on a frame for ease of installation. There are two basic compressor types: positive-displacement and dynamic. In the positive-displacement type, a given quantity of air or gas is trapped in a compression chamber and the volume, which it occupies, is mechanically reduced, causing a corresponding rise in pressure prior to discharge. At constant speed, the airflow remains essentially constant with variations in discharge pressure. Dynamic compressors impart velocity energy to continuously flowing air or gas by means of impellers rotating at very high speeds. The
Compressor
Positive Displacement
Dynamic
Reciprocating
Rotary
Centrifugal
Axial
Single-acting
Double-acting
Helical-screw
Liquid-ring
Scroll
Rotary-vane
28
velocity energy is changed into pressure energy both by the impellers and the discharge volutes or diffusers (these are part of the stationary casing in which the impeller turns). In the centrifugal-type dynamic compressors, the shape of the impeller blades determines the relationship between airflow and the pressure (or head) generated.
Large industrial reciprocating air compressors are double-acting and water-cooled. From 250 to 1,000 1/s (500 to 2,000 cfm) double-acting watercooled piston compressors either in lubricated or non-lubricated forms are available.These machines are the most efficient available in terms of full-load and part-load power consumption. Oil free duties can be served by piston compressors with special carbon or Teflon wearing surfaces. A high number of piston compressors are in use today. Well-maintained piston machines are still the most energy-efficient compressors, although efficiency decreases significantly if they are poorly maintained. Over the last decade, however, the trend has been to purchase rotary vane, rotary screw and centrifugal compressors, because they are quieter and simpler to maintain and install.
29
Users that need high quality air choose oilinjected machines with filtration because of the lower capital cost of the machinery. This method of providing high quality air is less energy efficient than using oil-free compressors. For 100 1/s to 2,000 1/s (200 to 4,000 cfm) oilfree applications, the two-stage rotary-toothed rotor compressor or non-lubricated screw compressor can be used. Its efficiency is high because compression takes place in two stages and the rotors have very close operating clearances. They are as efficient as oil-free piston machines and have a long lifetime, but have a high capital cost compared with oil-injected machines. Capacities of 1,000 to 2,000 l/s (2,000 to 4,000 cfm) are met with two stage oil-free rotary screw compressors or multi-stage centrifugal types, both of which are inherently oil-free.
velocity energy, primarily in an axial plane. The stationary vanes then act as a diffuser to convert the residual velocity energy into pressure energy. This type of compressor is restricted to very high flow capacities and generally has relatively high compression efficiency. For efficient operation, it is important to state the site ambient temperatures and pressures, and the design flow and pressure when specifying dynamic compressors.The energy requirements and control ranges of these compressors are seriously affected by operation outside design conditions. Generally for energy efficiency at full and part load, the more stages of compression the better. Centrifugal machines are available from 250 l/s (500 cfm) up to very large capacities, and are popular and most energy efficient for applications over 1,000 1/s (2,000 cfm). Multi-stage oil-free centrifugal compressors can meet capacities over 2,000 l/s (4,000 cfm), until very large mass flow compressors of the axial flow configuration come into consideration. Centrifugal compressors are very reliable and efficient if properly applied, and usually have low maintenance costs.
The relative generation efficiencies of each different compressor configuration are summarised in Table 11.
30
Table 11: Summary of compressor configurations with relative efficiencies Description Lubricated piston Capacity (l/s) 2-25 25-250 250-1,000 2-25 25-250 2501,000 2-25 25-250 250-1,000 25- 250 250- 1,000 1,000 - 2,000 250- 1,000 1,000- 2,000 Above 2,000 Specific energy (J/l)* 510 425 361 552 467 404 510 446 404 429 382 382 446 382 361 Part Load efficiency** Good Good Excellent Good Good Excellent Poor Fair Fair Good Good Good Good Excellent Excellent
Non-lubricated piston
All the compressors in the table are working at 7 barg pressure. * J/l 21 kW/100 cfm e.g. 510 J/l 24.29 kW/100 cfm ** Efficiencies are measured in specific energy consumption (joules/litre (J/l)).
