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Persaman Pembentuk Aliran (Governing Equations)

The fundamental governing equations for fluid flow and heat transfer are developed by three conservation laws of physics. They are the law conservation of mass, conservation of momentum, and conservation of energy. These laws will be discusses in the Cartesian coordinate. 2.1.1 The Law conservation of mass Consider a small element of fluid in two-dimensional case with dimension x and y as shown in figure 2.1. The main concept here is that the rate of increase mass in the control volume is equal to the net of mass flow through the inlet and the outlet ports. M & & = m m (2.1) t in out & where M is the mass instantaneously trapped inside the fluid element and m is the mass flow rate through the faces of the element.

Fig 2.1 A fluid element for conservation of mass in two-dimensional case Using the symbols in the figure, equation can be extended to (xy ) = uy + vx u + u x y v + v y x t x y

(2.2)

Solving this equation and dividing the remains by the element size of xy yields, (u ) (v ) + + =0 (2.3) t x y In order to develop the similar equation for three-dimensional flow, the same element of fluid is shown in figure 2.2. In the figure the velocity in the z-direction is named as w. By using the concepts depicted in the figure, equation (2.1) gives

(xyz ) = uyz + vxz + wxy u + u x yz t x v w v + y xz w + z xy y z

Solving this equation and dividing the remains by the element size of (u ) (v ) (w) + + + =0 t x y z Using divergence operator, equation (2.5) can be written as + (V ) = 0 t

(2.4)

xyz yields
(2.5)

(2.6)

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Fig 2.2 A fluid element for conservation of mass in three-dimensional case The conservation mass equation shown in equation (2.5) can be written as u v w +u +v +w + (2.7) x + y + z = 0 t x y z By introducing material derive, it defines as D( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = +u +v +w (2.8) Dt t x y z And also divergence operator, u v w = + + (2.9) x y z Equation (2.7) can be written in a simple form as D + = 0 (2.10) Dt The above equation is a general form of the law of conservation of mass or also known as continuity equation. In the case of incompressible flow, which means temporal and spatial variations in density are negligible, this equation can be simplified by dropping D Dt from the equation. In the tensor notation, the continuity equation can be written as (u i ) = 0 + (2.11) t xi , where xi , i = 1,2,3 referred to x, y, z axes, respectively.

2.1.2 The Law conservation of momentum This law is also known as Newtons second law of motion. It says resultant forces that act upon an object equals to acceleration multiplied by the mass of the object. A small element of fluid in two-dimensional case with dimension x and y is shown in Fig 2.3. In the two-dimensional case, forces in the x-direction and y-direction are only considered. In the figure only the forces in x-direction are presented. Forces act upon the element can be segregated into surface forces and body forces. The surface forces are generated by pressure, normal stress, and
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shear stress distributions, respectively. The body force, denoted as f, is defined as force per unit mass acting on the centre of fluid element. In a real problem this force can be gravitational, electric, and magnetic forces.

yx yx + y x y
py

y
xxy
x

fx

p x y p+ x

xx + xx x y x

yx x

Fig 2.3 A fluid element for conservation of momentum in two-dimensional case The Newtons second law in x-direction can be written as Fx = ma x

(2.12)

,where Fx and a x are the resultant forces and acceleration in x-direction, respectively. By substituting all forces depicted in the figure and using the definition of acceleration a x = Du Dt , equation (2.11) can be expanded as

yx x p Du x y + x + x x y + yx + y yx + f x xy = m p p + x x y Dt Solving this equation and substituting mass m = xy yields

p Du xy + x xy + yx xy + f x xy = xy Dt x x y

(2.13)

(2.14)

Divide this equation by xy , we get a more compact equation as follows:

Du p x yx = + + + f x (2.15) Dt x x y In order to provide more complete momentum equation a small element of fluid for three-dimensional case is shown in Fig 2.4. In the figure only forces in x-direction are only shown. As a note for the three-dimensional case, there are six normal and shear stresses act on the surfaces. These forces, two forces sourced by pressure distribution and force sourced by body force are depicted in the figure. Substituting these forces into the definition of Newtons second law in equation (2.11) yields yx xx p p p + x x yz + xx + x x yz + yx + y y yx xz + (2.16) zx Du zx + z z zx xy + f x xyz = xyz Dt Solving this equation and divide by xyz , results in a more compact equation as follows.

