CHEVRON Shell and Tube Exchanger Component Design Considerations

500 Shell and Tube Exchanger Component Design Considerations
Abstract
This section discusses the mechanical design of shell and tube heat exchangers and their components. Emphasis is placed on company practices which differ from industry standards. Contents 510 511 512 513 514 520 521 522 523 524 525 530 531 532 533 534 540 Design Pressure and Temperature Design Pressure Design Temperature Relief Valves Rupture Surge Pressure Bundle Design Tubesheet Design Tube-to-Tubesheet Connection Longitudinal Shell Baffles Impingement Devices Retrofitting Floating Head Bundles with U-tubes Channel and Shell Design General Body Flanges High Pressure Closures Connections Gaskets 500-35 500-14 500-5 Page 500-3
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Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual
550 551 552 553 554
Insulation Reasons for Insulating Types of Insulation Weatherjacketing Flange Insulation
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510 Design Pressure and Temperature

511 Design Pressure
Internal Pressure
The maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) should normally exceed the maximum expected operating pressure as follows: Maximum Expected Operating Pressure, psig 0170 170300 300450 4501000 1000 + Minimum Amount by Which MAWP Exceeds the Maximum Expected Operating Pressure 25 psi 15% of max. op. press. 45 psi 10% of max. op. press. Not less than 8% of max. op. press.
The maximum expected operating pressure is the maximum expected pressure inside the heat exchanger under any operating case, startup, or shutdown condition. All exchangers with liquid or vapor-liquid mixtures on the low pressure side should be designed for tube rupture safety. See Section 514 and Appendix F for this procedure. In case of large vertical exchangers, the nameplate design pressure is the maximum pressure permissible at the top of the exchanger. Therefore, design pressure must be adjusted for any difference in static head that may exist between the part considered and top of vessel.
External Pressure
Exchangers operating at less than atmospheric pressure should be designed for an external pressure (vacuum) of 15 psig. All exchangers designed for internal pressure should also be adequate for at least 7.5 psi external pressure at 450F when the ratio of D/T exceeds 150. (D = shell O. D., and T = shell thickness excluding corrosion allowance.)
512 Design Temperature

The design temperature for any part of a heat exchanger is the maximum allowable operating temperature the of fluid inside that part (or minimum for cold service design). The following are recommended: 1. The hot service design temperature (-20F and above) for each side of a unit should be at least 25F (14C) above the maximum operating temperature for
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the fluid on that side. (Note that tubes are exposed both to shell side and tube side fluids.) 2. The cold service design temperature (below -20F) for each side of a unit should be at least 5F (3C) below the minimum expected operating temperature of the fluid on that side.
The maximum design temperature that is on the name plate of the heat exchanger is the temperature at which the ASME Code allowable stress for the component is determined, and must be above the maximum expected operating temperature. Normal operating temperature is only occasionally related to design temperature. For example, tubes exposed to treated cooling tower water, irrespective of metallurgy, plug solid if tube surface temperatures exceed about 160F. The intent of the exchanger design and control system is to maintain temperatures within the functional range. However, the name plate design temperature is usually the highest temperature at which the specific material maintains its maximum allowable stress. For carbon steels, this temperature is 650F. Minimum pressurizing temperature, an important design parameter, is discussed in detail in the Pressure Vessel Manual. In brief, the reason for establishing a minimum pressurizing temperature is to avoid a brittle fracture. Ordinary carbon steels, for example, become brittle at low temperatures. The ductile-to-brittle transition temperature may range from well above ambient to well below ambient, depending on grade of steel used, and its thickness. The aim is to choose a material which will not suffer brittle fracture under the design operating conditions of the exchanger. This includes hydrotest, which should be done at a temperature above the minimum pressurizing temperature.
513 Relief Valves

Pressure Relief
The ASME Code requires that all pressure vessels be provided with protection against overpressure by use of pressure relief devices. The protective devices need not be directly on the pressure vessel when the source of pressure is external to the pressure vessel and the piping does not include any valves between the relief device and the vessel. Consequently, many heat exchangers do not have pressure relief valves directly on the vessel, but are rather part of an overall hydraulic system which does have protection from overpressure. In many cases, the source of pressure is a pump or compressor external to the exchanger. The Instrumentation and Control Manual discusses relief sizing in more detail.
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Thermal Relief
Thermal relief valves (TRVs) are required by the ASME Code by the following conditions: 1. 2. 3. Either shell or tube side component can be overpressured by heat input from the other side, and The component can be isolated from the main pressure safety valve (PSV) by valves other than PSV maintenance valves, or The component is not protected by a PSV.
To minimize the possibility of a TRV releasing during a PSV relief, the TRV can be set at 110% of design pressure as allowed by ASME Code. One thermal relief valve can serve as the protective device for multiple exchangers in series if there are no block valves between them.
514 Rupture Surge Pressure

All exchangers with liquid or vapor-liquid mixtures on the low pressure side should be designed for tube rupture safety. This is accomplished by setting the design pressure on the low pressure side equal to the maximum normal operating pressure plus the initial surge pressure due to the complete break of one tube. Long term (e.g., 2 + seconds) pressure transients should be prevented with relief devices in the piping. Tubesheets, shells, shell covers, and channels should be designed to this surge pressure. Body flanges should also meet ASME Code requirements but not leak tightness requirements at this design pressure. Tube rupture is particularly a problem in high pressure gas/low pressure cooling water applications. Appendix F gives a detailed procedure and examples for determining rupture surge pressure and rupture flow rate.
520 Bundle Design

521 Tubesheet Design
This section covers the applicable codes and industry practices for establishing tubesheet design and tubesheet thicknesses. Tubesheets separate the shell side and tube side fluids and provide the anchor point for tube ends. TEMA standard rules for calculating tubesheet thickness are used in the industry extensively.
TEMA
TEMA covers procedures to establish tubesheet thickness for U-tube bundles, floating head bundles, and fixed tubesheet construction.
ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1

ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Appendix AA, covers tubesheet thickness calculations for U-tubes of various configuration.
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ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1, Appendix A, tells how to calculate allowable loads for tube-to-tubesheet joints. This calculation may have an effect on tubesheet thickness, the method of joining tube to tubesheet, or the need to provide an expansion joint in the shell of an exchanger. Appendices A and AA of Section VIII are both nonmandatory and therefore do not have to be followed by a vendor unless required by the Company.
Waste Heat BoilerFixed Tubesheet Exchanger Type

Waste heat boiler tubesheets are designed in accordance with the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section I, Paragraphs PG-49.1, PW-19.1 and PFT-27, which account for staying capacity of the tubes. Tubesheet thickness is governed by the largest unstayed area, which is usually the annular space between the bundle and the shell. Tubesheets designed by TEMA rules would be much thicker and are unacceptable for high temperature steam generators because of high thermal stresses.
Tubesheet Thicknesses and Tolerances: TEMA and Chevron Practice

It is Company practice to use TEMA, Paragraph F-2, tolerances for thickness and API 660, Paragraph 7.8, for flatness tolerance on new tubesheets, although this is generally not a problem. Some Company locations add a maintenance allowance (usually 1/8 inch) onto the channel side tubesheet thicknesses beyond TEMA minimum requirement to compensate for any surface repairs required due to maintenance activities.
Clad Tubesheets
For clad tubesheets with rolled tube-to-tubesheet joints, the nominal cladding thickness should be 1/2 inch minimum, and one of the grooves or serrations in each tube hole should be completely within the cladding. The cladding thickness may be less for welded tube-to-tubesheet joints. Roll-clad is the preferred method of cladding or overlay. However, explosion cladding is sometimes used, especially for small pieces like tubesheets where roll cladding is not economical. For other requirements on cladding, refer to EXH-MS2583, included in this manual.
Bundle Pull Hole Design