The specific power figures have been obtained from actual field test results according to BS 1511 Part 2: 1984.These take into account electric drive motor inefficiencies and are a true assessment of the actual electrical input, not shaft input power, which is usually stated by manufacturers. There is considerable variation in specific energy consumption between configurations. Another consideration is the ability of a compressor to operate efficiently on part load.
the most important determinants of overall system energy efficiency. Proper control is essential to efficient system operation and high performance.The objective of any control strategy is also to shut off unneeded compressors or delay bringing on additional compressors until needed. All units that are on should be run at full-load, except for one unit for trimming. (This is because the energy costs per unit of compressed air rise markedly when the compressors are running at less than full load.) Compressor systems are typically comprised of multiple compressors delivering air to a common plant air header. The combined capacity of these machines is sized, at a minimum, to meet the maximum plant air demand.This is not necessarily the sum of all the maximum machinery demand, as equipment loading may be at different intervals. System controls are almost always needed to reduce the output of the individual compressor(s)
31
during times of lower demand. Compressed air systems are usually designed to operate within a fixed pressure range and to deliver a volume of air, which varies with system demand. System pressure is monitored and the control system decreases compressor output when the pressure reaches a predetermined level. Compressor output is then increased again when the pressure drops to a lower predetermined level. The difference between these two pressure levels is called the control range. Depending on air system demand, the control range can be anywhere from 0.14 to 1.4 bar (2 - 20 psi). In the past, individual compressor controls and nonsupervised multiple machine systems were slow and imprecise.This resulted in wide control ranges and large pressure swings. As a result of these large swings, individual compressor pressure control set points were established to maintain pressures higher than needed. This ensured that swings would not go below the minimum requirements for the system. Today, faster and more accurate microprocessor-based system controls with tighter control ranges allow for a drop in the system pressure set points. This advantage is that a precise control system is able to maintain a much lower average pressure without going below the minimum system requirements. Narrower variations in pressure not only use less energy, but also improve production quality control. Caution needs to be taken when lowering average system header pressure because large, sudden changes in demand can cause the pressure to drop below minimum requirements, leading to improper functioning of equipment. With careful matching of system controls and storage capacity, these problems can be avoided. The type of compressor being used largely determines the type of control specified for a given system and the facilities demand profile. If a system has a single compressor with a very steady
demand, a simple control system may be appropriate. On the other hand, a complex system with multiple compressors, varying demand, and many types of end-uses will require a more sophisticated strategy. In any case, careful consideration should be given to both compressor and system control selection because they can be the most important factors affecting system performance and efficiency. For energy efficiency, it is important to consider the control of individual machines and the way in which multiple installations meet the demand in terms of flow and pressure requirements. For a relatively low capital outlay, a modern compressor control system can save between 5% and 20% of the total generation costs, and in some cases improved pressure control will also result in productivity gains.
32
starts will cause the motor to overheat and other compressor components to require more frequent maintenance. Most compressors up to 1,000 1/s can be switched to automatic stop/start control. Some machines change to this mode automatically. Automatic stop/start control stops the compressor after a period of no-load running, usually 10 - 15 minutes, and then automatically restarts the machine on a demand for air.The offload running time is essential, unless a soft starter is fitted, to protect the drive motor from too many starts. Soft start controls are available which provide a variable start time with minimised starting currents, and which eliminate current surges thereby preventing motor damage. Load/unload control, also known as constant speed control, allows the motor to run continuously, but unloads the compressor when the discharge pressure is adequate. Compressor manufacturers use different strategies for unloading a compressor, but in most cases, an unloaded rotary screw compressor will consume 15 - 35% of full load power while delivering no useful work. As a result, some load/unload control schemes can be inefficient. Modulating (throttling) inlet control allows the output of a compressor to be varied to meet flow requirements.Throttling is usually accomplished by closing down the inlet valve, thereby restricting inlet air to the compressor.This control scheme is applied to centrifugal compressors. This control method, when applied to displacement compressors, is an inefficient means of varying compressor output. When used on centrifugal compressors, more efficient results are obtained, particularly with the use of inlet guide vanes, which direct the air in the same direction as the impeller inlet. The amount of capacity reduction is limited by the potential for surge and minimum throttling capacity.