Du p xx yx zx = + + + + f x Dt x x y z

(2.17a)

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yx + yx y xz y

p yz

fx

xx y z

zx + zx z xy z p p + x yz x xx + xx x yz x

zx x y

yx x z
Fig 2.4 A fluid element for conservation of momentum in three-dimensional case Using the similar way, the equations in y- and z-directions are Dv p xy yy zy = + + + + f y (2.17b) Dt y x y z , and Dw p xz yz zz = + + + + f z (2.17c) Dt y x y z , respectively. The above equation was generated by element of the fluid is moving with the flow or known as non-conservation form. Thus the terms of substantial derivative must be converted into conservation form. For instance, the conversion process of Du Dt is shown in the following. Du u = + V u (2.18) Dt t Expanding the following derivates and recalling the vector identify for divergence of the product scalar times a vector give ( u ) u = +u (2.19) t t t And (uV ) = u (V ) + (V ) u (2.20) Substituting equation (2.19) and equation (2.20) into equation (2.18) yields Du (u ) = u + (uV ) u (V ) (2.21) Dt t t which it can be arranged into Du (u ) = + (uV ) u + (V ) (2.22) Dt t t The last term of this equation is equal to zero as shown in equation (2.6). Thus equation (2.22) can written as Du (u ) = + ( u V ) (2.23) Dt t Substituting equation (2.23) into equation (2.17) results in momentum equation in x-direction in conservation form. ( u ) p xx yx zx + (uV ) = + + + + f x (2.24a) t x x y z Similarly, the equations in y- and z-directions, respectively, are ( v ) p xy yy zy + (vV ) = + + + + f y (2.24b) t y x y z ( w ) p xz yz zz + (wV ) = + + + + f z (2.24c) t z x y z
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Equations (2.24) are also known as Navier-Stokes equation in conservation form. If the stress versus strain rate curve of fluids are plotted, there are two phenomena can be drawn. They are fluid with linier curve and one with non-linier curve. The fluids with linier curve are known as Newtonian fluids, as an example is water. The fluids with non-linier curve are known as non-Newtonian fluids, as an example is blood. In the present dissertation we only consider the Newtonian fluids. For these fluids, the normal stress can be formulated as follows. u xx = ( V ) + 2 (2.25a) x v yy = ( V ) + 2 (2.25b) y w zz = ( V ) + 2 (2.25c) z And shear stress v u xy = yx = + (2.26a) x y

xz = zx = + z x yz = zy =

(2.26b)

w v + (2.26c) y z ,where is the gradient of the stress versus strain rate curve or known as the molecular viscosity (very popular as
dynamic viscosity) and expression = 2 + 3

is the second viscosity. These two viscosities are related to the bulk viscosity ( ) by

(2.27) In general, it is believed that the bulk viscosity is negligible except in the study of structure of shock waves and in the absorption and attenuation of acoustic waves. In other words, for almost all fluids bulk viscosity is equal to zero or = 0 . Thus the second viscosity becomes = 2 (2.28) 3 As a note this hypothesis was introduced by Stokes in 1845. Although the hypothesis has still not been definitely confirmed, however, it is frequently used to the present day. The present work is included. Substituting the hypothesis and the normal and shear stresses equations into equation (2.24) we obtain the complete Navier-Stokes equations. (u ) (uu ) (uv ) (uw) p 2 u v w + + + = + 2 t x y y x x 3 x y z (2.29a) u v w u + + + + + f x y y x z x z

(v ) (uv ) (vv ) (vw) p 2 v u w + + + = + 2 t x y y y y 3 y x z v u v w + f y + + + + x x y z z y (w) (uw) (vw) (ww) p 2 w u v + + + = + 2 t x y y z z 3 z x y w u v w + f z + + + + x x z y z y These equations can be written with more compact by using tensor equation as

(2.29b)

(2.29c)

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(u i ) (u i u j ) p u i u j 2 ij u k + f i + = + + t x j xi x j x j xi 3 x k Where i, j , k = 1,2,3 referred to x, y, z axes, respectively.

