CHAPTER 9

Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations ( )

Examples of Bonded Abrasives

Conventional abrasives Al2O3 SiC Superabrasives Cubic boron nitride (CBN) Diamond

Figure extra A variety of bonded abrasives used in abrasive machining processes. Source: Courtesy of Norton Company.

Knoop Hardness for Various Materials and Abrasives

TABLE 9.1

Common glass Flint, quartz Zirconium oxide Hardened steels Tungsten carbide Aluminum oxide

350500 8001100 1000 7001300 18002400 20003000

Titanium nitride Titanium carbide Silicon carbide Boron carbide Cubic boron nitride Diamond

2000 18003200 21003000 2800 40005000 70008000

Grinding Wheel
Figure 9.1 Schematic illustration of a physical model of a grinding wheel, showing its structure and wear and fracture patterns.

Common Grinding Wheels

Figure 9.2 Common types of grinding wheels made with conventional abrasives. Note that each wheel has a specific grinding face; grinding on other surfaces is improper and unsafe.

Superabrasive Wheel Configurations

Figure 9.3 Examples of superabrasive wheel configurations. The annular regions (rim) are superabrasive grinding surfaces, and the wheel itself (core) is generally made of metal or composites. The bonding materials for the superabrasives are (a), (d), and (e) resinoid, metal, or vitrified, (b) metal, (c) vitrified, and (f) resinoid.

Marking System for Aluminum-Oxide and Silicon-Carbide Bonded Abrasives

Figure 9.4a Standard marking system for aluminum-oxide and silicon-carbide bonded abrasives.

Standard Marking System for Cubic Boron Nitride and Diamond Bonded Abrasives
Figure 9.4b Standard marking system for cubic boron nitride and diamond bonded abrasives.

Grinding Wheel Surface

Figure 9.5 The surface of a grinding wheel (A46-J8V) showing abrasive grains, wheel porosity, wear flats on grains, and metal chips from the workpiece adhering to the grians. Note the random distribution and shape of abrasive grains. Magnification: 50X. Source: S. Kalpakjian.

Grinding Chips
(a) (b)

Figures 9.6 and 9.9 (a) Grinding chip being produced by a single abrasive grain. (A) chip, (B) workpiece, (C) abrasive grain. Note the large negative rake angle of the grain. The inscribed circle is 0.065 mm (0.0025 in.) in diameter. Source: M. E. Merchant. (b) Schematic illustration of chip formation by an abrasive grain with a wear flat. Note the negative rake angle of the grain and the small shear angle.

Relative v grain force VC

d D

Actual force=relative grain force x strength of metal

Surface Grinding and Plowing

Figure 9.7 Schematic illustration of the surface grinding process, showing various process variables. The figure depicts conventional (up) grinding.

4v t= VC

d D

l Dd

C: number of cutting points per unit area of wheel surface Figure 9.8 Chip formation and plowing of the workpiece surface by an abrasive grain. This action is similar to abrasive wear. (See Fig. 32.6). Surface temperature rise
3 d VC T d 4 D t v

Approximate Specific Energy Requirements for Surface Grinding

TABLE 9.3 Workpiece material Aluminum Cast iron (class 40) Low-carbon steel (1020) Titanium alloy Tool steel (T15) Hardness 150 HB 215 HB 110 HB 300 HB 67 HRC Specific energy 3 3 W-s/mm hp-min/in. 727 2.510 1260 4.522 1468 525 1655 620 1882 6.530

Specific energy u = uchip + uploughing + usliding

Much higher energy levels than those in cutting with single-point tools Size effect: small size ( higher strength of metal); Wear flat; Chip morphology: negative rake angle ( large shear strain)

MRR = dwv Power = (u )( MRR) = (T )( ) Torque T = ( Fc )( D 2) Fc

Shaping Using Computer Control

Figure 9.11 Shaping the grinding face of a wheel by dressing it with computer control. Note that the diamond dressing tool is normal to the surface at point of contact with the wheel. Source: Okuma Machinery Works Ltd.

Dressing: conditioning worn grains Truing to original shape Shaping

Speed and Feed Ranges and Grinding Wheel Recommendations

TABLE extra Typical Range of Speeds and Feeds for Abrasive Processes Conventional Creep-feed Process variable grinding grinding Buffing Wheel speed (m/min) 15003000 15003000 18003600 Work speed (m/min) 1060 0.11 Feed (mm/pass) 0.010.05 16
TABLE 9.4 Typical Recommendations for Grinding Wheels for Use with Various Materials Material Type of grinding wheel C46K6V Aluminum C46K6V Brass A54K6V Bronze C60L6V, A60M6V Cast iron C60I9V, D150R75B Carbides D150N50M Ceramics C60J8V Copper B150H100V Nickel alloys A36L8V Nylon A60M6V Steels A60K8V Titanium B120WB Tool steels ( > 50 HRC) Note: These recommendations vary significantly, depending on material composition, the particular grinding operation, and grinding fluids used.