Rotary screw machines are often fitted with both two-step unloading and modulating control with a manual or automatic change over switch. Modulation should only be used if the load is over 75% of its design level: below this, two-step unloading is more efficient. Two-step systems, on any machine operate over a pressure differential of around 0.5 bar between full and no load. A correctly sized air receiver should be fitted to avoid control hunting. Piston machines with twoor three-step inlet suction valve unloaders, on- or off-line inlet valves, or five-step clearance pocket unloading, give the best efficiencies at part loads. Piston, vane and screw machines with variable inlet throttle valves that modulate over a close pressure range are not efficient on low loads, because they are positive displacement machines and throttling causes an increase in compression ratio. Some compressors are designed to operate in two or more partially loaded conditions. With such a control scheme, output pressure can be closely controlled without requiring the compressor to start/stop or load/unload. Reciprocating compressors are designed as twostep (start/stop or load/unload), three-step (0%, 50%, l00%) or five-step (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 100%) control. These control schemes generally exhibit an almost direct relationship between motor power consumption and loaded capacity. Some rotary screw compressors can vary their compression volumes (ratio) using sliding or turn valves. These are generally applied in conjunction with modulating inlet valves to provide more accurate pressure control with improved partload efficiency. Centrifugal compressors are dynamic machines and behave efficiently on part load. Output is normally reduced by modulation to 70% of the design flow. For installations where the demand is sometimes less than this, machines with automatic dual control systems should be installed to avoid
33
wasting energy due to bypassing of pressurised air at part loads. Inlet guide vanes are preferable to inlet throttles, because they improve the part load efficiency and turndown range, particularly at offdesign inlet conditions. Using variable speed drive (VSD) motors to drive piston and screw compressors offers many control and efficiency advantages. In the past costs have been prohibitive; however, new advances in electronics and control gear are making these systems more popular. Care should be taken not to reduce the compressor speed to the extent that it is inadequately lubricated. VSDs are unsuitable for centrifugal compressors unless specifically designed for the purpose.
individual compressor capacity to meet system demand. Sequencers are referred to as single master control units because all compressor, operating decisions are made and directed from the master unit. Sequencers control compressor systems by taking individual compressor capacity on and off-line in response to monitored system pressure (demand). The control system typically offers a higher efficiency because the control range around the system target pressure is tighter. This tighter range allows for a reduction in average system pressure. Again, caution needs to be taken when lowering average system header pressure because large, sudden changes in demand can cause the pressure to drop below minimum requirements, leading to improper functioning of equipment. With careful matching of system controls and storage capacity, these problems can be avoided. Various forms of automatic sequencing control exist for optimising the operation of multiple installations and equalising the wear through rotation of the sequence. Microprocessor-based systems have much more accurate pressure control than pressure switch or air governor controls, and avoid large pressure differentials and energy waste. They can take into account lower pressure requirements during nonproductive hours and adjust accordingly, and can also control system isolation valves. Some multiple machine control systems work with a combination of pressure and demand signals to ensure that only the correct machines are on-line at any one time. Network controls offer the latest in system control. It is important that these controllers be used to shut down any compressors running unnecessarily. They also allow the operating compressors to function in a more efficient mode. Controllers used in networks are combination controllers. They provide individual compressor
34
control as well as system control functions. The term multi-master refers to the system control capability within each individual compressor controller. These individual controllers are linked or networked together, thereby sharing all operating information and status. One of the networked controllers is designated as the leader. Because these controllers share information, the compressor operating decisions with respect to changing air demand can be made more quickly and accurately. The effect is a tight pressure control range, which allows a further reduction in the air system target pressure. Although, initial costs for system controls are often high, these controls are becoming more common because of the resulting reductions in operating costs. Control systems can be built into building management systems along with compressor condition monitoring, automatic operation of zone isolation valves, compressor electric motor input
The consequence of both of these failings is demonstrated in Figure 10, which represents a typical cascade control system.
35
Usually the minimum pressure needed by the most critical piece of machinery sets the lowest acceptable pressure at the compressor house. To ensure that this pressure is achieved at the critical point, the pressure at the compressor house (i.e. the control pressure) will need to be set to 0.7 bar (10 psi) above the value required, to overcome line pressure losses on the distribution network. This includes occasions when the airflow rate is highest and hence the distribution losses are greatest. For example, if 5.8 barg (85 psig) is required, the control pressure will need to be 6.5 barg (95 psig).This control pressure compensation is shown in Figure 10 by the lower two lines. The left-hand axis in Figure 10 shows the cascade switching of the compressors and it represents a typical cascade pressure control system. At maximum flow rates all four compressors will be operating, as designated by region D. As the air usage falls, the pressure in the lines at the compressor house will rise and one compressor will unload. If usage falls further, the pressure moves into region C where another compressor unloads, and so on up to region A where only one compressor is providing the load. Due to the nature of the pressure switches, the minimum control bands are 0.2 bar for each compressor leading to a very wide overall control band (0.8 bar). The consequence of a wide control band is that, except at maximum air usage, the end user and compressor control pressures will always be up to 10% higher than those actually required. This has two negative effects: firstly, it takes up to 5% more electricity to generate the air at a 10% greater pressure (see Table 12) and secondly the usage of air in most applications is directly proportional to its pressure.The worst case scenario, shown by the upper two lines in Figure 10 which may represent night time and weekend usage, could be costing at least 15% more than is necessary.
