Conguration Aerodynamics - 1

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, MAE 331, 2010

Conguration Variables Lift

Effects of shape, angle, and Mach number Stall

Description of Aircraft Conguration

Parasitic Drag
Skin friction Base drag

Copyright 2010 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only. http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

A Few Denitions

Wing Planform Variables

Aspect Ratio Taper Ratio

b AR = rectangular wing c b ! b b2 = any wing = c!b S

Rectangular Wing Delta Wing

!=

ctip croot

Swept Trapezoidal Wing

Republic F-84F

Mean Aerodynamic Chord and Wing Center of Pressure

Mean aerodynamic chord (m.a.c.) ~ mean geometric chord
c= 1 2 " c ( y ) dy S !b 2 # 2& 1+ ) + ) =% ( croot $ 3' 1 + )
2 b2

Medium to High Aspect Ratio Congurations

Cessna 337 DeLaurier Ornithopter Schweizer 2-32

[for trapezoidal wing]

Trapezoidal Wing

Axial location of the wing!s subsonic aerodynamic center (a.c.)

Determine spanwise location of m.a.c. Assume that aerodynamic center is at 25% m.a.c.
Midchord line

Typical for subsonic aircraft

Elliptical Wing
from Raymer from Sunderland

Boeing 777-300

Low Aspect Ratio Congurations

North American A-5A Vigilante

Variable Aspect Ratio Congurations

North American B-1 General Dynamics F-111

Typical for supersonic aircraft

Lockheed F-104 Starghter

Aerodynamic efciency at sub- and supersonic speeds

Reconnaissance Aircraft
Lockheed U-2 (ER-2) Lockheed SR-71 Trainer

Uninhabited Air Vehicles

Northrop-Grumman/Ryan Global Hawk General Atomics Predator

Subsonic, high-altitude ight

Supersonic, high-altitude ight

Stealth and Small UAVs

Northrop-Grumman X-47B General Atomics Predator-C (Avenger)

Re-entry Vehicles
Northrop HL-10 Martin Marietta X-24A

Northrop M2-F2

InSitu/Boeing ScanEagle

JAXA ALFLEX

NASA X-38

Martin Marietta X-24B

Biplane
Compared to monoplane
Structurally stiff (guy wires) Twice the wing area for the same span Lower aspect ratio than a single wing with same area and chord Mutual interference Lower maximum lift Higher drag (interference, wires)

Aerodynamic Lift and Drag

Interference effects of two wings

Gap Aspect ratio Relative areas and spans Stagger

Longitudinal Aerodynamic Forces and Moment of the Airplane

Non-dimensional force coefcients are dimensionalized by
dynamic pressure, q reference area, S Typical subsonic lift, drag, and pitching moment variations with angle of attack

Circulation of Incompressible Air Flow About a 2-D Airfoil

Bernoulli!s equation (inviscid, incompressible ow)

pstatic +
Vorticity

1 2 !V = constant along streamline = pstagnation 2

Vupper (x) = V! + "V (x) 2 Vlower (x) = V! # "V (x) 2

Non-dimensional moment coefcients also dimensionalized by

reference length, c

! 2 " D (x) =
Circulation
c

#V (x) #z(x)
Lower pressure on upper surface

Lift = C L q S Drag = C D q S Pitching Moment = Cm q Sc

! 2 " D = $ # 2 " D (x)dx

0

What Do We Mean by 2-Dimensional Aerodynamics?

Finite-span wing > nite aspect ratio
AR = b rectangular wing c b ! b b2 = any wing = c!b S

What Do We Mean by 2Dimensional Aerodynamics?

Assuming constant chord section, the 2-D Lift is the same at any y station of the innite-span wing
1 2 1 "V S = C L3! D "V 2 ( bc ) [Rectangular wing] 2 2 1 2 # ( Lift 3! D ) = C L3! D "V c#y 2 1 1 % ( lim # ( Lift 3! D ) = lim ' C L3! D "V 2 c#y* + "2-D Lift" = C L2! D "V 2 c #y$0 #y$0 & ) 2 2 Lift 3! D = C L3! D

Innite-span wing > innite aspect ratio

For Small Angles, Lift is Proportional to Angle of Attack

Unswept wing, 2-D lift slope coefcient
Inviscid, incompressible ow Referenced to chord length, c, rather than wing area

Classic Airfoil Proles

NACA 4-digit Proles (e.g., NACA 2412)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NACA_airfoil Maximum camber as percentage of chord (2) Distance of maximum camber from leading edge, 10s of percent (4) Maximum thickness as percentage of chord (12) See NACA Report No. 460, 1935, for lift and drag characteristics of 78 airfoils Airfoils used on various aircraft: The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage http://www.ae.illinois.edu/m-selig/ads/aircraft.html NACA Airfoils

C L2! D = C L"

( )

2! D

" = ( 2# )" [Lifting-line Theory]

Swept wing, 2-D lift slope coefcient

Inviscid, incompressible ow

C L2! D = C L"

( )

2! D

" = ( 2# cos $ )"

Clark Y (1922): Flat lower surface, 11.7% thickness

GA, WWII aircraft Clark Y Airfoil http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_Y Reasonable L/D Benign computed stall characteristics, but experimental result is more abrupt
Fluent, Inc, 2007

Relationship Between Circulation and Lift

2-D Lift (inviscid, incompressible ow)

Aerodynamic Strip Theory

Airfoil section may vary from tip-to-tip
Chord length Airfoil thickness Airfoil prole Airfoil twist

( Lift )2 ! D = "#V# ( $ )2 ! D
1 2 "#V# c ( 2%& ) [ thin, symmetric airfoil ] + "#V# ( $ camber )2 ! D 2 1 2 ! "#V# c C L& & + "#V# ( $ camber )2 ! D 2! D 2 !

