Lesson 1.

Research 1 Module III

Lesson Objectives:

THE HISTORICAL METHOD OF RESEARCH

After studying this lesson on the historical method of 1. 2. 3. describe the historical method; enumerate and classify the sources of explain the methods used in evaluating

research, you will be able to: and

historical data; historical data.

Introduction When one speaks of history, one is immediately reminded of events in the past. Most people would associate the word history with past events and the corresponding dates. The word history originally meant the search for truth and knowledge. Fox (1969) says that: ... broadly, it involves any appeal to past experiences to help in knowing what to do in the present and fiiture. It is concerned with describing past events or facts in a spirit of inquiring critically for the whole truth. History in the present context embraces however other areas, not just past events, but rather includes various fields of culture, institutions, law, ideas, religion, art, literature, travel, engineering, technology, industry, medicine, science, philosophy, psychology, sociology, economics, anthropology, education, and others. It would seem therefore that all areas of knowledge have something to do with history. Historical data therefore must be viewed from their historical perspective, not just as mere events or data. It should be viewed as a development of society and culture rather than isolated facts merely to be memorized, rather than analyzed. For instance, there has been much discussion among the countrys historians on whether our national hero, Jose P. Rizal recanted before he was shot in Luneta. There were supporters who believed that he did, but there were more religious authorities among the Catholic Church who assert that he did not. This has been a subject of discussion among the religious denominations in the country.

Another historical issue was the recall of General MacArthur from Korea by President Harry Truman, when the former wanted to attack North Korea. Was Truman justified in puJQmg out MacArthur? Would the world have been better, if MacArthur were free to do as he pianned with the Korean War? As such* therefore, although historical research is not as popular as descriptive research- ix has the following values. 1. It gives us an insight into some problems that could not be gained by some other technique. 2. It gives us a perspective that can do much to help us understand our present problems. 3. It gives us an insight into human behavior that can be very valuable in arriving at practical solutions for educational problems. 4. It helps us broaden our experiences and make us more understanding and appreciative of our human nature and uniqueness. Characteristics of Historical Researches Present historical investigations primarily aim for the search of truth, or on what actually happened. It would mean therefore that the researcher must be objective and must stick to the truth, appraising objectively the necessary documents and the other sources of data Distortion of facts has no place in historical investigations. Contemporary historical investigations are eclectic and pluralistic in approach as revealed by Good and Scates (1971). They reflect the view that there is no single cause which can adequately explain a particular event, but rather a series of events and personal factors are also involved. In other words, the person who is the center of the research should be studied in the context of the time, the situation and the culture that he was in. Thus such events as the resignation of Nixon due to the Watergate Scandal, the EDSA Revolution, and the present Gulf Crisis and the role played by President Bush should be studied within the context of time and culture. Modem historical investigates are aided by the use of auxiliary sciences which expedite the work of making external criticisms of the sources (Sevilla, 1986). Present development of science and technology helps veiy much in the interpretation of the various sources of historical investigations. Science and technology can help determine the validity and credibility of evidences presented. It can determine the age of the paper and pinpoint the era in which it was produced. Historical research is the systematic and objective location, evaluation, and synthesis of evidence in

The Historical Method of Research

order to establish facts and draw conclusions concerning past events (Borg). It is concerned with describing past events of facts in a spirit of inquiring for the whck truth (Sevilla, et aL). Formulating the Problem People like to write on past events, because they are motivated to find out the truth, to find out what really happened, and to know the different explanations of the event. For instance, although the Kennedy assassination has been closed, there are still many articles that have come out giving some events which have added color to the event. Some analysts have blamed the CIA even for the Presidents assassination for not keeping his word on the attempted Cuban invasion. The dissatisfaction could probably have been due to the fact that the motivations of the murder have not been brought out explicitly. One of the most interesting events that would be worthwhile researching are on the events that led to the dropping of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima during the Second World War. Coughlin (1953) wrote an analysis of the Japanese rejection of the Potsdam Declaration which called for the Japanese surrender to the Allied Forces on July 26, 1946. It was theorized that a mistake of word translation caused the bombing of Hiroshima by the Allied Forces. The Japanese Premier Suzuki used the word mokusatsu to convey to his cabinet the stand that they decided to make no comment on the calj for surrender. It was revealed that the Japanese word has two meanings, namely 1) to withhold without comment and 2) to ignore.. When this was radioed to the translator at the Domei News Agency, the translator obviously did not know what was in the mind of the Prime Minister and hastily translated in English the second meaning of the word: to ignore. The result was the dropping of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima. Subject of Historical Investigations The subject of historical investigation maybe individuals, like that study of Jose P. Rizal and his religious posture prior to his death; or institutions, curricula, textbooks, facilities, projects, or programs, procedures, structures and processes, events, concepts, ideas and phenomena in a given setting and culture. One, however, should limit the scope of such investigation to probably an era or epoch. It is also worthwhile to compare events in different periods of time, or in different cultures and civilizations. Historical sources are usually classified as either a wide range of written and printed materials recorded for documents or relics.Documents the purpose include oftransmitting