Table 12: Generation pressure savings Pressure Barg (psig) 7(100) 6(90) 5.5(80) Energy Savings (%) Single Stage Two Stage 5 10 5 11
To keep generation costs to a minimum: Pressure control should be based on the pressure at the most sensitive/critical pieces of machinery; Compressor sequencing should be based on as narrow a pressure band as possible to achieve the minimum generation pressure at all times.
6.5 SIZING
Compressors should be sized as closely as possible to the duty. It is not economical to run any machine for long periods at low loads, due to electric motor inefficiencies. The off load power can be 15% - 70% of the on-load power once motor inefficiencies have been taken into account. For new installations with multiple compressors, it is worthwhile considering installation of a selection of unit sizes, so those compressors operating close to full output can meet the demand. Care should be taken to ensure that the overall system efficiency is improved, taking into account the lower generating efficiencies of some smaller compressors.
6.6 MAINTENANCE
Like all electro-mechanical equipment, industrial compressed air systems require periodic
36
maintenance to operate at peak efficiency and minimize unscheduled downtime. Inadequate maintenance can have a significant impact on energy consumption via lower compression efficiency, air leakage, or pressure variability. It can also lead to high operating temperatures, poor moisture control, and excessive contamination. Most problems are minor and can be connected by simple adjustments, cleaning, part replacement, or the elimination of adverse conditions. Compressed air system maintenance is similar to that performed on cars: filters and fluids are replaced; cooling water is inspected, belts are adjusted, and leaks are identified and repaired. All equipment in the compressed air system should be maintained in accordance with manufacturers specifications. Manufacturers provide inspection, maintenance and service schedules that should be followed strictly. In many cases, it makes sense from efficiency and economic standpoints to maintain equipment more frequently than the intervals recommended by manufacturers, which are primarily designed to protect equipment. One way to tell if a system is being maintained well and is operating properly is to periodically benchmark the system by tracking power, pressure and flow. If power use at a given pressure and flow rate goes up, the systems efficiency is degrading. This benchmarking will also let you know if the compressor is operating at full capacity, and if the capacity is decreasing over time. On new systems, specifications should be recorded when the system is first set up and operated properly. Maintenance issues for specific components are discussed below. system
exchanger surfaces, air lubricant separator, lubricant, lubricant filter, and air inlet filter. The compressor and inter-cooling surfaces need to be kept clean and foul free. If they are dirty, compressor efficiency will be adversely affected. Fans and water pumps should also be inspected to ensure that they are operating at peak performance. The air lubricant separator in a lubricant-cooled rotary screw compressor generally starts with a 2 - 3 psi differential pressure drop at full-load when new. Maintenance manuals usually suggest changing them when there is about a l0 psi pressure drop across the separator. In many cases it may make sense to make an earlier separator replacement, especially if electricity prices are high. The compressor lubricant and lubricant filter need to be changed per manufacturers specification. Lubricant can become corrosive and degrade both the equipment and system efficiency. For lubricant-injected rotary compressors, the lubricant serves to lubricate bearings, gears, and intermeshing rotor surfaces.The lubricant also acts as a seal and removes most of the heat of compression. Only a lubricant meeting the manufacturers specifications should be used. Inlet filters and inlet piping also need to be kept clean. A dirty filter can reduce compressor capacity and efficiency. Filters should be maintained at least per manufacturers specifications, taking into account the level of contaminants in the facilitys air.
If the electric motor driving a compressor is not properly maintained, it will not only consume more energy, but also be apt to fail before its
37
expected lifetime. The two most important aspects of motor maintenance are lubrication and cleaning.
