Physical Layer: C2 (2.1, 2.2, 2.5, 2.

6)
Functions Fundamentals/Channel Capacity Analog Overview Digital Overview Modulation Media Types twisted pair coaxial cable fiber wireless Channels frequency division multiplexing wavelength division multiplexing time division multiplexing

Physical Layer

Physical Layer electrical/optical transmission of bits or symbols physical control signals

Continuous & Discrete Signals

Periodic Signals
Peak Amplitude (A) maximum strength of signal volts Frequency (f) Rate of change of signal Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second Period = time for one repetition (T) T = 1/f Phase () Relative position in time

Fourier Analysis
Signal usually made up of many frequencies Components are sine waves Can be shown (Fourier analysis) that any signal is made up of component sine waves Can plot frequency domain functions

Function reconstructed with

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Bandwidth-Limited Signals
A binary signal and its root-mean-square Fourier amplitudes. (b) (c) Successive approximations to the original signal.

Bandwidth-Limited Signals
(d) (e) Successive approximations to the original signal.

Bandwidth-Limited Signals

Relation between data rate and harmonics for our example.

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Analog and Digital Data Transmission

Data Entities that convey meaning Signals Electric or electromagnetic representations of data Transmission Communication of data by propagation and processing of signals

Signals
Means by which data are propagated Analog Continuously variable Various media
wire, fiber optic, space

Speech bandwidth 100Hz to 7kHz Telephone bandwidth 300Hz to 3400Hz Video bandwidth 4MHz Digital Use two DC components (e.g., 1 or 0)

Data and Signals

Usually use digital signals for digital data and analog signals for analog data Can use analog signal to carry digital data Modem Can use digital signal to carry analog data Compact Disc audio

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Analog Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Data

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Digital Signals Carrying Analog and Digital Data

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Analog Transmission
Analog signal transmitted without regard to content May be analog or digital data Attenuated over distance Use amplifiers to boost signal Also amplifies noise

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Digital Transmission
Concerned with content Integrity endangered by noise, attenuation etc. Repeaters used Repeater receives signal Extracts bit pattern Retransmits Attenuation is overcome Noise is not amplified

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Advantages of Digital Transmission

Digital technology Low cost LSI/VLSI technology Data integrity Longer distances over lower quality lines Capacity utilization High bandwidth links economical High degree of multiplexing easier with digital techniques

Security & Privacy Encryption Integration Can treat analog and digital data similarly

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Transmission Impairments
Signal received may differ from signal transmitted Analog - degradation of signal quality Digital - bit errors Caused by Attenuation and attenuation distortion Delay distortion Noise

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Channel Capacity
Data rate In bits per second Rate at which data can be communicated In cycles per second of Hertz Constrained by transmitter and medium H channel bandwidth (must sample at twice this rate) V discrete levels of signal (e.g., 2 if we are using 1 and 0) Takes channel noise into account

Bandwidth

Nyquist Theorem: maximum data rate = 2H log2V bits/sec

Shannons Theorem: maximum bits/second = 2H log2(1 + S/N) bits/sec

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Modulation and Coding

Digital Data, Analog Signal Analog Data, Digital Signal Analog Data, Analog Signal Digital Data, Digital Signal

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Digital Data, Analog Signal

Public telephone system 300Hz to 3400Hz Use modem (modulator-demodulator) Amplitude shift keying (ASK) Frequency shift keying (FSK) Phase shift keying (PSK)

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Modems

(a) A binary signal (b) Amplitude modulation

(c) Frequency modulation (d) Phase modulation

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Amplitude Shift Keying

Values represented by different amplitudes of carrier Usually, one amplitude is zero i.e. presence and absence of carrier is used Susceptible to sudden gain changes Inefficient Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines Used over optical fiber

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Frequency Shift Keying

Values represented by different frequencies (near carrier) Less susceptible to error than ASK Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines High frequency radio Even higher frequency on LANs using co-ax

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Phase Shift Keying

Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data Differential PSK Phase shifted relative to previous transmission rather than some reference signal Quadrature PSK: More efficient use by each signal element representing more than one bit e.g. shifts of /2 (90o) Each element represents two bits Can use 8 phase angles and have more than one amplitude 9600bps modem use 12 angles , four of which have two amplitudes

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Modems

(a) QPSK. (b) QAM-16. (c) QAM-64.

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QAM

Gray-coded QAM-16.