information. Relics include physical objects related to the period or the institution being studied. Primary sources are generally defined as those documents in which the individual observing the event being described was present. Secondary sources are those in which the person describing the event

Sources of Historical Data

was not present but has obtained his description from someone else who may or may not have directly observed the event. Occasionally, the number of times that the writing is removed from the observer is indicated but generally, all levels of removal are lumped together as secondary sources. The greater the number of persons involved in the relay of information, the lesser the credibility and validity of the results. Evaluation of Historical Data Inasmuch as the pertinent documents provide the sole source of information for historical research, the evaluation of these documents is of critical importance in helping the researcher to place each bit of information in its proper perspective and draw sound conclusions from the total picture obtained. The evaluation of historical evidence is usually referred to as historical criticism, which is generally divided into two major categories external cricitism and internal criticism. 1. External criticism is primarily aimed at determining whether the evidence being evaluated is authentic. contained in it. It is possesses textual document are: a. b. analyses of the physical materials used, such as paper references to place-names which are helpful in establishing dates. In this regard, a researcher relies on scientific methods and on auxiliary sciences It focuses on the document concernedwith finding out integrity. Questions to be itself rather than the statements if thesource material is genuine; asked are: Who produced the

that is, whether it is really what it purports or seems to be and whether it is genuine and document? When and where was it produced? Among the clues to the authenticity of

to assist him in making a valid appraisal of the authenticity. Examples: epigraphy (study of inscriptions and the art of deciphering them); paleography (study of writing); archaeology (science of remains); philology (used in determining date and authenticity); chemistry and paper-makers art..

Some procedures or techniques to check the genuineness of the source material are 2. authenticating signatures, chemically analyzing the paint, or carbon-dating the artifacts. Internal criticism refers to evaluating the accuracy and worth of the data contained in the document. It is more difficult than external criticism as it involves evaluating the writer, his biases and possible motives for distortion. Internal criticism checks on the meaning and trustworthiness of the data within the document (textual criticism), such as the meaning of the authors statements and their credibility; the authors competence, good faith, position and his biases; the conditions under which he produced the document, the validity of the intellectual premises which he used in the process of producing the materials, and the correctness of the interpretation to be given the data. The Writing of History Historical composition or the writing of history is a synthetic and constructive process which poses problems namely, 1) the problem of documentation; 2) the logical problem as it involves the question of relative importance of the various items and topics; and 3) the philosophical and artistic problem because every historian injects his own interpretation of what he presents. Earlier practice in historical writing advocated a strictly chronological type of organization and did not consider the responsibilities of the topical or thematic grouping of materials. An appropriate combination of the chronological and topical organization of historical data seems best, involving considerations of such influences as political institutions, natural resources, social conditions, national culture, race, religion, and other forces. The successful writer must know the historical value and significance of each topic. In other words, he must possess historical perspective.

(SEE NO. 3 OF INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT) SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST On the blank before each number, write only the letter representing your answer. _____1. History is concerned with describing the past events or facts in a spirit of inquiry to determine the a. truth. c. society.

Research 1 Module IH Lesson 1

b. culture. d. laws. _____2. One of the characteristics of historical investigations is that it views that no single cause can adequately explain a particular period or development. This particular characteristic is described as: a. logical. c. singular. b. pluralistic. d. truthful. _ _____3. The information given by a person who has actually observed or participated in the event is known as a. primary data. c. tertiary' data. b. secondary data. d. document. _ _____4. Data that are given by persons who have not actually observed or participated in the event but have heard of it are called: a. primary data. c. tertiary data. b. secondary data. d. relics. _____5. When one looks Into the validity of the material of a document one is looking into the a. external c. primary b. internal d. secondary validity of the document. _____6. When one looks into the language of the document or what is inside the document, he is determining the a. internal c. primary b. external d. secondary validity of the material.