(2.30)

2.1.3 The Law conservation of energy

In this section, the third physical principle that is energy is conserved is applied. It says the rate change of & & energy inside E an element is equal to sum of the net heat flux Q into the element and rate of work done

( )

( )

(2.31) The rate of work done on element by body and surface forces will firstly evaluated. Consider a small element of fluid as shown in Fig 2.5. The considered forces here are forces due to pressure field, due to normal and shear stresses, and due to body force. As a note the definition of the rate of work done on element is the force multiple by velocity. Thus, all forces must be considered here. However, it will be very if all forces are drawn in the same element. In order to make it simple, only the forces in x-direction are shown in the figure. These forces will be firstly evaluated and the similar way will be employed to evaluate work by forces in y- and z-direction then.
(u yx) u yx + yxz (uzx) y zxy uzx +

& W on element by body and surface forces. This law can be written as & & & E = Q +W

upyz

y
u xxyz

(up) x yz up + x
uf x

(u xx) xyz u xx + x

z
u zxxy
x

u yxxz

Fig 2.5 Work done on element by forces in x-direction Using the definition, the rate of work by forces in x-direction is calculated by the following equation. & W x = uFx (2.32) Substituting all the forces shown in the above figure gives (u xx ) (up) & W x = up up + x yz + u xx + x u xx yz x x (2.33) (u yx ) (u zx ) + u yx + y u yx xz + u zx + z u zx xy + uf x xyz y z
Solving this equation and defining

V = xyz yields
(2.34a)

(up) (u xx ) (u yx ) (u zx ) & W x = + + + + uf x V x y z x Similar way gives the work rate by forces in y- and z-directions, respectively, as

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(vp) & (2.34b) W y = + + + + vf y V y x y z ( wp ) ( w xz ) ( w yz ) ( w zz ) & (2.34c) W z = + + + + wf z V z x y z In total, the net rate of work done on the fluid element is the sum of these terms. Thus the net rate of work is & W = ( pV ) + (u xx + v xy + w xz ) + (u yx + v yy + w yz )V x y (2.35) + (u zx + v zy + w zz ) + f V V z The next term is the net rate of heat flux into the fluid element. There are two sources of this heat flux. The first is due to heat generation inside the element, such as heat adsorption, chemical reaction, or radiation. The second is heat transfer to the element across the surfaces due to temperature difference. Define the volumetric heat & & & generated inside the element as q and heat transfer rates across the surface in x-, y-, and z-directions are q x , q y , (v xy ) (v yy ) (v zy )

& and q z , respectively. All of theses sources are shown in Figure 2. 6. Using all of those sources shown in the figure, thus the net rate of heat flux into the element can be calculated as & q y & q & & & & & y xz Q = q x q x + x x yz + q y q y + y x (2.36) & q z & & & + q z q z + z xy + qxyz z Solving this equation yields & q y q z & q & & xyz & Q = q x + (2.37) + y z x
& q q y + y y xz & y

qz &

x z & q z + z

& q x y z
& q z x y

& qxyz

& q & qx + x x yz x

z
x
& q yxz

Fig 2.6 Heat flux across the surfaces of fluid element The heat flux in the above equation can be calculated by using Fouriers law, is proportional to the local temperature