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Analog Data, Digital Signal

Digitization Conversion of analog data into digital data Digital data can then be transmitted Digital data can then be converted to analog signal Analog to digital conversion done using a codec

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Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a rate higher than twice the highest signal frequency, the samples contain all the information of the original signal Voice data limited to below 4000Hz Require 8000 sample per second Each sample assigned digital value 4 bit system gives 16 levels Quantized Quantizing error or noise Approximations mean it is impossible to recover original exactly 8 bit sample gives 256 levels Quality comparable with analog transmission 8000 samples per second of 8 bits each gives 64kbps

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Delta Modulation
Analog input is approximated by a staircase function Move up or down one level () at each sample interval Binary behavior Function moves up or down at each sample interval

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Analog Data, Analog Signals

Why modulate analog signals? Higher frequency can give more efficient transmission Permits frequency division multiplexing (chapter 8) Types of modulation Amplitude Frequency Phase

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Analog Modulation

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Digital Data, Digital Signal

Digital signal Discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses Each pulse is a signal element Binary data encoded into signal elements

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Interpreting Signals
Need to know Timing of bits - when they start and end Signal levels Factors affecting successful interpreting of signals Signal to noise ratio Data rate Bandwidth

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Encoding Schemes
Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L) Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI) Manchester Differential Manchester

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Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)

Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits Voltage constant during bit interval no transition I.e. no return to zero voltage e.g. Absence of voltage for zero, constant positive voltage for one More often, negative voltage for one value and positive for the other

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Nonreturn to Zero Inverted

Nonreturn to zero inverted on ones Constant voltage pulse for duration of bit Data encoded as presence or absence of signal transition at beginning of bit time Transition (low to high or high to low) denotes a binary 1 No transition denotes binary 0 An example of differential encoding

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NRZ

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Biphase
Manchester Transition in middle of each bit period Transition serves as clock and data Low to high represents one High to low represents zero Used by IEEE 802.3 Differential Manchester Midbit transition is clocking only Transition at start of a bit period represents zero No transition at start of a bit period represents one Note: this is a differential encoding scheme Used by IEEE 802.5

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Modulation Rate

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Baseband Transmission

Line codes: (a) Bits, (b) NRZ, (c) NRZI, (d) Manchester, (e) Bipolar or AMI.

39 Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Transmission Media
Guided Twisted Pair Coaxial cable Optical fiber Free space Wireless

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Twisted Pairs

Category 5 UTP cable with four twisted pairs

41 Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Twisted Pair

Most common medium Telephone network Between house and local exchange (subscriber loop) To private branch exchange (PBX)

Analog Amplifiers every 5km to 6km Digital Use either analog or digital signals repeater every 2km or 3km

Within buildings For local area networks (LAN) 10Mbps or 100Mbps

Limited distance Limited bandwidth (1MHz) Limited data rate (100MHz) Susceptible to interference and noise

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Coaxial Cable

Most versatile medium Television distribution Ariel to TV Cable TV Long distance telephone transmission Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously Being replaced by fiber optic Short distance computer systems links Local area networks

Analog Amplifiers every few km Closer if higher frequency Up to 500MHz

Digital Repeater every 1km Closer for higher data rates

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Fiber Cables

Greater capacity Data rates of hundreds of Gbps Smaller size & weight Lower attenuation Electromagnetic isolation Greater repeater spacing 10s of km at least

Long-haul trunks Metropolitan trunks Rural exchange trunks Subscriber loops LANs

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Fiber Optics (1)

Three examples of a light ray from inside a silica fiber impinging on the air/silica boundary at different angles.

45 Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Fiber Optics (2)

Light trapped by total internal reflection.

46 Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Transmission of Light Through Fiber

Attenuation of light through fiber in the infrared region

47 Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Wireless Transmission
Multipath fading
T+t T

or

Rayleigh Fading statistical model of fading over the air Distortion can be combated with equalizers Shadows obstructions

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Channels
Allow more than one session to take place on a single physical link Increases network capacity

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Frequency Division Multiplexing

(a) The original bandwidths. (b) The bandwidths raised in frequency. (b) The multiplexed channel.
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Wireless Access Basics

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):

e.g. the analog cellular system: 1G

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA): e.g. IS-54 and IS-136, GSM, PDC: 2G GPRS: 2.5G UWC-136, EDGE: 3G

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA): e.g. IS-95A,B (cdmaOne) : 2G IS-2000 (cdma2000), WCDMA : 3G

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Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Wavelength division multiplexing.

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Time Division Multiplexing

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).

53 Computer Networks, Fifth Edition by Andrew Tanenbaum and David Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall, 2011

Time Division Multiplexing

The T1 carrier (1.544 Mbps).

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Time Division Multiplexing (3)

Multiplexing T1 streams into higher carriers.

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