7.

The chief and most important evidences for historical investigations are the a. documents. b. information given by persons. c. paintings. d. musical records. 8. The genuineness of a document is determined by a. internal criticism. b. external criticism. c. historical evidence. d. primary source. 9. Early historical writing was mainly a. topical. c. philosophical. b. chronological. d. thematic. 10. Which of the following titles would show the use of the historical method? a. An Empirical Analysis of Establishing Food Processing Plant in Iligan b. The Relationship BetweenBuying Behavior of Consumers and Income Indices c. The Development of thePhilippine Legislative Branch d. The Use of the Marketing Mix Factors in the Sales ofEducational Plans

(SEE NO. 4 OF INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT4) Lesson 2. THE DESCRIPTIVE METHOD OF RESEARCH Lesson Objectives: After studying this lesson on the descriptive method of research, you will be able to: 1. 2. define the descriptive method of research; and identify the types of descriptive research.

Introduction

Research 1 descriptive Module III data.

Definition

The lesson discusses the descriptive method, its different types and ways of obtaining

The descriptive method is the design that describes systematically the facts and characteristics of a given population, area or interest factually and accurately. It gathers information about present existing conditions and describes the nature of the situation as it exists at the time of the study. In short, a descriptive study determines and reports the way things are. Types of Descriptive Research Descriptive studies are classified into the following types: 1. Case studies 2. Surveys 3. Developmental studies 4. Follow-up studies 5. Documentary or Content analyses 6. Trend studies 7. Correlational studies Case studies - in-depth investigation of an individual, group, institution or other social unit over a considerable period of time. Its focus is to determine the dynamics of why a subject thinks, behaves or develops in a particular manner. In anthropological studies, the case study design may be used to study a small group of people primitive, urban or rural population in situ in order to produce a complete description of their culture in its totality. Example: The Culture of Mammanua by Marcelino Maceda. Case studies in business are different from case studies in education; these will be discussed later. Case study designs are not used much, perhaps because they require much analytic vigor and much time; however, Meier and Pugh (1983) advocate the case study as a viable approach to clinical research. Case study designs that use experimental approaches are useful if you want to use an intervention with one patient and measures selected dependent variable before, during and after the intervention. Example: A Disabled Adolescent Boys Coping Reaction Pattern During Stress by Phoebe Dauz. 1.

10

2.

Surveys. The descriptive method first of all is very tenable for status trend studies, for studies that seek the description of the prevailing conditions, persons, situations, etc. This method involves the determination of information about variables rather than about persons. Survey studies are used to measure the existing phenomenon without inquiring into why it exists. In such studies, one does not consider relationships or comparisons between variables, for the main problem is the interpretation of data rather than on hypothesis testing. There are two scopes of surveys: census and sample. Census is a survey that covers the entire population of interest while sample survey, is one which deals only with a portion of the population. There are four categories of descriptive research according to scope and subject matter: 1) census of tangibles, 2) census of intangibles, 3) a sample survey of tangibles, and 4) a sample survey of intangibles (Ary, 1979). a. A Census of Tangibles. The study covers a small population where the variables are concrete. Consequently for this type of study, the responses are simple but concrete. An example is a study on the equipment used in a physical education class, or enrollment of a certain school. It is then very limited in scope of applications and adds only very little knowledge to any area of endeavor. b. A Census of Intangibles. This deals with the constructs based on indirect measures (Sevilla, 1986) which are not directly observable such as job satisfaction of workers, motivation in the work environment, sources of stress and methods of coping with stress.

11

c.

A Sample Survey of Tangibles. This is a survey of a sample or a portion of a large population. The purpose of the study is to determine information of various selected variables of a large group of persons from a sample. An example of this study is the determination of Teachers Morale in a certain region, or. the organizational profile of a large company like San Miguel Brewery, or the implementation of human resource development in the Philippine National Bank.

d.