6.6.2.4 GENERAL
Compressors run for many hours, often in appalling conditions. Equating the example 500 1/s compressor to a car, it would cover over 70,000 miles per annum at an average speed of 30 mph. Some compressors run the equivalent of 250,000 miles per annum on this basis. Good maintenance is therefore essential.
6.6.2.1 LUBRICATION
Too much lubrication can be just as harmful as too little and is a major cause of premature motor failure. Motors should be lubricated per the manufacturers specification, which can be anywhere from every 2 months to every 18 months, depending on annual hours of operation and motor speed. On motors with bearing grease fittings, the first step in lubrication is to clean the grease fitting and remove the drain plug. High quality new grease should be added, and the motor should be run for about an hour before the drain plug is replaced.This allows excess grease to be purged from the motor without dripping on the windings and damaging them.
Piston compressors, particularly the oil-free type, suffer the most in efficiency terms from lack of maintenance.
6.6.2.2 CLEANING.
Since motors need to dissipate heat, it is important to keep all of the air passages clean and free of obstruction. For enclosed motors, it is vital that cooling fins are kept free of debris. Poor motor cooling can increase motor temperature and winding resistance, which shortens motor life and increases energy consumption.
The efficiency of rotary vane and screw machines does not deteriorate so rapidly; however, there is a finite life for such compressors. As a guide, these types of machine must receive major maintenance after 25,000 hours life to maintain good efficiency. Oil-free toothed rotor and screw machines perform well for periods of up to 40,000 hours, after which there is a slow fall off in efficiency due to gradually increasing internal clearances. These types of machines then need major refurbishment to maintain efficiency.
Centrifugal compressors, having few moving parts and comparatively large as built clearances, will maintain their efficiency over longer periods. The inlet air filters, cooling water system and the intercoolers must be rigorously maintained or efficiency will fall off rapidly.
6.6.2.3 BELTS
Motor v-belt drives also require periodic maintenance. Tight belts can lead to excessive bearing wear, and loose belts can slip and waste energy. Under normal operation, belts stretch and wear and, therefore, require adjustment. A good rule-ofthumb is to examine and adjust belts after every 400 hours of operation.
It is a false economy to ignore maintenance on any type of compressor. It is recommended that manufacturers, or their accredited agents, are used for service work and that genuine spare parts, to the original design, are used. An apparently cheaper component, such as an incorrectly designed replacement discharge valve, costs more in the long term due to the detrimental effect that it has on the compressor efficiency.
38
the addition of ducting and another fan to handle the duct loading and to eliminate any backpressure on the compressor cooling fan. These heat recovery systems can be modulated with a simple thermostatically controlled hinged vent. When heating is not required - such as in the summer months - the hot air can be ducted outside the building. The vent can also be thermostatically regulated to provide a constant temperature for a heated area. Hot air can be used for space heating, industrial drying, preheating aspirated air for oil burners, or any other application requiring warm air. As a rule of thumb, approximately 15 kWh/hour of energy is available for each 50 l/sec (100 cfm) of capacity (at full-load). Air temperatures of 17 to 22C (30 to 40F) above the cooling air inlet temperature can be obtained. Recovery efficiencies of 80-90% are common. If the air supply for the compressor is not from outside, you should be careful not to draw in heated air because this will reduce the compressor efficiency. During the summer months, any hot air should be ducted to atmosphere, otherwise it will be dissipated to the surrounding area and could subsequently be drawn back into the compressor, again reducing efficiency.
39
boiler systems, industrial cleaning processes, plating operations, heat pumps, laundries, or any other application where hot water is required. Heat exchangers also offer an opportunity to produce hot air and hot water, and allow the operator some ability to vary the hot air/hot water ratio.
compare heat recovery with the current source of energy for generating thermal energy, which may be a low-price fossil fuel such as coal.
6.7.4 USE OF HOT COMPRESSED AIR FOR PROCESS DUTIES 6.7.2 HEAT RECOVERY WITH WATER-COOLED COMPRESSORS
Heat recovery for space heating is not as common with water-cooled compressors because an extra stage of heat exchange is required and the temperature of the available heat is lower. However, since many water-cooled compressors are quite large, heat recovery for space heating can be an attractive opportunity. Recovery efficiencies of 50-60% are typical. Some process applications, such as spool valves in a glass factory or drop forging hammers, benefit from hot compressed air. Hot compressed air is not often used because of safety concerns, since there is a risk of compressor oil carry-over spontaneously igniting if the discharge temperature is too high. If hot compressed air is to be used, all the air pipe work should be lagged to prevent cooling and an over-sized condensate recovery system should be fitted to take care of the additional condensate, which will form. An after-cooler will not be required. Using hot air is especially worth considering if the air is compressed near to the point of usage and the pipe runs (and hence the heat and pressure loss) are therefore small. The volumetric increase achieved by using hot air will save up to 25% of the energy used on the duty, provided the air is kept hot up to the usage point.