Polishing 15002400

Workpiece Geometries

Figure extra The types of workpieces and operations typical of grinding: (a) cylindrical surfaces, (b) conical surfaces, (c) fillets on a shaft, (d) helical profiles, (e) concave shape, (f) cutting off or slotting with thin wheels, and (g) internal grinding. See also the illustrations in Section 25.6.

General Characteristics of Abrasive Machining Processes and Machines

TABLE extra Process Surface Cylindrical Characteristics Flat surfaces on most materials; production rate depends on table size and automation; labor skill depends on part; production rate is high on vertical-spindle rotary-table type. Round workpieces with stepped diameters; low production rate unless automated; labor skill depends on part shape. Maximum dimension (m)* Reciprocating table L : 6 Rotary table D : 3 Workpiece D : 0.8 Roll grinders D : 1.8 Universal grinders D : 2.5 Workpiece D : 0.8 Hole D : 2 Spindle D : 1.2 Table D : 3.7

Centerless Round workpieces; high production rate; low to medium labor skill. Internal Bores in workpiece; low production rate; low to medium labor skill. Honing Bores and holes in workpiece; low production rate; low labor skill. Lapping Flat surfaces; high production rate; low labor skill. Ultrasonic Holes and cavities of various shapes, particularly in hard and brittle machining nonconducting materials. *Larger capacities are available for special applications. L=length; D=diameter.

VIDEO

Surface Grinding Operations

Figure 9.12 Schematic illustrations of various surface grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding with a horizontal-spindle surface grinder. (b) Plunge grinding with a horizontalspindle surface grinder, producing a groove in the workpiece. (c) A vertical-spindle rotarytable grinder (also known as the Blanchard type).

VIDEO

Surface Grinding
Figure 9.13 Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle surface grinder.

Figure 9.14 (a) Rough grinding of steel balls on a vertical-spindle grinder; the balls are guided by a special rotary fixture. (b) Finish grinding of balls in a multiple-groove fixture. The balls are ground to within 0.013 mm (0.0005 in.) of their final size. Source: American Machinist.

Cylindrical Grinding Operations

Figure 9.15 Examples of various cylindrical grinding operations. (a) Traverse grinding, (b) plunge grinding, and (c) profile grinding. Source: Okuma Machinery Works Ltd.

VIDEO

Plunge and Noncylindrical Grinding

Figure 9.16 Plunge grinding of a workpiece on a cylindrical grinder with the wheel dressed to a stepped shape.

Figure extra Schematic illustration of grinding a noncylindrical part on a cylindrical grinder with computer controls to produce the shape. The part rotation and the distance x between centers is varied and synchronized to grind the particular workpiece shape.

Thread and Internal Grinding

Figure 9.17 Thread grinding by (a) traverse, and (b) plunge grinding.

Figure 9.18 Schematic illustrations of internal grinding operations.

Cycle Patterns in Cylindrical Grinding

Figure 25.20

Centerless Grinding

(c)

Figure 9.19 Schematic illustrations of centerless grinding operations: (a) through feed grinding. (b) Plunge grinding. (c) A computer numerical control cylindrical grinding machine. Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Inc.

VIDEO

Creep-Feed Grinding
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.21 (a) Schematic illustration of the creep-feed grinding process. Note the large wheel depth of cut, d. (b) A shaped groove produced on a flat surface by creep-feed grinding in one pass. Groove depth is typically on the order of a few mm. (c) An example of creep-feed grinding with a shaped wheel. This operation can also be performed by some of the processes. Source: Courtesy of Blohm, Inc., and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

VIDEO
(cut grinding)

General Recommendations for Grinding Fluids

TABLE 9.5 Material Grinding fluid Aluminum E, EP Copper CSN, E, MO FO Magnesium D, MO Nickel CSN, EP Refractory metals EP Steels CSN, E Titanium CSN, E D: dry; E: emulsion; EP: Extreme pressure; CSN: chemicals and synthetics; MO: mineral oil; FO: fatty oil.

Ultrasonic Machining and Coated Abrasives

Figure 9.22 (a) Schematic illustration of the ultrasonic machining process. (b) and (c) Types of parts made by this process. Note the small size of holes produced.

Finishing Operations
Coated abrasives Wire brushing Honing Superfinishing Lapping Polishing Buffing Electropolishing Magnetic-field-assisted polishing

Coated Abrasives
Figure 9.23 Schematic illustration of the structure of a coated abrasive. Sandpaper, developed in the 16th century, and emery cloth are common examples of coated abrasives.