Removable bundles which are 20 inches or more in diameter should have four tapped holes in the channel side of the stationary tubesheet for bundle pulling heads. The holes should be symmetric about the bundle centerline and located at tube positions between 3 7/8 inches and 5 3/4 inches from both horizontal and vertical centerlines. Pull hole size and thread engagement should take into account tubesheet material and be designed for a maximum pulling load equal to twice the bundle weight. The threads should be National Course Series below 1 inch and eight-pitch series for 1 inch and above.
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Bundles smaller than 20 inches in diameter may have two tapped holes for pulling eyes. Small pre-engineered exchangers are usually supplied without pulling holes. These guidelines may have to be modified or waived for special construction, such as for thin clad tubesheets. Pull holes should be protected in service by threaded plugs.
522 Tube-to-Tubesheet Connection

The main function of tube-to-tubesheet joint is to seal the tubes tightly to the tubesheet, and for some exchangers, an additional function is to support the tubesheet against pressure induced load. Tubes are sealed inside the tubesheet by the following methods. Expanding tube inside tubehole Welding tubes to tubesheet
Expanding Tubes Inside Tubeholes

Expanded tube-to-tubesheet joints are industry standard. In this case tubes are expanded inside tubeholes by such methods as rolling or applying hydraulic pressure directly to the tube end. Properly rolled joints have uniform tightness to minimize tube fractures, stress corrosion, tubesheet ligament enlargement, and dishing of the tubesheet. Rolling to 95% of tubesheet thickness is recommended. Rolling at or beyond the tubesheet thickness is not recommendedfor it may damage the tubes. For moderate general process requirements (less than 300 psi and less than 350F) tubesheet holes without grooves are standard. For all other services with expanded tubes at least two grooves are machined (1/8 inch wide by 1/64 inch deep) in each tube hole. See Figure 500-1.
Fig. 500-1 Rolled Tube - Tubesheet Connection
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Expanding the tubes into the grooved tube holes provides a stronger joint but results in greater difficulties during tube removal. The following steps must be taken when tubes are rolled inside tube holes: 1. 2. 3. 4. Tubes should be expanded to provide an initial contact of the tube to the tube hole. Tubes should be seal welded if required. (See the seal welding procedure below.) Tubes should be given final roll. A reduction in wall thickness of 5% is sometimes used as an indicator of adequate rolling. Hydrotest the shell side after the final rolling.
Welding the Tubes to Tubesheet

Additional tightness beyond that of the tube rolling is sometimes required in the following areas: Steam generators when design pressure is greater that 450 psi Boiler feedwater heaters Feed/effluent heat exchangers in hydroprocessing plants Any exchangers where cross-contamination must be scrupulously avoided
In these cases, tubes can be rolled and then seal or strength welded to the tubesheet. Seal welding is defined as a very small bead of weld around the tubes where no credit can be taken for strength of that weld for calculation of tube-to-tubesheet joint load. Figure A-2 of Appendix A of ASME, Section VIII, Division 1, shows some acceptable strength weld geometries. Cleanliness in seal welding is of the utmost importance and care must be exercised during all steps of assembly not to contaminate cleaned parts. A chronic problem especially in sour services is contamination of the weld with sulfur or iron sulfide coming from a dirty tubesheet face or tube hole. This contamination makes it impossible to make a leak-free weld. The following procedure summarizes the requirements for seal welding heat exchanger tubes to tubesheets. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Use new tubesheets if possible. If old tubesheets are used, make as much like new as possible. After machining, degrease by steam cleaning. Clean tube ends with tube polisher. Clean tubes (full length), tubesheets, and bundle carcass by immersion in a hot alkaline detergent solution. Rinse cleaned parts with hot water and inspect. With carcass in horizontal position, place all tubes. Give tubes a light roll.
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7. 8. 9.
Adjust tubes for 1/32 inch to 1/8 inch projection, and tack weld each tube to the front tubesheet. Trim other end of tubes to same extension and tack about one-quarter of the tubes. Turn tube bundle in horizontal position so tube ends are in vertical rows and weld with MIG short-arc.
10. Clean and dye-penetrant-inspect all welds. Repair as required. 11. Reposition bundle and complete opposite end as required above. If desired, both ends may be welded at once. 12. Give tubes full roll. 13. Place bundle in shell and test. Repair as required and repeat dye-checking operations. Note It is important that a specific weld procedure be developed for the work and the actual materials used. The shop doing the work must demonstrate qualification to use this procedure. Consult with a local welding specialist or the Material Division Welding Specialist for help in developing the weld procedure.
523 Longitudinal Shell Baffles

In the design of heat exchangers, it is sometimes advantageous to use a TEMA Type F (two-pass shell), G (split-flow shell), or H (double-split-flow shell). All of these require a longitudinal baffle to control the shell side flow. To prevent bypassing, the seal between the longitudinal baffle and the shell is most commonly a Lamiflex type. More recently, Richmond Refinery has been using with good results Thermo-Ceram fabric for seal between long baffle and shell joint on services such as water or lube oil.
Longitudinal Baffle Thickness

The Company recommends that the longitudinal baffle thickness be the largest of these three: (1) 1/4 inch, or (2) the thickness required by TEMA, for transverse baffles, or (3) the thickness for differential pressure loading.
Attachment to Tubesheet
The longitudinal baffle should be fillet welded to the tubesheet.
Lamiflex Baffle
The stack of flexible strips is most commonly attached to the edge of the longitudinal baffle by sandwiching them between the longitudinal baffle and a bolting strip as shown in Figure 500-2. A typical seal consists of a long stack of eight strips, each 0.004 inch thick. This thickness represents a compromise: A thin strip is fragile and vulnerable to mechanical damage when the tube bundle is handled and inserted into the shell, and is also
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Fig. 500-2
Lamiflex Baffle
susceptible to damage by corrosion. However, only thin strips can flex adequately to seal. The most common material for the strips is Type 304 stainless steel. But other materials could also be used depending on process requirements (such as hydroprocessing systems). The angle of contact between shell and flexible strips should be small so that friction during installation is minimized and the differential pressure has the greatest effect in causing the strips to seal. To this end, it is recommended that dimensions A and B in Figure 500-3 should be about equal, with both in the range of 1/2 to 3/4 inch.
Fig. 500-3 Lamiflex Baffle Dimensions
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Protection during installation. The lamiflex baffle must be protected with cribbing to avoid damage during rigging operations.
Fiber FabricThermo Ceram Baffle

Since 1985 Richmond Refinery has been using, on existing units that have edge seal problems, a refractory textile product woven from white ceramic (alumina silica) fibers. The results have been successful in water or lube oil systems services. The Company has not yet used it in other services. Some of the advantages of fiber fabric Thermo Ceram over flexible strips are: The fiber fabric is less prone to being damaged when the bundle is removed from the shell. Lamiflex baffles normally have to be replaced when the bundle is removed. Thermo Ceram has no sharp edges to cut personnel or crane slings. The fiber fabric conforms closely to shell irregularities. It is very economical. It is made of nonasbestos fabric, good to 2200F.
A method of attaching the fiber fabric is shown on Figure 500-4. (Thermo Ceram can be obtained from Allied Packing in Oakland, California, telephone 654-3274).
Fig. 500-4 Ceramic Fiber-Type Seal
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Transverse Baffles. The transverse baffles must be notched to provide clearance for the fiber fabric seal (See Figure 500-4). The clearance area at this notch should be minimized, for it adds to the leakage through the transverse baffle.
524 Impingement Devices