Table 13: Heat recovery available from air cooled rotary screw compressors at full load (assuming 90% motor efficiency) Capacity (l/s) 40 60 159 314 450 585 725 Nominal Motor Power (kW) 15 22 55 110 160 200 250 Warm Air Flow (l/s) 450 810 1,600 3,700 5,600 8,900 8,900 Heat Available (kWh/h) 12 18 45 89 130 162 203
40
6.8
points of end use, the choice will largely depend on: the physical layout of the factory; the position of off-takes, the compressor operating hours.
It is important that site integration of air compressors is considered at the planning and design stages to get the maximum benefit of using packaged compressors with integrated heat recovery systems. These packaged systems generally use rotary screw compressors, which have the additional benefit of operating with low noise. When there is a choice between using a central installation or smaller compressors nearer to the
Smaller compressors are generally less efficient than larger ones, and this must be taken into account when justifying decentralisation. Where practicable, air compressors should be sited near to points of large air demand and, if possible, near to heat demands, if recovery is an option, to reduce pipe runs and also capital and running costs.
41
7.1 MONITORING
Without sufficient instrumentation on compressed air systems it is impossible to determine whether or not they are operating efficiently. Throughout this guide there are many examples of where energy is wasted; without a mechanism for detecting wastage, it is likely to continue and minimum energy costs will not be achieved. This section sets guidelines for the minimum amount of metering to be installed on compressed air systems. the compressor and in the receiver, to help detect any fouling of the after-cooler heat exchanger: inter-cooler pressure and temperature gauges where applicable: pressure gauges at selected points along the distribution system, to obtain a pressure profile across the site and hence identify high pressure loss areas; hours-run meters that differentiate between on-load and off-load running times; kWh meters (on compressors rated above 50kW (150 1/sec)). Readings from the first four instruments should be recorded daily: hours run and kWh meters should be read weekly to find usage trends. Any sudden increases should be investigated immediately in line with the monitoring and targeting activities. Most modem compressors have excellent electronic monitoring systems, which automatically log their running condition, generate alarms when abnormal running conditions occur and ultimately shut the machines down before any damage occurs. It is possible to purchase similar monitoring units for retrofitting to existing compressors. This, is particularly worthwhile with two-stage watercooled piston compressors, where compressor running condition has a major effect on efficiency. Adequate maintenance skills are not readily available in many factories, making early warning of problems essential.
7.1.1 COMPRESSORS
The running condition of a compressor can be assessed fairly easily. Table 14 summarises the measurements required for different types of compressor. New compressors, particularly those within an integrated package, are now supplied with all the required instrumentation. For existing plant, however, the following list gives the recommended minimum instrumentation: pressure gauge on the receiver; water temperature gauges in the compressor cooling jacket and the aftercooler, to detect any blockages that may be occurring; air temperature gauges at the outlet of
42
Table 14: Compressor Assessment Compressor Type All types Measurement* Air discharge temperature downstream of the after cooler. Inlet filter differential pressure** Indication Over 15C difference between inlet air and compressed air after the after cooler shows cooling surfaces are becoming fouled and efficiency is falling off. Values outside manufacturers specification can indicate fouled inlet filters, leading to efficiency loss. Two-stage piston, toothed rotor or screw types Inter-cooler pressure Measurement outside that in manufacturers service manual indicates problem. Greater than 0.3 bar pressure differential indicates problems with oil separator and loss of efficiency. Values outside manufacturers specification indicate problems. Machine not in optimum running condition.
Difference between compressor element discharge pressure and actual delivered pressure.
Centrifugal types
Inter-stage temperatures and pressures, pinion vibration levels and air inlet differential pressure.
* All the pressure and temperature gauges used for this purpose must be regularly calibrated. ** Most compressors have an inlet filter differential pressure gauge fitted: if not, it is recommended that one is fitted.