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T T T & & & gradient. They are q x = k , q y = k , and q z = k , the heat fluxes in x-, y-, and z-directions x y z respectively. Here, k is the thermal conductivity. Thus, the equation (2.37) can be written as
& & T + k T + k T V Q = q + k (2.38) x x y y z z Finally we will calculate the rate change of energy inside the fluid element in the equation (2.31). Here, the energy is the total energy inside the fluid element. It is the sum of internal energy and kinetic energy due to velocity of the element. On one hand, according to the classical thermodynamics, the internal energy is related to the sum of the translational, rotational, and electronics of its molecules. In this dissertation we will not explore into the molecules energy calculation. We only define that all of these energies are defined as internal energy per mass of fluid element, which it is denoted as i . On the other hand, the kinetic energy of the fluid element can be calculated
by considering all of the components of the velocity. Here the kinetic energy per mass is V
2 2 2 2

2 ,

where V = u + v + w . Using these explanations, the rate change of energy inside the fluid element can be calculated using the following equation: D V2 & i + xyz E= (2.39) Dt 2 Substituting the above developed equations into equation (2.31) we get the energy equation in general form. D V2 T T T & i + = q + k + k + k ( pV ) + Dt 2 x x y y z z (2.40) (u xx + v xy + w xz ) + y (u yx + v yy + w yz ) + z (u zx + v zy + w zz ) + f V x This equation is known as energy equation in non-conservation form and it contains energy in terms of total energy, the internal and kinetic energy. As a note the above equation is just one of many different forms of energy equation. Furthermore, it does not clearly show the relation of all parameters. For instance, if we want to use this equation to calculate the temperature field, it seems to be veiled in the left hand side of the equation. Since so, this equation need to be converted into a more specific form. In order to convert the energy equation into a more specific form, we call again the momentum equation in equation (2.17). Consider the momentum equation in x-direction and multiple by component of velocity gives yx xx Du p u = u +u +u + u zx + uf x (2.41) Dt x x y z

By using the definition that ( AB ) x = A B x + B A x , the above equation can be written as D u2 2 (up ) (u xx ) (u yx ) (u zx ) u u = + + + +p xx Dt x x y z x x u u yx zx + uf x y z Using the similar way for momentum in y- and z-direction yields D v2 2 (vp ) (v xy ) (v yy ) (v zy ) v v = + + + + p xy Dt y x y z y x v v yy zy + vf y y z D w2 2 (wp ) (w xz ) (w yz ) (w zz ) w w = + + + +p xz Dt z x y z z x w w yz zz + wf z y z

(2.42a)

(2.42b)

(2.42c)

Adding the all equations (2.42) and using the definition V = u + v + w results in an equation. Subtracting the
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equation resulted from the energy equation in general form of equation (2.40), we obtain u v w Di u T T T & = q + k + k y + z k z p x + y + z + xx x Dt x x y

(2.43) u u v v v w w w + yx + zx + xy + yy + zy + xz + yz + zz y z x y z x y z The above energy equation is the equation in the non-conservation form and the left hand it contains the internal energy only. In other words, the kinetic and body force terms have dropped out. The normal and shear stresses do appear in the equation. It is very convenient to convert these terms into the velocity components. To do so, calling the relationships in the equation (2.25) to (2.26) for the Newtonians fluid. Thus, the equation (2.43) is converted into u v w Di T T T u & = q + k + k y + z k z p x + y + z + xx x Dt x x y (2.44) u v v w v w u w + yy + zz + yx y + x + zx z + x + zy z + y y z Substituting the normal and shear stresses relationships, yield Di T T T 2 & = q + k + k y + z k z p( V ) + ( V ) + Dt x x y (2.45) 2 2 2 2 2 u 2 v u u v u w v w 2 + 2 + 2 + + + + + + y x y x z x z y x In order to make this equation more easy look, all of the viscous effects are grouped into a factor. The factor is known as dissipation function , which can be rewritten from the above equation as
u v w = + + + x y z
2