This section compares Chevron criteria against TEMA Recommended Guidelines for impingement devices. It also discusses the types of impingement devices used in the Company. The tubes directly underneath the shell inlet nozzle may need to be protected against impinging fluid. Lack of proper impingement devices can cause tube failure by corrosion, erosion, or vibration. However, use of an impingement device when it is not needed increases exchanger diameter and cost.
Chevron Practices
TEMA recommends impingement plates for most services. Impingement plates have been a chronic cause of both erosion and vibration problems. Removing impingement plates has been a common solution. Chevrons normal practice is to put two staggered rows of impinging rods in the projection of the inlet nozzle to serve as an impingement device and also to distribute flow in the bundle. The impingement rods are recommended for all exchangers (regardless of service) where shell diameter is 20 inches or larger. Impingement devices are not practical in small exchangers (shell diameter less than 20 inches) and are usually not provided.
Impingement Rods
Impingement rods are preferred to an impingement plate for several reasons. First, the plate creates a dead space directly beneath it, lowering the heat transfer in those tubes. Also, if the plate blocks too much of the inlet area, then the fluid may accelerate into the remaining gap causing serious erosion of the tubes in that area. Designing the rods is recommended as follows: The rods should consist of 1/2 inch solid rod inside 3/4 inch tube spacers which are the same diameter as the active tubes. The two rows of rods replace the first two tube rows which extend past the nozzle projection. The distance between the center-lines of the outermost rods in the first row is at least equal to the inside diameter of the shell inlet nozzle. The effective length of the rods is at least 20 percent greater than the diameter of the shell inlet nozzle. The actual length of the rods may extend beyond the effective length as required for construction. For staggered tube layouts (30 and 45), the impingement rods should be of the same layout as the active tubes. For inline tube layout (90), the impingement rods should have a 45 staggered layout.
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TEMA Guideline
The TEMA Standard provides a minimum guideline for determining when an impingement device should be used. This guideline is appropriate for Company use also. Impingement protection underneath the shell inlet nozzle is recommended for the following: All noncorrosive, nonabrasive, single phase fluids with V2 >1500. All other liquids, including liquids at their boiling point V2 >500. All gases and vapors, including all nominally saturated vapors, and for liquid/vapor mixtures
The TEMA Standard also recommends that in no case should the shell or bundle entrance or exit area produce a value of V2 in excess of 4000. V is the linear velocity of the fluid in feet per second and is its density in pounds per cubic foot.
Other Types of Impingement Devices

Impingement Plate. A circular or rectangular plate is placed directly underneath the inlet nozzle perpendicular to nozzle flow. This plate could be welded to the shell, bolted to clips which are welded to the shell, or bolted to baffles on either side of shell inlet nozzle. The preferred construction is to attach the plate to the bundle. If an impingement plate is used, it must be at least 1/4 inch thick and extended a minimum of 1 inch (or 10% nozzle diameter, whichever is greater) on each side of the projected nozzle bore. Also the flow area off the impingement plate should be more than the inlet nozzle flow area. Impingement plates, however, are not recommended because of the problems stated above. Distribution Belt. A distribution belt consists of a collar that fits around the shell at the inlet and/or the outlet. The shell nozzle attaches to this collar. The fluid enters through the nozzle and flows through the annulus between the belt and the shell. The fluid enters the tube bundle through windows cut in the shell, with a reduced velocity. Distribution belts are not widely used in the Company. They are expensive and have maintenance problems.
525 Retrofitting Floating Head Bundles with U-tubes

It is often advantageous to change a floating head bundle to a U-tube bundle. This change may be warranted because of excessive leaks between floating head flange and the tubesheet. Recent progress in U-tube bundle cleaning methods allows use of U-tubes in many more services.
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Retrofitting a floating head to a U-tube bundle requires thermal, hydraulic, and vibration redesign. Once the need for retrofitting has been established, the following steps can be taken. 1. 2. Obtain existing exchanger data sheet and fabrication drawings. Put the following data on a new exchanger data sheet: Performance requirement of the new exchanger. This could be either the existing exchanger performance requirement or new data as specified by the process engineer based on information from the field about the operation and fouling of the old exchanger. In case of split ring type floating head where possibly less heat transfer area will be available, the re-evaluation of performance data may be required. Existing exchangers shell and channel inside diameters Locations and sizes of shell inlet and outlet nozzles Maximum allowable length of bundle. Allow minimum of 2 inch clearance between end of U-bends and inside of rear shell cover. Location and thickness of existing channel pass partition plates Material of construction for the bundle Tubesheet thicknesses Tube sizes, pitch, and layout preference Baffles type, cut, and spacing preference Impingement device requirement
3.
Note that all the above data are subject to re-evaluation for the new bundle. The only criterion is that the new bundle must fit in the existing shell, rear shell, and channel. Design a U-tube bundle based on the new data sheet. This can be done by using the Company/HTRI Programs or by using an exchanger design contractor. Compare cost of retrofit to cost of new exchanger: extensive modifications to channel or shell may justify purchase of a complete new exchanger. Consider the possibility that it may be necessary to remove the channel pass partition plates on the existing unit and install new ones. This is not considered extensive modification. Consider the effects of excessive vibration and its prevention (see Standard Drawing GC-E1048).
4.
530 Channel and Shell Design

This section covers mechanical design of the channel and shell on a shell and tube exchanger. Refer to EXH-MS-2583 for more details on channel and shell construction.
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531 General
Channel and Shell Thickness
The channel and shell contain the two separated fluids in the exchanger. They are almost always cylindrical in shape and follow rules and regulations of ASME Code for structural integrity. ASME Code, Section VIII, establishes minimum metal thickness of cylindrical channels or shells.
Stacking Restrictions
Avoid stacking more than three exchangers. More than three can cause maintenance, handling, and shipping difficulties. Piping and shell stresses in stacked exchangers should be within acceptable limits. The lower shells of stacked removable-bundle heat exchangers should be designed to withstand the superimposed loads due to exchanger operating weight or bundle pull-out, without suffering distortion that could cause binding of the tube bundles.
532 Body Flanges

Body flanges are used to permit disassembly and removal or cleaning of internal parts of a heat exchanger. Integral flanges (hub or weld neck) are flanges that are integral with the exchanger wall or neck. This type of flange is recommended on all services and pressures except in water service for pressure up to 150 pounds. Loose flanges (slip on) should be reviewed by a specialist. See Figure 500-5. For pressures over 1,000 psig, special closures should be considered, such as integral construction (no flanges), welded diaphragm seals, or breech lock closures. Welded diaphragm and breech lock closures are discussed in Section 533. The ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code establishes the minimum requirement for a flange design and provides a method of calculation (Section VIII, Division 1, Mandatory Appendix 2 and Non-mandatory Appendix S). Deficiencies in ASME Code designed flanges, from a leakage standpoint, have been recognized for some time. Although records are not routinely kept, a recent Company survey found that about half of the heat exchanger body flanges were chronic leakers. For services below 250F, ASME Code flanges are normally adequate. Chevron has developed a flange design method which corrects the deficiencies of the ASME CODE. Appendix G presents the Chevron and ASME Code design methods for heat exchanger body flanges. The Chevron design method is recommended for all heat exchanger body flanges with design temperatures above 250F.
ASME Code vs. Chevron Design Methods

The current Code formulas are deficient in two ways: (1) They are based on design pressure and ignore bolt loads and flange stresses required to pass hydrotest, and
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Fig. 500-5
Body Flange Configuration
(2) they ignore the hydrostatic end force due to operating (design) pressure in the bolt load for gasket seating. The basic differences between the ASME Code and Company flange design methods are in the design bolt loads, W1 and W2. The design bolt load is defined as the larger of W1 and W2. The ASME Code defines W1 as the bolt load required to balance the sum of gasket reaction and the hydrostatic end force due to design pressure. W1 = 0.785 G2 Pd + (2b 3.14 GmPd) Company practice defines W1 as the bolt load required to balance the sum of gasket reaction and the hydrostatic end force due to hydrotest pressure. W1 = 0.785 G2 Ph + 2 b (3.14 G + Lp) m Ph The ASME Code defines W2 as the bolt load required to seat the gasket at zero pressure. W2 = 3.14 b G y Company practice defines W2 as bolt the load required to seat the gasket at design pressure. This is the hydrostatic pressure end force at design pressure plus the Codedefined gasket seating force. W2 = 0.785 G2 Pd + b ( 3.14 G + Lp ) y
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Using the Chevron design method will increase flange thickness by approximately 50% (or more) and increase the number of bolts, depending on size, geometry, gasket material and design pressure. The benefits are no leakage and lower maintenance costs (Section 1000). Applying the Chevron modifications to cover plate design gives the following criteria. The minimum cover plate thickness, t, is the larger of th or tso below: Hydrotest: 0.3P h 1.9 h G 0.5 th = G ------------- + ----------------- Sc G 3 Sc
(Eq. 500-1)
Operation: 0.3P d 1.9W h G 0.5 t so = G ------------- + ------------------------ Sd G3 Sd

