D.

Non-linear Systems
Every real control system exhibits non-linear behaviour for certain values of the input signal(s). The non-linearity may be undesirable and detract from system performance, however, a non-linearity is often introduced intentionally to improve some aspect of the system. For example, the actuator output signal is normally limited, to avoid overdriving, and consequently damaging, the plant or process which follows it. Saturation or "limit" is the most common non-linearity found in electro-mechanical systems. Other troublesome non-linearities include backlash; deadzone or static friction; pre-load or Coulomb friction; relay; and quantisation effects introduced by digital controllers. We shall concentrate on the saturation non-linearity and study some of the more prominent phenomena which it induces in electro-mechanical systems. 1. Integrator Windup 1.1 Introduction This phenomenon is observed in systems which use PI or PID controllers and the controller output is limited. To understand the cause and effects of integrator windup, consider the control system structure, with PI control and plant input saturation, below: Saturation, gradient = 1 v + r + e K 1 _ Ti s + u v u umax Plant c

Suppose we apply a large input step, r, such that the actuator output is saturated at umax. The plant output, c, increases slowly due to its limited input signal and, consequently, the error signal, e, decreases slowly. Since the error signal remains high for a significant period, the integrator builds-up to a large value which can only be reduced when the error signal becomes negative. The plant output signal thus continues to increase until the integrator has been discharged, resulting in a large overshoot which is characteristic of integrator windup. 1.2 Exercise

(a) For the system below, with an input step r = 1, show that the actuator comes out of saturation at t = 1.37 sec. (b) Determine the output values of the integrator and the proportional gain at t = 1.37sec. (c) Model the system, using SIMULINK/MATLAB, and compare the unit step response with that obtained if saturation is not present. Comment on prominent aspects of the responses. Saturation, gradient = 1 v u 4/s + 1 v u 1/s c

2 r + e

1.3 Anti-windup The usual antidote to integrator windup is to turn-off the integrator at the instant the actuator saturates. Two methods are popular; these are shown in the following block diagrams. Saturation, gradient = 1 v u 4/s Deadzone -1 1 m + -1 1 v u

2 e + -

2 e + 4/s

+ u +

Saturation, gradient = 1 v -1 1 v u

+ -

The above two configurations are equivalent, but the second is easier to implement since the saturation level need not be known. The value of the gradient, m, is selected to make the loop response fast enough to follow the error signal. Exercise (a) Using SIMULINK/MATLAB, implement the anti-windup methods and select a suitable value for m. (b) For the first method, investigate the effects incorrect modelling of the deadzone threshold (i.e. deadzone threshold saturation threshold). 2. Limit Cycles Limit cycles are continuous amplitude oscillations which are independent of the input signal magnitude. They are associated with non-linear systems and should be distinguished from the oscillations of a conditionally stable linear system which will, normally, produce a steady state oscillation whose amplitude is equal to the magnitude of a step input signal. Backlash is a common cause of small-amplitude limit cycles in lightly damped systems. This non-linearity adds phase lag to the loop frequency response, thereby reducing the phase margin and consequently acting to de-stabilise the loop. The additional phase lag is amplitude dependent, with small amplitude signals producing more lag. Therefore the condition for degradation of the phase margin to the level necessary for self-sustaining oscillations, normally requires these to be small-amplitude. Saturation can also cause limit cycling, but the mechanism is normally attributable to amplitude dependent gain rather than amplitude dependent phase angle effects. For example consider the typical electro-mechanical control system below:

+ -

0.1 K 0.1

1 s 2 +0.2s+1

1 s

Ignoring the non-linearity, the CLTF of this system is: C( s ) K = 3 R( s ) s + 0 .2 s 2 + s + K The stability requirement for this system is: K < 0.2, (this can be proved by RouthHurwitz; by Bode plot; or by Root Locus) and, therefore, setting K = 0.5 will produce an unstable system with increasing amplitude oscillations in response to a step signal. The presence of the saturation non-linearity, however, prevents the system from becoming unstable, since the effective loop gain will reduce as the amplitude of oscillations increase. An equilibrium state is thus reached where the amplitude of oscillations is just sufficient to maintain the gain of the saturation element at the conditionally stable value. Any tendency for the amplitude to decrease will be met by an increase in gain and an increase in amplitude will invoke a decrease in gain. A constant amplitude, input signal independent oscillation (a limit cycle) will result. Exercise (a) For the saturated control system above, show (by theory) that the frequency and amplitude of oscillation, measured at the system output, c, are 1 rad/sec and 0.5 respectively. (b) Construct a SIMULINK/MATLAB model of the system, apply a step signal, r = 4 and obtain the response. Compare this with the theoretical predictions from (a) and comment (particularly on the good prediction of oscillation frequency and the not-quiteas-good prediction of amplitude). A useful method of stabilising systems with limit cycles is to provide feedback compensation which aims to attenuate signals at the limit cycle frequency. A suitable TF is of the form: s 2 + 2 n s + 2 n Gc ( s ) = K 2 (s+a) where the numerator polynomial gives a lightly damped "notch" in the neighbourhood of the limit cycle frequency and the denominator poles are approximately ten times further

from the origin than the numerator zeroes (and are, therefore, non-dominant). The denominator term serves to ensure a finite high-frequency gain, thus avoiding excessive HF noise; K is selected to provide unity DC gain for the compensator.