(2.46) 2 2 2 2 2 u 2 v u u v u w v w 2 + 2 + 2 + + + + + + y x y x z x z y x Using this function, the energy equation developed so far can be written as Di T T T & + k = k (2.47) + k + q p( V ) + Dt x x y y z z The material derivate term in the left hand side of this equation shows that it is still in the non-conservation form. In the conservation form it can be written as (i ) (ui ) (vi ) (wi ) T T T + k + + + = k + k (2.48) t x y z x x y y z z
& + q p( V ) + In order to convert this equation so it contains the temperature in the left hand side, the equation of state which shows the relationship between internal energy and temperature can be used. For instance, we uses a simple relationship of internal energy i = cT , where c is the heat capacity of the fluid. Substituting this relationship, we get the equation (cT ) (cuT ) (cvT ) (cwT ) + + + = t x y z (2.49) T T T & p( V ) + k + k k + + q x x y y z z As a note, the objective of solving the energy equation is to obtain the temperature distribution in the flow field. Since so, it needs to be presented in the terms of temperature terms. It is now clearly shown that the energy equation in the term of temperature only. The energy equation shown in equation (2.49) can be written with more compact by using tensor equation
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as
u (cT ) (cT ) T k p i + q + & (2.50) + = t xi xi xi xi Where i, j , k = 1,2,3 referred to x, y, z axes, respectively. If some assumptions are proposed, some of terms in the energy equation (2.50) are vanished. For instance, if density is constant or incompressible fluid the term p ui xi will be equal to zero. In addition, if viscous dissipation is negligible, the term will be dropped from the equation. And also, if the internal heat generated inside the element is zero, it will be dropped as well.

2.1.4 Summarize of the governing equations

Although the equations resulted seems to be very complicated, however they come from three very simple conservation laws, mass is conserved, momentum is conserved, and energy is conserved. In the case of three dimensional, these laws generate five differential equations. They are a coupled system of nonlinear partial differential equations. Thus, they are very difficult to solve analytically. There is no general solution to these equations. Some optimistic people may say not yet found and solution has not been reported. In other words, this does not mean that no general solution exists but the scientists just have not been able to fine one. These equations are an open problem without analytical solution for almost 200 years. Clay mathematics institute, a private non-profit foundation based in Cambridge, Massachusetts has called the Navier-Stokes equations as one of the seven most important open problems in mathematics. The foundation has been offering one billion US dollars for a solution or a counter-example. To date, no body has been awarded this money. The analytical solution is still open. The other method to solve those equations is numerical method. This the main concern of this chapter. In this method, the equations will be solved iteratively to find a solution as close as possible to the exact solution. How this method works will be discussed in the next section. We will now summarize all of the governing equations. There are several forms that can be used to present the governing equations. Some forms have been used in the previous section. The other possible form will be used to summarize these equations. In transient three-dimensional of compressible Newtonian fluids, these forms are as follows.
The continuity equation + div(V ) = 0 t

(2.51)

The momentum equations ( u ) p x-momentum: + div(uV ) = div( grad u ) + Su (2.52a) t x ( v ) p y-momentum: + div(vV ) = div( grad v ) + Sv (2.52b) t y ( w ) p x-momentum: + div(wV ) = div( grad w) + Sw (2.52c) t z The energy equation (cT ) + div(cV ) = div(k grad T ) + S T (2.53) t Where Su , Sv , S w , and ST are the sources terms related to u, v, w, and T, respectively. These sources can be calculated by comparing these equations with the previous forms. The main objective of casting these equations into forms as shown is that to bring out their commonality. Observing equation (2.51) to (2.53) clearly shows it. If we introduce a general variable the conservative form of all governing equations can be written in the following form

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( ) + div( V ) = div( grad ) + S t In words sum of rate of increase of of fluid element and net rate of flow of

(2.54)

out of fluid element is equal to

sum of rate of increase of

due to diffusion and rate of increase of due to source. The equation (2.54) is known as transport equation for property . It is clearly shown the equation can be divided into four terms. They

are the transient rate of change, the convective term, diffusive term ( is diffusion coefficient), and source term. So we closing this section by saying solving equation (2.54) numerically can used to solve all of the governing equations. The method to solve this equation will be discussed in the next section.

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