(Eq. 500-2)
Hydrotest conditions almost always govern the cover plate thickness. Seating during operation may govern at low pressures and high temperatures when S d is much less than Sc. In the above equations: b = Effective gasket seating width (in.), from Figure G-3, Appendix G G = Diameter at location of gasket load reaction (in.), from Figure G-3, Appendix G hG = Gasket Moment Arm (in.), from Figure 500-6 Lp = Total length of gasket pass partition rib(s) (in.) m = Gasket factor, from Figure G-2, Appendix G Pd = Design pressure (psig) Ph = Hydrotest pressure, normally equal to (1.5)(Pd)(psig) Sc = Allowable flange (or cover plate) stress at ambient temperature (psi) Sd = Allowable flange (or cover plate) stress at design temperature (psi) t = Flange (or cover plate) thickness (in.) th = Cover plate thickness for hydrotest conditions in.)
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tso = Cover plate thickness for operating conditions (in.) W = Design bolt load (lbf) W1 = Bolt load required to pass hydrotest (lbf) W2 = Bolt load required to reseat a gasket in service (lbf) Y = Factor, from Figure G-7, Appendix G y = Gasket seating stress (psi), from Figure G-2, Appendix G
Fig. 500-6
Channel Cover Dimensions
Designing And Evaluating Body Flanges

Chevron personnel seldom design heat exchanger body flanges from scratch, but often evaluate vendor designs or existing flanges. The PCFLANGE program, provided on a floppy in the back of this manual, automates the calculations necessary for the evaluation of flanges. Appendix H describes the operation of the PCFLANGE program. Flange design requires decisions regarding geometry, materials, gaskets, and bolts. The design of a flange may be iterative, as the required bolting may dictate an increase in flange OD, which may, in turn, increase the bolt size or number. The flange ID is set by the shell ID, which is set by the process and thermal design of the heat exchanger. The materials are dictated by the operating temperature and
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the corrosive nature of the fluids. The gasket type is dictated by the anticipated movement at the gasket surface due to thermal stresses and piping stresses. The bolt size and number and the flange thickness are dictated by the pressures and stresses. The flange OD is dictated by the bolt size and number. Materials. The choice of flange and bolt materials is based on design temperature and the corrosive nature of the process fluid. The stress should be below creep stress limits at design fluid temperature. Flange creep is not a problem in low alloy steels below 750F. At temperatures above 750F creep may be a problem. When designing flanges in this range, consult the Materials Unit of CRTC. Refer to the ASME Code to define the following allowable stresses: Sa, allowable bolt stress at ambient temperature Sb, allowable bolt stress at design temperature; Sc, allowable flange stress at ambient temperature; Sd, allowable flange stress at design temperature; Se, allowable shell stress at ambient temperature; Sf, allowable shell stress at design temperature. Gaskets. Selection of the proper gasket is essential in flange design. See Section 540 for recommended gasket materials. The Code specifies minimum recommended gasket stress for the different gasket types. Gasket manufacturers often supply maximum stress values. One manufacturer recommends maximum spiral wound gasket stresses of 25,000 psi for asbestos filled, 13,000 psi for TFE filled, and 20,000 for GRAFOIL filled gaskets. Another manufacturer suggests 15,000 psi for a general upper limit. Spiral wound gaskets and double jacketed asbestos gaskets are commonly used. Spiral wound gaskets that are not in a recessed groove should have an I.D. compression stop ring, or an O.D. centering ring and an I.D. compression stop ring. Bolt stop rings should be on the gasket ID. A bolt stop ring on a gasket OD can actually unload a gasket as bolts are tightened. Specify 125 micro-inch finish on flange surfaces which will contact the gasket. Gasket resilience, the ability of a gasket to maintain a seal when the two mating flanges move relative to each other, is an important gasket parameter. Solid metal gaskets have almost no resilience. Double jacketed gaskets can tolerate 1 to 2 mils of axial movement at the gasket surface. Spiral would gaskets can tolerate 4 to 5 mils of axial movement at the gasket surface. This makes spiral wound gaskets a good replacement for double jacketed or solid gaskets for leaking flanges. However, spiral wound gaskets are usually wider than double jacketed or solid gaskets. Not all flanges have wide enough gasket seating surfaces to accommodate a spiral wound retrofit. Ideally, a spiral wound gasket should incorporate a bolt stop ring on the gasket ID, however, this makes it even wider and harder to retrofit in place of a double jacketed gasket. Manufacturers can supply gaskets with centering tabs which aid installation.
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Gasket parameters required for a flange analysis include the gasket ID, OD, and the Code values of minimum seating stress and gasket factor. Flanges and Bolts. The flanges and bolts should be of material with similar coefficients of thermal expansion, i.e., B-7 studs for low alloy flanges. If the materials of the flanges and bolts are not similar, an analysis should be done to confirm that differential thermal expansion at design fluid temperature will not unseat the gasket or yield the bolts or flanges. Bolt relaxation (creep) is a function of both temperature and actual bolt stress. The following equations are for avoiding creep in new designs or evaluating for creep in existing designs. To avoid relaxation(creep), bolts should be used at temperatures below the following criteria: T < 920 - (S/180) T < 1030 - (S/180) where: T = Operating (design) temperature (F) S = Target or actual bolt-up bolt stress (psi) Code rules, as indicated in Appendix S of the ASME Pressure Vessel Code, recognize that normal bolt-up practices are not precise. Actual loadings often significantly exceed design loads. For example, in order to hydrotest a code designed flange, bolt stress must exceed Code allowable by about 50 %. Section VIII, Division 1, rules are intended to permit this practice. However, bolt and flange stresses will be below Code allowable at hydrotest for a Chevron designed flange. Use the smallest bolts that will satisfy the spacing requirements and flange dimensions shown on Figure G-4. The number of bolts should be divisible by 4 to conform to symmetrically oriented bolting equipment. Bolt area should be calculated based on the thread root area shown on Figure G-4 (Appendix G). Bolt hole diameter should be 1/8 inch larger than bolt diameter. A flange analysis requires specification of the number of bolts and the root mean area of the bolts. The root mean bolt area is shown in a table below. Flange Geometry And Stresses. Flange thickness and hub dimensions are the main variables that control the magnitude of the stresses in the flange. The PCFLANGE program prints out the stresses in the various parts of the flange and the corresponding code allowable limits. The program can be run with various flange thicknesses and hub dimensions until all the stresses are at or below code allowables. The program runs both the Code and Chevron methods so the difference in flange thickness for the two methods can be compared. Arbitrary bolt stresses can be specified in the program to investigate the resulting flange stress at high bolt stresses. Flange Rotation. As flanges are stressed by forces at the bolt circle, gasket, and shell, they pivot, or bend, about the bolt circle and gasket. This bending is called rotation. All flanges rotate to some degree, even at low stresses. The rotation is for B-7 bolts for B-16 bolts
March 1994
500-20
Chevron Corporation
usually not significant for small flanges, however, it can become significant for large diameter flanges and for high stresses. In cases of extreme high stress, the flanges can rotate until metal to metal contact exists between mating flanges at the flange OD. Depending on the flange geometry and location of bolt stop rings, rotation can sometimes unload gaskets and cause leaks. To approximate flange rotation, the flange is considered a free body, disregarding metal in the hub and the restraint of the nozzle neck or shell. These assumptions result in the following equation, which slightly over-estimates the actual rotation. = 1.91 M R / (E b t3) where: = Angle of rotation, radians M = Total moment (in lbf) R = Mean radius of flange (in) b = Radial width of flange (in) t = Thickness of flange (in) E = Modulus of Elasticity of flange at temperature (psi) To calculate the total moment, M, acting on the flange, consider the bolt load to be acting at the bolt circle, the hydrostatic load at the inner edge of the flange (if pressured conditions are being considered), and the gasket reaction at the mean gasket diameter or the bolt stop ring. Then calculate the total moment on the flange relative to the mean flange radius. With the rotation and the flange dimensions, the deflections at any point of interest can be calculated. For example, deflection at the flange OD for rotation about the gasket is shown below: d = l where: d = Deflection at OD of flange (in) = Angle of rotation (radians) l = Radial distance from center of gasket to flange OD (in.). Flange rotation can cause problems if deflection at the flange or OD approaches 1/2 the gasket thickness. Thermal Gradients. Thermal stresses leading to leakage can result from transient temperature differences during start up, steady state temperature differences between tube passes at tubesheet and channel cover flanges, process variations during operation and, for uninsulated flanges, variations in the weather, particularly rain storms. It is often necessary to re-torque uninsulated bolts after each rain storms to stop leaks.
Chevron Corporation
500-21
March 1994
As a general guideline, thermal effects may be significant when the maximum process temperature exceeds 350F and/or when process temperature changes across an exchanger exceed approximately 250F. Significant reduction in these effects can be made by insulating flanges and bolts to achieve more uniform circumferential temperatures. Belleville spring washers have been used with mixed results (see Section on Belleville Spring Washers). In addition to the effect of circumferential thermal gradients in heat exchangers, piping, pressure vessel and exchanger closures may be subjected to appreciable thermal shocks. When process temperatures decrease rapidly, flange and gasket materials respond faster than the bolting. Consequently, under these conditions, leakage may occur when bolt loadings decrease and gaskets have insufficient resilience to compensate for the contraction of the closure flange material.
Operation And Maintenance Of Body Flanges