All of the above meters measure the actual air velocity, and pressure and temperature compensation is necessary to get an accurate measure of the standard airflow rate (at 0C. 760 mm Hg). Details of all these meters are described in greater detail in Appendix I. A chart recording facility attached to any of the meters will give very valuable information about the flow rate demand pattern. Recorders can be
43
purchased to give a 24-hour or seven-day circular chart recording. Figure 11 also shows static pressure, which helps detect the critical pressure demand periods. It also gives a clear indication of how the compressors are coping with the demand and whether control pressures can be reduced during certain times of the day or week
with electricity consumption readings i.e. input energy to output air for a given demand can be calculated and used for analysis. Care must be taken when trying to establish the efficiency of an individual compressor, because the meter will be reading plant demand, not compressor output. It is possible to estimate the compressor output if the pressure is carefully monitored. If the system pressure is slowly falling with a compressor on load, then the whole output of the compressor, less any condensate or seal losses, will pass the flow meter and an estimate of the compressor output can be made. It is worth installing a permanent air flow meter on generation systems rated above 200 kW (600 I/s or 1,200 cfm) operating on a single-shift system. For full-time working, systems around half this capacity would warrant a meter.This limit is based on the meter costing around 10% of the annual air costs and assumes that the information given will lead to a 10% saving and hence a 12 month simple payback period.
44
can then be attached to each measuring point in turn and initiatives taken to reduce air consumption where appropriate.
7.2
Monitoring and Targeting (M&T) has a much wider application than compressed air systems. When applied to compressed air systems, M&T could be defined as: Comparing the weekly usage of compressed air (as measured by kWh or airflow meters) against a pre-determined target, which reflects good practice. Monitoring and Targeting is dealt with in the booklet: "How to save energy and money: The 3E Strategy".
45
This section outlines a strategy for identifying all the opportunities, including some auditing techniques that can easily be implemented. Ideally, before any actions are taken to improve a compressed air system, an audit should be carried out to determine the annual costs of the current system. If permanent metering is installed, this will provide an enormous amount of information to help find the best solutions. Without permanent meters, the energy consumption of each compressor will have to be estimated from the size of the motor, its average load (or its on/off times) and the number of hours it operates. The total energy costs can be calculated by adding the information for all of the compressors. It is estimated that 30% of the annual costs could be saved, providing good impetus for action. Compressed air system users should consider using an independent auditor to examine their compressed air system. Firms exist that specialize in compressed air system audits. Audits are also performed by electric utilities, equipment distributors and manufacturers, energy service companies, and engineering firms. An informed consumer should be aware that the quality and comprehensiveness of audits could vary. Independent auditors should provide recommendations, which are systems-neutral and commercially impartial. Independent auditors should neither specify nor recommend any particular manufacturers products. Having calculated the annual costs and established a baseline against which improvements can be measured, an audit of the complete compressed air system should be carried out. A comprehensive compressed air system audit should include an examination of both air supply and usage and the interaction between the supply and demand. Auditors typically measure the output of a compressed air system, calculate energy consumption in kilowatt-hours, and determine the annual cost of operating the system. The auditor may also measure total air losses due to leaks and locate those that are significant. All components of the compressed air system are inspected individually and problem areas are identified. Losses and poor performance due to system leaks, inappropriate misuse, and total system dynamics are calculated, and a written report with a recommended course of action is provided. It is best to start with the end users, because any improvements here may well have an effect on the air distribution network (i.e. redundant pipe work and reduction in pressure losses) and compressor demand. It is also normally the area where the greatest savings can be achieved.
46
8.3
The following program should be carried out: The auditor typically examines the compressed air applications and determines the appropriate level of air treatment required for proper operation of the equipment. Actual air quality levels are then measured. If the air is not being treated enough, alternative treatment strategies are recommended. If the air is being over-treated (an indication of energy being wasted), recommendations are made to modify the system. In some cases, only certain end-use equipment requires highly treated air, and the auditor may recommend a system that, allows for different treatment levels at different points in the system. The total air drying capacity required should be calculated during the end user audit. If more air than necessary is being dried, the possibility of having two distribution systems, a wet and a dry, should be considered. Consideration should also be given to treating the higher quality air at the point of use. All drainage traps should be checked to ensure that they are neither leaking nor air binding. The location of the air intakes into the compressors should be checked to ensure that they are not supplying warm, wet or dusty air.