( )

Lift of a 3-D wing is found by integrating 2-D lift coefcients of airfoil sections across the nite span Incremental lift

dL = C L2! D ( y ) c ( y ) qdy
3-D wing lift
b /2

Aero L-39 Albatros

L3! D =

!b /2

"

C L2! D ( y ) c ( y ) q dy

Effect of Aspect Ratio on Wing Lift Slope Coefcient

(Incompressible Flow)
Airfoil section lift coefcients and lift slopes near wingtips are lower than their estimated 2-D values

Bombardier Dash 8

Effect of Aspect Ratio on 3-Dimensional Wing Lift Slope Coefcient

(Incompressible Flow) High Aspect Ratio (> 5) Wing

Handley Page HP.115

C L! =

2" AR # AR & = 2" % $ AR + 2 ( ' AR + 2

Low Aspect Ratio (< 2) Wing

C L! =

" AR # AR & = 2" % $ 4 ( ' 2

All wings at M = 1

For Small Angles, Lift is Proportional to Angle of Attack

Lift = C L 1 2 #C ( 1 1 % !V S " 'C L0 + L $ * !V 2 S + %C L0 + C L$ $ ( !V 2 S & )2 2 #$ ) 2 & where C L$ = lift slope coefficient
Maximum Lift Coefcient

Maximum Lift of Rectangular Wings

Schlicting & Truckenbrodt, 1979

At higher angles,
ow separates wing loses lift
Angle of Attack

Flow separation produces stall

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RgUtFm93Jfo

Aspect Ratio

! : Sweep angle " : Thickness ratio

Maximum Lift of Delta Wings with Straight Trailing Edges

Maximum Lift Coefcient Angle of Attack Schlicting & Truckenbrodt, 1979

Large Angle Variations in Subsonic Lift Coefcient (0 < ! < 90)

Lift = C L
All lift coefcients have at least one maximum (stall condition) All lift coefcients are essentially Newtonian at high ! Newtonian ow: TBD

1 2 !V S 2

Aspect Ratio Aspect Ratio

! : Taper ratio

Flap Effects on Aerodynamic Lift

Effect of Aspect Ratio on 3-D Wing Lift Slope Coefcient

(Incompressible Flow)
All Aspect Ratios (Helmbold equation)

Camber modication Trailing-edge ap deection shifts CL up and down Leading-edge ap (slat) deection increases stall ! Same effect applies for other control surfaces
Elevator (horizontal tail) Ailerons (wing) Rudder (vertical tail)

C L! =

" AR
2 ) # AR & , . +1 + 1 + % $ 2 ( . ' + *

Air Compressibility and Sweep Effects on 3-D Wing Lift Slope Coefcient
Subsonic 3-D wing, with sweep effect
C L! =

Air Compressibility Effects on 3-D Wing Lift Slope Coefcient

Supersonic delta (triangular) wing
Supersonic leading edge Subsonic leading edge

" AR
2 + $ AR ' 2 -1 + 1 + & 2 cos # ) 1 * M cos #1 4 % 14( ,

. 0 0 0 /

C L! =

4 M2 "1

C L! =

2" 2 cot # (" + $ )

where $ = m 0.38 + 2.26m % 0.86m 2 m = cot # LE cot &

! LE = sweep angle of leading edge

!1 4 = sweep angle of quarter chord

Wing-Fuselage Interference Effects

Wing lift induces
Upwash in front of the wing Downwash behind the wing, having major effect on the tail Local angles of attack over canard and tail surface are modied, affecting net lift and pitching moment

Aerodynamic Drag
Drag = C D " %C D0 ' & 1 2 2 1 !V S " C D0 + # C L !V 2 S 2 2 2 1 + # C Lo + C L$ $ ( !V 2 S *2 )

Flow around fuselage induces upwash on the wing, canard, and tail

from Etkin

Parasitic Drag
Pressure differential, viscous shear stress, and separation
Parasitic Drag = C D0 1 2 !V S 2

Reynolds Number and Boundary Layer

Reynolds Number = Re =

!Vl Vl = "

where ! = air density V = true airspeed l = characteristic length = absolute (dynamic) viscosity " = kinematic viscosity

Reynolds Number, Skin Friction, and Boundary Layer

Skin friction coefcient for a at plate
Cf = Friction Drag qSwet where Swet = wetted area

Typical Effect of Reynolds Number on Parasitic Drag

Flow may stay attached farther at high Re, reducing the drag

from Werle*

C f ! 1.33Re "1/2 ! 0.46 ( log10

[laminar flow ] Re ) [turbulent

"2.58

flow ]
* See Van Dyke, M., An Album of Fluid Motion, Parabolic Press, Stanford, 1982

Effect of Streamlining on Parasitic Drag

Next Time: Conguration Aerodynamics - 2