Belt Grinding
Figure extra Example: Belt Grinding of Turbine Nozzle Vanes.

Coated abrasives

Honing and Superfinishing

Figure 9.24 Schematic illustration of a honing tool used to improve the surface finish of bored or ground holes.

Stone: Al2O3 or SiC bonded abrasives

: very light

Figure 9.25 Schematic illustrations of the superfinishing process for a cylindrical part. (a) Cylindrical mircohoning, (b) Centerless microhoning.

Lapping
Figure 9.26 (a) Schematic illustration of the lapping process. (b) Production lapping on flat surfaces. (c) Production lapping on cylindrical surfaces.

Lap: cast iron, copper, leather, or cloth

Polishing Using Magnetic Fields

Figure 9.27 Schematic illustration of polishing of balls and rollers using magnetic fields. (a) Magnetic float polishing of ceramic balls. (b) Magnetic-field-assisted polishing of rollers. Source: R. Komanduri, M. Doc, and M. Fox.

Bearing steels of 63 HRC have been mirror finished in 30 seconds

Abrasive-Flow Machining
Figure 9.28 Schematic illustration of abrasive flow machining to deburr a turbine impeller. The arrows indicate movement of the abrasive media. Note the special fixture, which is usually different for each part design. Source: Extrude Hone Corp.

Robotic Deburring
Figure extra A deburring operation on a robotheld die-cast part for an outboard motor housing, using a grinding wheel. Abrasive belts or flexible abrasive radial-wheel brushes can also be used for such operations. Source: Courtesy of Acme Manufacturing Company and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

Vibratory and barrel finishing Shot blasting Abrasive-flow machining Thermal energy method Manually with files

Advanced Machining Processes and Nanofabrication

Examples of Parts Made by Advanced Machining Processes

(a)

(b)

Figure extra Examples of parts made by advanced machining processes. These parts are made by advanced machining processes and would be difficult or uneconomical to manufacture by conventional processes. (a) Cutting sheet metal with a laser beam. Courtesy of Rofin-Sinar, Inc., and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers. (b) Microscopic gear with a diameter on the order of 100 m, made by a special etching process. Courtesy of Wisconsin Center for Applied Microelectronics, University of Wisconsin-Madison.

TABLE 9.6 Process Chemical machining (CM) Electrochemical machining (ECM) Characteristics Shallow removal (up to 12 mm) on large flat or curved surfaces; blanking of thin sheets; low tooling and cost; suitable for low production runs. Complex shapes with deep cavities; highest rate of material removal among nontraditional processes; expensive tooling and equipment; high power consumption; medium to high production quantity. Cutting off and sharpening hard materials, such as tungsten-carbide tools; also used as a honing process; higher removal rate than grinding. Shaping and cutting complex parts made of hard materials; some surface damage may result; also used as a grinding and cutting process; expensive tooling and equipment. Contour cutting of flat or curved surfaces; expensive equipment. Cutting and holemaking on thin materials; heataffected zone; does not require a vacuum; expensive equipment; consumes much energy. Cutting and holemaking on thin materials; very small holes and slots; heat-affected zone; requires a vacuum; expensive equipment. Cutting all types of nonmetallic materials to 25 mm and greater in thickness; suitable for contour cutting of flexible materials; no thermal damage; noisy. Single or multilayer cutting of metallic and nonmetallic materials. Cutting, slotting, deburring, deflashing, etching, and cleaning of metallic and nonmetallic materials; manually controlled; tends to round off sharp edges; hazardous. Process parameters and typical material removal rate or cutting speed 0.00250.1 mm/min. V: 525 dc; A: 1.58 2 A/mm ; 2.512 mm/min, depending on current density. 2 A: 13 A/mm ; Typically 25 3 mm /s per 1000 A. V: 50380; A: 0.1500; 3 Typically 300 mm /min. Varies with material and thickness. 0.507.5 m/min.
3

General Characteristic s of Advanced Machining Processes

Electrochemical grinding (ECG) Electrical-discharge machining (EDM) Wire EDM Laser-beam machining (LBM) Electron-beam machining (EBM) Water-jet machining (WJM) Abrasive water-jet machining (AWJM) Abrasive-jet machining (AJM)

12 mm /min. Varies considerably with material. Up to 7.5 m/min. Varies considerably with material.

Chemical Milling

Figure 9.29 (a) Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical milling to improve the stiffnessto-weight ratio of the part. (b) Weight reduction of space launch vehicles by chemical milling aluminum-alloy plates. These panels are chemically milled after the plates have first been formed into shape by processes such as roll forming or stretch forming. The design of the chemically machined rib patterns can be modified readily at minimal cost. Source: Advanced Materials and Processes, December 1990. ASM International.