8.4
Having established the lowest possible demand profile for compressed air, it is necessary to ensure that the demand is serviced in the most efficient way possible.To do this it is necessary to carry out the following steps.
47
Record the electricity consumption of the compressors over a week by installing portable recording ammeters or demand recorders on the supply cables. Over the same period also record the hours run and hours on-load, if meters are available; For systems supplying a demand greater than 500 l/s, which should have an air flow meter installed, record the actual air demand over the week. If this is not possible, estimate, the air demand profile by assuming an output capacity of the compressors, and combining this with the hours on-load data (this is not possible if the compressors are on modulation control). If an air flow meter is installed, record the static air pressure over the week to establish times when the control pressure can be reduced to reflect lower air usage. From the electricity and airflow recordings, calculate an air generation efficiency. It is worthwhile running each machine individually to monitor actual output capacity and to determine the J/l (or kWh/100 cfm) performance of each machine. These figures can then be compared to assess whether each
machine is good, average or poor. A simple calculation will then identify how much energy can be saved by either maintaining the poor machines or preferentially using the more efficient ones to service the demand. Investigate the load profiles of each compressor with a view to deciding whether the optimum size machines are running at any one time. Consider better methods of compressor control, such as predictive switching or rotational sequencing depending on the compressor load profiles.
System audits are designed to identify system inefficiencies. If a system is found poorly designed, in unsatisfactory operating condition or in need of substantial retrofit, a more detailed analysis of the system may be recommended. A comprehensive evaluation may also include extensive measurements and analysis of supply and demand interactions. Some auditors will also prepare a detailed systems flow diagram. A financial evaluation may also be performed, including current and proposed costs after retrofits are taken.
48
49
The orifice plate itself is the main element of the meter. The resulting differential pressure is measured via impulse lines connected from the pressure tappings of the orifice plate to a differential pressure transducer. The pressure tappings can be located in the pipeline up and downstream of the orifice plate. Alternatively, orifice plates can be supplied with corner or flange pressure tappings as part of a plate carrier ring assembly. Variations in the performance of the various tapping point locations can be used in formulae used to determine the coefficient of discharge. The location of the orifice plate in the pipe run is also important. The differential pressure measurement is sensitive to swirl and other fluid effects, so the orifice plate should be located a certain distance away, upstream and downstream,
from any pipefitting. British Standard BS1O42 and International Standard ISO 5167 provide details of the dimensions required. Orifice plate manufacturers should, however, advise on standard requirements, and reference to the published Standards is usually unnecessary. A typical requirement would be that there must be at least ten pipe diameters of straight pipe upstream of the meter and five pipe diameters downstream of the meter.
50
rotate at a velocity proportional to the airflow rate. If a magnetic coil or optical device is placed in the meter housing, a voltage pulse can be induced each time a turbine blade passes it. The pulse rate will be proportional to the rate of flow and the total number of pulses that can be integrated to give the air volume, which has passed the meter. The response of this type of meter is approximately linear, except at low flow rates when the drag effects of the bearings become significant and may affect the linearity of the response. Any non-linearity can be overcome by incorporating a calibration curve into the system, which is used to convert the signal pulse into a flow rate.
principle that when a fluid stream flows around a bluff body (the vortex shedder), viscosity-related effects produce vortices downstream. The most common body shapes used in such meters are rectangular or triangular. The vortices are shed sequentially from either side of the bluff body at a frequency proportional to the flow velocity. Several methods of sensing the vortices exist. A common method is to use a piezo-electrical cell located in the bluff body support spindle. Shedding of the vortices creates lift in the bluff body, which in turn causes small movements to the spindle. Each movement compresses the cell, thereby generating a small electric current. Other methods use ultrasonics, which are modulated by the vortices, or involve the detection of the small pressure waves that accompany the shedding of the vortices
51
52
SOURCES OF FURTHER INFORMATION
For the latest news in energy efficiency technology: Energy Management News is a free newsletter issued by the ERI, which contains information on the latest developments in energy efficiency in Southern Africa and details of forthcoming energy efficiency events. Copies can be obtained from: The Energy Research Institute Department of Mechanical Engineering University of Cape Town Rondebosch 7700 Cape Town South Africa
Tel No: (+27 21) 650 3892 Fax No: (+27 21) 686 4838 Email: eri@eng.uct.ac.za
53
54