Bolt-up. Following is the recommended general flange assembly procedure: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Inspect the gasket seating surfaces for tool marks, cracks, scratches or pitting. Radial tool marks on a gasket seating surface are virtually impossible to seal. Inspect the gasket for defects or damage. Inspect bolts, nuts, washer, and flange facings for galling, pitting, dirt, etc. Lubricate all threads and nut facings with temperature appropriate lubricant. Consider using an anti-seize compound to facilitate disassembly. If necessary, use a few dabs of gasket cement to keep the gasket in position until the flanges are tightened. A gasket designed with centering tabs can aid flange assembly. Torque the bolts to no more than 30% of the final torque value following the sequence recommended in Figure 500-7 (found on pages following). Visually check the gap between flanges for evenness of fit-up. Torque the bolts to 60% of the final torque value following the same bolting sequence. Torque the bolts to 100% of the final torque value following the same bolting sequence. This may require several retorquings because as one stud is torqued it will relieve the stress on the adjacent stud until equilibrium is achieved. Retorque the bolts after 4 hours at ambient conditions to compensate for any gasket or metal relaxation.
6.
7. 8.
9.
10. Retorque the bolts after 24 hours at operating conditions to compensate for any gasket or metal relaxation. Torque. A flange analysis by PCFLANGE will define a target bolt-up bolt stress. This stress value can be converted to bolt torque using the following equation.
March 1994
500-22
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 500-7
Recommended Sequence for Torquing Bolts During Body Flange Assembly (1 of 2)
Chevron Corporation
500-23
March 1994
Fig. 500-7
Recommended Sequence for Torquing Bolts During Body Flange Assembly (2 of 2)
March 1994
500-24
Chevron Corporation
T = .013 S Dr3 where: T = Torque (ft lbf) S = Target bolt stress (psi) Dr = Bolt diameter at the thread root (in) Bolt thread root diameters are shown below. Nominal Bolt Diameter (in.) 1/2 5/8 3/4 7/8 1 1 1/8 1 1/4 1 3/8 1 1/2 1 5/8 1 3/4 1 7/8 2 2 1/4 2 1/2 2 3/4 3 3 1/4 3 1/2 3 3/4 4 Root Diameter (in.) 0.4005 0.5071 0.6201 0.7404 0.8376 0.9628 1.088 1.213 1.337 1.463 1.588 1.713 1.838 2.088 2.338 2.588 2.838 3.088 3.338 3.587 3.837 Root Area (sq. in.) 0.126 0.202 0.302 0.419 0.551 0.728 0.929 1.155 1.405 1.680 1.980 2.304 2.652 3.423 4.292 5.259 6.324 7.487 8.749 10.108 11.566
Chevron Corporation
500-25
March 1994
The equation for torque assumes a friction coefficient of 0.2. This has been shown to be appropriate for the size of bolts used on heat exchanger body flanges. The results are accurate within 10 percent for lubricated bolts and within about 15 percent for unlubricated bolts. If either the flange or nut surface has galled, a hardened washer should be used to maintain the correct coefficient of friction. Regularly calibrated torque wrenches are adequate for bolting well designed flanges. Many other devices and methods have been used for precision bolting, such as bolt elongation measurements and control of nut methods. Mechanical tensioning devices may be required for large bolts that are beyond hand torque wrench capabilities. Although these methods produce accurate bolt loads, they cannot compensate for inadequate Code designed flanges. No bolting device can prevent leaks in a flange that yields during hydrotest or yields when uninsulated bolts shrink during a rain storm. Insulation. Insulation of flanges and bolts to prevent leakage is appropriate in services operating above 250F. Leakage problems can be reduced by application of insulation or rain shielding over flange surfaces and bolts normally exposed to atmospheric conditions. The sudden cooling effect of heavy rainstorms may create leakage problems that seldom disappear when normal operating conditions are again reached. Uninsulated flanges operating above 700F should be analyzed by an expert before insulation is applied. Use insulation covers designed for safe leakage. See Section 100 of the Insulation and Refractory Manual and Model Specification IRM-MS-4197 for the design of leak-safe, removable insulation covers. Improperly designed insulation will soak up leakage and may cause auto-ignition. A 1 or 2 inch air gap between shielding and flange is typical. Apply insulation when the flange is cold (after hydrotest and before startup) to minimize startup stresses. Insulation may be temporarily removed after startup to inspect for leaks.
Dealing With Leaking Body Flanges