Chemical Machining
Figure 9.30 (a) Schematic illustration of the chemical machining process. Note that no forces or machine tools are involved in this process. (b) Stages in producing a profiled cavity by chemical machining; note the undercut.

Range of Surface Roughnesses and Tolerances

Figure 9.31 Surface roughness and tolerances obtained in various machining processes. Note the wide range within each process. Source: Machining Data Handbook, 3rd ed. Copyright 1980. Used by permission of Metcut Research Associates, Inc.

Chemical Blanking and Electrochemical Machining

Figure 9.32 Various parts made by chemical blanking. Note the fine detail. Source: Courtesy of Buckbee-Mears St. Paul.

Figure 9.33 Schematic illustration of the electrochemical-machining process. This process is the reverse of electroplating, described in Section 33.8.

Examples of Parts Made by Electrochemical Machining

Figure 9.34 Typical parts made by electrochemical machining. (a) Turbine blade made of a nickel alloy, 360 HB; note the shape of the electrode on the right. Source: ASM International. (b) Thin slots on a 4340-steel roller-bearing cage. (c) Integral airfoils on a compressor disk.

Electrochemical Grinding
Wheel is a rotating cathode with abrasive particles Electrochemical machining + conventional grinding

Figure 9.35 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrochemical-grinding process. (b) Thin slot produced on a round nickel-alloy tube by this process.

Electrical-Discharge Machining
Based on erosion of metals by spark discharge
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.36 (a) Schematic illustration of the electrical-discharge machining process. This is one of the most widely used machining processes, particularly for die-sinking operations. (b) Examples of cavities produced by the electrical-discharge machining process, using shaped electrodes. Two round parts (rear) are the set of dies for extruding the aluminum piece shown in front. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd. (c) A spiral cavity produced by EDM using a slowly rotating electrode, similar to a screw thread. Source: American Machinist.

Examples of EDM
Figure 9.38 Stepped cavities produced with a square electrode by the EDM process. The workpiece moves in the two principal horizontal directions (x-y), and its motion is synchronized with the downward movement of the electrode to produce these cavities. Also shown is a round electrode capable of producing round or elliptical cavities. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.

Figure 9.39 Schematic illustration of producing an inner cavity by EDM, using a specially designed electrode with a hinged tip, which is slowly opened and rotated to produce the large cavity. Source: Luziesa France.

Wire EDM
(a)

Figure 9.40 (a) Schematic illustration of the wire EDM process. As much as 50 hours of machining can be performed with one reel of wire, which is then discarded. (b) Cutting a thick plate with wire EDM. (c) A computercontrolled wire EDM machine. Source: Courtesy of AGIE USA Ltd.

(b)

(c)

High-Energy-Beam Machining

Laser-Beam Machining
Figure 9.41 (a) Schematic illustration of the laser-beam machining process. (b) and (c) Examples of holes produced in nonmetallic parts by LBM.

General Applications of Lasers in Manufacturing

TABLE 9.8 Application Cutting Metals Plastics Ceramics Drilling Metals Plastics Marking Metals Plastics Ceramics Surface treatment, metals Welding, metals Note: P pulsed, CW continuous Laser type PCO2 , CWCO2 , Nd : YAG, ruby CWCO2 PCO2 PCO2 , Nd : YAG, Nd : glass, ruby Excimer PCO2 , Nd : YAG Excimer Excimer CWCO2 PCO2 , CWCO2 , Nd : YAG, Nd : glass, ruby wave.

Electron-Beam Machining

Figure 9.43 Schematic illustration of the electron-beam machining process. Unlike LBM, this process requires a vacuum, so workpiece size is limited to the size of the vacuum chamber.

Water-Jet Machining
(a) (b)

(c)

Figures 9.44 and 9.45 (a) Schematic illustration of water-jet machining. (b) A computer-controlled, water-jet cutting machine cutting a granite plate. (c) Examples of various nonmetallic parts produced by the water-jet cutting process. Source: Courtesy of Possis Corporation.

Abrasive-Jet Machining

Figure 9.46 Schematic illustration of the abrasive-jet machining process.

Economics of Grinding and Finishing Operations

Figure 9.47 Increase in the cost of machining and finishing a part as a function of the surface finish required. This is the main reason that the surface finish specified on parts should not be any finer than necessary for the part to function properly.

Biomedical Implant
(a) (b)

Figures 9.48 and 9.49 (a) Two total knee replacement systems showing metal implants (top pieces) with an ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene insert (bottom pieces). (b) Cross-section of the ECM process as applied to the metal implant. Source: Biomet, Inc.