Section 1000 of this manual lists common problems with gasketed joints, and gives details for maintaining flanges. A flange analysis using PCFLANGE should be part of the diagnosis of a leaking flange to see if the design is contributing to the problem. Bolt Tightening. Many flange leaks are caused by flanges that are too thin, in spite of being designed according to the Code. The leaks can often be stopped temporarily by tightening the bolts, even if the flanges are too thin and are yielding. The tightening should be done with a torque wrench so the bolts stress can be monitored. The bolt stress can be entered into the PCFLANGE program to assess the resulting flange stress. A flange designed to Code should not break even if the bolts have to be tightened beyond Code allowable bolt stress to stop a leak. Gasket Change. A gasket change should be considered for a chronically leaking flange. A solid metal gasket can be upgraded to a clad (double jacketed) gasket, a clad gasket to a spiral wound gasket, and a spiral wound gasket to a spiral wound
March 1994
500-26
Chevron Corporation
gasket with an ID bolt stop ring. Gasket widths or styles can be changed to accomodate flanges that have been machined to below design thickness. A change of gasket can also change the required bolting force. An analysis by PCFLANGE can asses the flanges ability to seat the upgraded gasket. Rain Shields. Most leaks in uninsulated flanges would improve if the flanges were insulated. This is because the insulated flanges would experience fewer thermal transients. However, reluctance to insulate a leaking flange is understandable. A positive intermediate step would be the application of a stainless steel rain shield, completely covering the flange, bolts, and nuts, with a gap at the bottom for leak detection. If the rain shield reduces or stops the leaks, a flexible insulation cover could be applied over the rain shield later. Belleville Spring Washers. Belleville spring, or dished, washers (Figure 500-8) have been used in some Company plants since 1965 to compensate for thermal cycling. The forced deflection of the spring on tightening keeps a steady force on the stud nut when thermal expansion of the stud occurs. Refinery experience with Belleville washers has been varied. Cracking and failure can occur in corrosive services, especially if they are used on internal floating heads. Washer material must be selected based on the expected maximum operating temperature to avoid creep relaxation.
Fig. 500-8 Belleville Washer Configurations
Chevron Corporation
500-27
March 1994
Deflection is directly proportional to load for most Belleville washer designs. When properly installed deflection due to changes in loads in operating temperature should not cause washers to completely flatten nor return to an undeflected configuration. The load required to deflect the springs is increased by adding them in parallel. A larger deflection for the same load can be obtained by adding springs in series. To avoid damaging the spring washers, mount them on the side of the flanges opposite the stud nut which is to be turned. The manufacturers recommendations should be consulted and followed. Experience shows that written procedures are necessary to insure proper re-assembly of washers during future maintenance. Backing Rings. Backing rings have been installed to reinforce inadequate heat exchanger body flanges. This options avoids the need to heat treat shell to flange welds when flanges are replaced. The rings fit snugly behind the flanges on the shell OD, have the same OD as the flanges they support, and are notched to accommodate the hub of the existing flange. The backing rings are put on the exchanger shell as two semi-circles, and then are welded together to form a solid ring. Bolt holes in the rings match the bolt holes in the flanges. This option is only viable if there are no nozzles or other attachments on the heat exchanger shell that would interfere with the rings and the longer bolts. Backing rings are usually sized so that the thickness of the existing flange plus the backing ring is 20 percent greater than the thickness of a Chevron designed flange for the same service. Flange Replacement. The most reliable way to solve a chronic leak caused by an inadequate Code designed flange is to replace it with a Chevron designed flange. This options allows the flange to be designed for an upgraded gasket, with a bolt stop ring, and for bolts that remain below code allowable stress even during hydrotest. The welds from the flange to shell and channel will usually have to be heat treated, depending on the material. Thicker retrofit flanges can move shell and channel nozzles relative to each other, requiring piping modifications.
533 High Pressure Closures

Using alternative sealing techniques - high pressure closures - becomes economical for exchangers over 20 inches in diameter that operate above 1000 psig. For products of pressure (psig) times diameter (inches) less than 70,000, welded diaphragm closures are economic. For products of pressure times diameter greater than 80,000, screwed or keyed type closures are economic. Break-even cost is in the 70,000 to 80,000 range. Figure 500-9 shows a typical welded-diaphragm closure for a high-pressure channel and low-pressure shell. Figure 500-10 shows a welded-diaphragm closure and welded-tube sheet used for feed-effluent exchangers with high- pressure on both shell and tube sides. The shellto-tube side strength weld is located near the channel end to facilitate easy removal and re-welding. The inconel overlay permits rewelding without heat treatment.
March 1994
500-28
Chevron Corporation
Fig. 500-9
Integral Tubesheet and Channel with Seal-Welded Diaphragm Closure
Chevron Corporation
500-29
March 1994
Fig. 500-10 Removable Tube Bundle with Welded Tubesheet and Diaphragm Closure
March 1994
500-30
Chevron Corporation
Figures 500-11 and 500-12 show screwed type closures for high pressure, tube side only, and high pressure both sides, respectively. These screwed closures are called breech lock closures.
Fig. 500-11 Integral Tubesheet and Channel with Gasketed Closure
Designs shown in Figures 500-9 through 500-12 are appropriate when all components are made of the same material. Figure 500-13 shows a segmented keyed-type design with a welded tubesheet and closure that can accommodate different metals. High pressure closures are not commodity items. Industry standards and appropriate codes for their design do not exist. Few manufacturers can design safe, fully serviceable high pressure exchangers. Some of the common problems and solutions are discussed below. Standard bolting practices that are appropriate for hardened studs and nuts should not be used in high pressure closures. Bolt stresses should be less than yield stress and relaxation stress of the soft base metal of the female threads. Stainless steel internals with clad low chrome channels have caused many problems for designs shown in Figures 500-9 through 500-12. Welded stainless steel, passpartition plates in low chrome channels have caused fatigue, cracking and catastrophic channel failure. Stainless steel pass partition plates in low chrome channels should be made bolted with adequate clearances to accommodate differential thermal expansion.
Chevron Corporation
500-31
March 1994
Fig. 500-12 Removable Tube Bundle with Gasketed Tubesheet and Closure
Fig. 500-13 YUBA Patented Hemilok Design with Welded Tubesheet and Closure
March 1994
500-32
Chevron Corporation
Stainless steel sleeves in Figure 500-12 have jammed set screws. This requires drilling them out and retapping larger holes after each shut down. Fully restrained sleeves should be made of the same material as the channel barrel. Stainless steel diaphragms have cracked, due to thermal fatigue leading to leakage and fires. Diaphragms should be made of the same material as the channel, with appropriate corrosion allowance, or should be replaced at appropriate intervals. The nozzle packing joint in Figure 500-10 will leak between shell and tube sides if the sleeve is stainless steel and the channel is low chrome. When using these materials, the tubesheet skirt-to-channel weld should be placed between the tubesheet and nozzle and the pass partition box bolted. Screwed covers in Figures 500-11 and 500-12 have jammed due to inappropriate maintenance practice, thread corrosion and severe thermal transients. Large threads and clearances mitigate this problem. One non-Company exchanger (similar to Figure 500-12) failed catastrophically due to diaphragm leakage that pressured and expanded the threaded portion of the channel and allowed the cover to disengage. Some similar Company exchangers have been modified with larger threads, new covers and externally stiffened channel ends to prevent this possibility. The Yuba Hemilok channel, shown in Figure 500-13, was developed to accommodate different metals, thermal cycling and extreme thermal transients, and to reduce first cost and maintenance costs. The radial key grove clearance and segment gaps are sized to accommodate specified metallurgy and thermal transients. The floating pass partition box and flexible tubesheet-to-channel connection are evident in the figure. Yuba has invested in 3-D transient elastic-plastic finite element models of their channel to quickly evaluate any specified conditions. Yuba also offers a gasketed closure that replaces the welded torus in Figure 500-13. The welded torus is more reliable and is recommended. High pressures closures should be carefully specified including: material of all components design features consistent with specified metallurgy allowable bolt stresses (if applicable) steady state design conditions any transient conditions that may be encountered and their frequency the design life of the exchanger.
Normal plant startup and shutdown transients have no impact on design. Feed pump failure transient with continuing recycle gas and full reactor effluent flow should probably be considered for all feed/effluent exchangers in hydroprocessing plants. Reactor temperature excursions followed by rapid depressuring should be considered in plants where excursions are possible. Transient thermal stress analysis affects clearances and minor design details and has minimal effect on equipment cost.
Chevron Corporation
500-33
March 1994
534 Connections
This section discusses recommendations for piping and instrument connections on a body of shell and tube exchangers. In general the number of connections should be minimized to minimize sources of leaks.
Inlet and Outlet Nozzles

Inlet and outlet nozzles for shell side and tube side fluids are required and they should conform to Chevron Piping Standards.
Vent and Drain Connections

All high and low points on the shell and tube sides of an exchanger not otherwise vented or drained by nozzles or piping should be provided with 3/4 inch connections for vent and drain. Consider where blinds will be installed in determining the need for, or location of, vent and drains. Condensers can require dedicated vents which operate continuously.
Pressure Gage Connections

All inlet and outlet nozzles 2 inches or larger should be provided with a 3/4 inch horizontal connection for a pressure gage unless special considerations require it to be omitted.
Thermometer Connections
All inlet and outlet nozzles 4 inches or larger should be provided with a 1-inch horizontal connection for a thermowell unless special considerations require it to be omitted.
Company Practices: Construction

1. 2. Nozzle projections should be sufficient for removal of studs between flange and insulation, jacket, shell, or head without removing insulation. Pressure temperature ratings for flanges should be in accordance with ANSI B 16.5. The rating and facing of the flange should match that of the adjoining piping. On horizontal units, channels with nozzles not in a vertical plane should be provided with two 3/4 inch (26.7 mm) nominal-pipe size screwed connections, one at the top and one at the bottom, to be used for venting and draining. These should be plugged with solid barstock steel plugs. Chemical cleaning connections, when required, should consist of a pair of flanged and blinded nozzles, one at the inlet and the other at the outlet of each heat exchanger (or each series-connected group of heat exchangers). The chemical cleaning connection should be made as branches on the heat exchanger nozzles. The size of the chemical cleaning connections should depend on the size of the heat exchanger nozzle to which they are attached, as shown in Figure 500-14.
3.
4.
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500-34
Chevron Corporation
5.
To double as inspection openings, the following nozzles should be 4-inch size or larger: (a) blowdown nozzle on steam generators, and (b) steam condensate outlet nozzle on vertical reboilers. Steam heated vertical reboilers should be provided with a shell side vent as close to the top tubesheet as possible to relieve air binding and corrosion due to noncondensibles. Kettle-type steam generators should have one manhole located either in the shell above the tube bundle or in the shell cover. All threaded connections should be welded up to first root valve except in water services.
6.
7. 8.
Fig. 500-14 Nozzle Sizes for Chemical Cleaning Chemical Cleaning Nozzle, in. 2 3 4 Shell Side Nozzle, in. 2 to 4 6 8 and larger Tube Side Nozzle, in. 2 to 6 8 10 and larger
540 Gaskets
There are four types of gaskets commonly used in heat exchanger body flanges at Chevron facilities: Composition Asbestos Double Jacketed Spiral Wound Solid Metal
For the design considerations of these gaskets. See Figure 500-1.
Composition Asbestos Gaskets

Composition asbestos gaskets are flat nonmetallic gaskets. They are durable, inexpensive, quick delivery gaskets which are very forgiving to gasket surface problems. Asbestos is still acceptable in all except acid service. The chemically resistant African blue asbestos (crocidolite) is no longer available in the U.S. Substitution of Canadian white asbestos (chrysotile) in acid services is not safe. Some operating locations, however, are replacing composition asbestos gaskets with nonasbestos substitutes because of health hazards connected with both the handling of asbestos fibers during manufacturing and disposal of the used gaskets. For most services, flexible graphite is the best alternative to asbestos. Many other nonasbestos materials are available at less cost than flexible graphite, but they have generally inferior mechanical properties, and lower temperature and chemical resistance.
Chevron Corporation
500-35
March 1994
Fig. 500-15 Gasket Design Considerations (1 of 3)

Gasket Type Composition Asbestos Typical Location All closures except floating head. Process Contraints 450F @200 psi max. Min/Max Dimensions 3/4" minimum width. Seating Surface Condition 125250 rms when new. Imperfections less than 50% of the effective gasket surface width can be tolerated. Seating Surface Type All surfaces except with nubbin or tongue and groove.
March 1994 500-36 Chevron Corporation
Double-Jacketed
All closures.
650F @600 psi max.
3/8"3/4"; refer to TEMA. Best performing width is 1/2"5/8" with centering tabs.
50125 rms when new. Gritblast finish OK but not recommended. Cannot tolerate imperfections where inner and outer gasket overlaps sit on gasket surface.
Never use with nubbins.
Spiral Wound
All closures except floating head.
Based on materials used for windings and filler (refer to ASME material tables).
1/2" min., no max. Take 1/8" off O.D. when calculating flange Tmin or bolt loads. It does not provide seal.
125250 rms when new. Imperfections less than 25% of the effective gasket surface width can be tolerated.
Never use with nubbin. Must have compression ring when used with raised faced flanges. Compression rings are not needed if flanges are designed to fit metal-to-metal with tongue and groove. Make certain that gasket is crushed correctly.
Solid Metal
Floating heads. Its common to find them at other locations on high pressure units such as the feed versus effluent units at the Isomax Reactors.
Highest pressures and temperatures
1/8" min. width to nubbin. Solid metal gasket width for 1/8" nubbin is 3/8" min. Refer to ASME Section 8 for more details.
50125 rms when new. Cannot tolerate less than perfect surfaces.
Nubbin. (Nubbin is a tooth on the gasket surface which bites into metal gasket)

Gasket Type Composition Asbestos Future Concerns Asbestos material may be discontinued. Nonasbestos materials are only good to 150250F @ 100200 psi. Pros Cheap. Easy to handle. Quick to obtain. Does not require special seating surfaces. Good performer. Great for salt water service. Cons Can blow out if unit is overpressured. Difficult to install because gasket is not rigid. Must use asbestos handling procedures for installation, removal, and disposal. When to Use Whenever possible in low temperature and pressure.
Chevron Corporation 500-37 March 1994
Double-Jacketed
None
Reliable. Easy to obtain in most materials. Can be retorqued.
Integral ribs cause leaks. Soldered ribs break off easily. Carbon steel gaskets rust when used and causeleaks.
Composition asbestos cannot be used.
Spiral Wound
None
Expensive but has best sealing capabilities of all gasket designs. Takes longer to order and obtain.
Requires perfect flange gasket seating surfaces. Windings explode when handled roughly. Cannot be retorqued to stop leaks.
When nothing else works. Double-jacketed with two pieces of filler can sometimes seal as well as a spiral.
Solid Metal
None
Requires less bolting and Tmin because there is less gasket being seated. Does not need wide gasket; typically 3/8" min. (refer to TEMA). Can seal against high pressure and temperature.
Nubbins require more maintenance. Gasket must be centered on nubbin perfectly. Marks or gouges across nubbin must be repaired. Nubbin edges require renewing every 2nd or 3rd assembly. Tends to leak if temperatures are not circumferentially uniform.
When a nubbin surface is required.

Gasket Type Composition Asbestos Torquing Procedures Not necessary for seating the gasket. Torque if leaker only. Ordering Description O.D. I.D., 1/16" tk, Durable (include rib configuration). Special Consideration Gasket can extend beyond seating surfaces for centering in gasket surface. Thickness Effects 1/16" is suggested; thicker requires less bolting (see m and y values in ASME Section 8). Thicker is easier to blow out. Standard asbestos filled is 3/32" tk. Use double asbestos filler for more spring like effect; this can accom-modate some thermal cycling (typical design for some pump head gaskets). Thicker can handle more compression and higher operating pressures. Retorque. Most leaks cannot be stopped and a gasket change-out is necessary. What to do if Gasket Leaks
March 1994 500-38 Chevron Corporation
Double-Jacketed
Normally required. Channel to shell closure most critical because of different process environments. Retorque when unit is hot.
O.D. I.D., 3/32 tk (include rib configuration), 304ss clad asbestos with silver solder rib(s) to ring I.D., add (#) centering tabs to ring O.D. or I.D. 1/8" 1/4". Order spares. O.D. I.D., ring dimensions if present, thickness of windings and rings, materials for all parts, and always include the operating pressure the gasket must seal against. Order spares because of handling problems. O.D. I.D., 1/16" tk. Typically no ribs for solid metal design.
Gasket cannot extend past seating surfaces. Use double shell double-jacketed design if bolting is too great. Use double filler thickness when thermal cycling is constant. Must have compression ring on O.D. if not contained. I.D. ring helps protect windings from process and makes easier to handle. Filler materials like ceramic or flexite are rock like and very hard to seal. Many closures are designed with nubbins and clad gaskets. Be sure to look at both a clad with no nubbin, and a solid metal with no nubbin before nubbin is removed. Gasket material must be softer than nubbin material.
Spiral Wound
Required for all spiral wound gasketed closures raised faced or metal-tometal designed flanges.
Solid Metal
Required to ensure equal load throughout gasket.
Too thin and nubbin will cut gasket. Too thick and gasket will not deform correctly and provide good seal. Somewhat determined by gasket material.
Retorque. Leaks are usually from damaged nubbins and require nubbins to be inspected and repaired.
The following are recommended for asbestos substitute gasket materials: 1. 2. Use flexible graphite sheet, graphite-filled spiral-wound gaskets or double-jacketed gaskets for all hydrocarbon and steam services. Use reinforced elastomer bound sheet gaskets for AWSI Class 150/300F maximum water service.
Use PTFE (Teflon) filled spiral-wound gaskets (first choice) or sheet gaskets (second choice) in sulfuric acid service. See Figure 500-16 for other chemical service recommendations.
Fig. 500-16 Suitability of Materials in Sheet- or Spiral-Wound Gaskets
(1)
Service Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
(2)
PTFE
(3)
Suitable? No No
Graphite(4) Suitable? Alloy 20 T-304 SS Monel T-316 SS Hastelloy C
H2SO4 HNO3 HF H3PO4 HCI

Note
Yes No Yes
Metal for foil reinforcement of graphite sheet gaskets, or for windings in SWG.
(1) This table gives conservative recommendations for materials resistant up to at least 200F. Please consult with the Materials and Engineering Analysis Division when selecting gaskets for a new chemical service. (2) All concentrations. (3) PTFE (Teflon) is a suitable replacement material for Blue African asbestos for all the chemical services listed above. PTFE sheet gaskets are not fire safe, whereas PTFE filled spiral-wound gaskets (SWG) are often considered fire safe. Thus the first choice for most acid applications will be Teflon-filled SWG. (4) Flexible graphite is fire safe and suitable for most chemical services except those that are highly oxidizing, such as nitric acid or concentrated sulfuric acid.
Double-Jacketed Gaskets (See Figure 500-17)

Double-jacketed gaskets have greater compressibility and resilience than solidmetal gaskets. Even compression is achieved by the use of the overlapped jacket on the inside and outside diameters. Double-jacketed gaskets are generally reliable; however, they are much less forgiving to gasket surface alignment or surface condition problems than composition asbestos.
Spiral-Wound Gaskets (See Figure 500-18)

Spiral-wound gaskets provide the best sealing capabilities. However, they tolerate less flange face misalignment and require more care in handling than either composition asbestos or double-jacketed gaskets. They are custom-designed to meet the compression requirement of body flange bolting. Spiral-wound gaskets are fully seated when the flanges are pulled up snugly against the compressing guide ring. This ring also prevents gasket crushing by over-tightening of bolts.
Chevron Corporation
500-39
March 1994
Fig. 500-17 Double-Jacketed Gasket
Fig. 500-18 Spiral-Wound Gasket
Solid-Metal Gaskets
These gaskets, are prone to leakage and are no longer recommended. Solid-metal gaskets come in many shapes. They have good strength and are resistant to corrosion. They are effective at higher temperature and pressures than the other types of gaskets. Solid-metal gaskets require an excellent seating surface condition and alignment. They have been used with nubbin-seating surfaces. A nubbin is a very small (1/4 inch wide) seating surface on the face of the flange. Because the nubbin is small, less force is needed to seat the gasket.
March 1994
500-40
Chevron Corporation
550 Insulation
551 Reasons for Insulating
Exchanger shells, channels, and flanges are insulated for the following reasons: To minimize heat loss and consequently save fuel. Obviously, insulating may not be appropriate in cooling services, such as for cooling water exchangers. To protect personnel working where surfaces are over 140F. Exchangers which are not readily accessible need not necessarily be insulated to protect personnel. Exchanger shells which are accessible but should not be insulated may use alternative means to protect personnel, such as guard posts and signs.
552 Types of Insulation

Calcium silicate, fiber glass, and mineral wool are the common types of insulation used on exchangers. Calcium silicate is generally preferred, especially in areas of high-foot traffic or where flammability is a concern. See Section 100 of the Insulation and Refractory Manual for more information on the types of insulation available. See IRM-MS-1381 for installation requirements.
553 Weatherjacketing
In general, 3/16 inch pitch cross-crimped aluminum weather jacketing should be used on exchanger shells, and flat aluminum or mastic weather jacketing used on exchanger heads. See Section 100, Model Specification IRM-MS-1381, and Standard Drawing GD-N99785 in the Insulation and Refractory Manual for more detailed information.
554 Flange Insulation

In general, body flanges over 100F should be insulated for the following reasons: To save heat To protect personnel To prevent large thermal gradients across the flange during inclement weather conditions. Large thermal gradients across the flange can cause distortion of the flange and ultimately cause the flange to leak.
If the flanges and insulation are improperly designed, the following problems may occur: If flange and bolts are not of similar materials, differential thermal expansion at the operating temperature can unseat the gasket or cause the bolts or flange to yield.
Chevron Corporation
500-41
March 1994
The bolts will relax and stretch if the internal operating temperature is above the creep stress limit of the bolts. This problem can cause leakage and possibly auto-ignition because of the high temperatures. Improperly designed insulation will soak up leakage and may cause autoignition.
To prevent these problems, the following criteria should be used for design and insulation of flanges: The flanges and bolts should be of similar material, i.e., B7 or B16 studs for carbon steel or low alloy flanges. Flange and bolt materials should be designed for the maximum internal design temperature and corrosive nature of the process fluid. In other words, the stress in flange and bolt material must be kept below the creep stress limits at the maximum internal design temperature. Temperature limits for commonly used studs are as follows: Less than 750F 750F to 950F Above 950F A193 B7 A193 B16 Consult CRTCs Heat Exchanger specialists, Fuels and Processing Unit on a case-by-case basis.
Use insulation covers designed for safe leakage. See Section 100 of the Insulation and Refractory Manual and Model Specification IRM-MS-4197 for the design of leak-safe, removable insulation covers. Apply insulation when the flange is cold (after hydrotest and before startup) to minimize startup stresses. Insulation may be temporarily removed after startup to inspect for leaks.
A practical problem in the plants is the mixing of B7 and B16 studs, especially during plant turnarounds when a great deal of bolting and unbolting is being done. If a location cannot guarantee that these studs can be totally segregated, then another option is to leave flanges over 750F uninsulated with a weathercover over the flange to protect against wind and rain.
March 1994
500-42
Chevron Corporation

CHEVRON Shell and Tube Exchanger Component Design Considerations

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CHEVRON Shell and Tube Exchanger Component Design Considerations

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500 Shell and Tube Exchanger Component Design Considerations

500 Shell and Tube Exchanger Component Design Considerations

Heat Exchanger and Cooling Tower Manual

550 551 552 553 554

Insulation Reasons for Insulating Types of Insulation Weatherjacketing Flange Insulation

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500 Shell and Tube Exchanger Component Design Considerations

510 Design Pressure and Temperature

512 Design Temperature

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513 Relief Valves

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514 Rupture Surge Pressure

520 Bundle Design

ASME Code, Section VIII, Division 1

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Body Flange Configuration

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