A Sample Survey of Intangibles. This is a survey that deals with the measurement of psychological or sociological constructs as well as comparing a large population where the variables are not easily recognizable. This kind of survey is viewed by many as difficult because it will be using many skills in undertaking it. Examples of this survey are some studies on stress among personnel in a certain division in the Bureau of Customs, the job satisfaction of nurses in private hospitals, the performace of

salesmen in a certain drug company. Developmental studies - investigations of progression along a number of dimensions intellectual, emotional, physical or social development. To illustrate, if you want to get reliable information about the similarities and differences of children at various ages, you may make a developmental study. Such a design will require a considerable period of time in studying the psychological, intellectual and emotional growth of children. In pursuing these studies, you use either the longitudinal method or the cross- sectional method. In the longitudinal method, you study the same sample of participants over an extended period of time. An example of this method is the study of the Child and Youth Center (CYRC) of 170 Filipino infants in their first year aimed to obtain sequential developmental patterns on these aspects; physical, mental, motor, adaptive, language, emotional, social, and aesthetic-creative. In the cross-sectional method, you study participants of various age levels at the same point in time. For example, instead of studying the mathematical concepts of grade one pupils and following them up for six years, you study the children belonging to the six grade levels at the same point in time. 4. Foliow-up studies. Follow-up studies are used when the purpose of the investigator is to determine the subsequent development of participants after a specified treatment or condition. For example, a researcher may be interested to find out how NSDB graduates fared after graduation, or to find out how the Fullbright scholars in the country are doing, or the status of CAP College graduates after finishing their degree. 5. Documentary or content analysts - the research method for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication, such as written materials and other forms of communication music, pictures, textbooks, compositions, novels, newspapers, magazine advertisements and political speeches.

Content analysis is concerned with certain characteristics which can be identified and counted. Examples of studies employing content analysis: 1. Simple classifications or tabulations of specific information as in error studies, textbook analysis to determine the relative emphasis or frequency of various communication phenomena, e. g., readability of books. 2. Studies to gain insights into complex and psychological variables as in the analysis of course objectives in relation to the needs of the students. In planning a content analysis study, observe the following steps (Borg). 1. 2. 3. 6. Establish specific objectives to be achieved or hypotheses to be tested. Use appropriate sampling technique for selecting the content to be studied. Develop a classification system for analyzing the content. Berelson lists five major units of analysis: words, themes, characters, items, and space and time measures. Trend Analysis. This seeks the behavior of variables in the future, and its primaiy purpose is to project the results in the future, assuming that factors remain constant. This type of study is exemplified in the study of the status and prospects of CAP, for instance, the projects of agricultural products, etc. 7. Correlational Studies. These studies are aimed or designed to help one determine the extent of how variables go with the other, that is if the presence of any variable increases or decreases the x value or not at all. Some correlation studies are: determining the relationship between educational achievement index and personal variables of age, mental ability and socio-economic status; or the relationship between customer buying patterns and behavior with income, or the relationship between the production of soya beans and copra, etc.

13

In descriptives studies, it is important that the researcher Toe particular about sampling techniques, especially if ones purpose is to infer the characteristics of the population and furthermore, statistical techniques and methods should be employed to assure the researcher of a level of confidence that the results are trustworthy. Doing otherwise would make the study unscientific and unreliable.

(SEE NO. 3 OF INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT) SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST A. Identify the word that is described ia the sentence or in the phrase. Write your answer on

the blank before each number. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. used to describe the nature of a situation as it exists at the time of the study describes what a study over a persons method employed to measure the existing phenomenon without inquiring into why it exists a method used which covers a small population which is representative of a large population deals with constructs based on indirect a method used constructs 10. a method used for studies intended to investigate subsequent development of participants after a specified treatment or condition 11. method used in gathering information by examining records or documents 12. deals with the relationship of variables B. Enumeration: 1. Two types of surveys according to scope when research requires measures data from large groups
<4

wasv time rather than

considerable period of

method used in determining information about variables

deals with the measurement of constructs of psychological or sociological

14

Research I Module III Lesson 2

2.

a. b a b c d. ._________________________ .__________________________ ._________________________ ._________________________ Four types of descriptive research

C.

Which five of the titles would require the use of the descriptive method? Encircle them. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The History of the Philippine Constabulary Sources of Stress and Coping Strategies of Middle Managers of the Philippine National Bank The Marketing Mix Factors in the Promotion of ElectricAppliances Job Satisfaction and Motivation of the Civilian Personnel in the Philippine Army The Effects of Zoning the Real Estate Prices An Assessment of the VAT as a Taxation Scheme

(SEE NO. 4 OF INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT) Lesson 3. THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD OF RESEARCH Lesson Objectives: After studying this lesson on the experimental method of research, you will be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. give the characteristics of the experimental method; explain the threats to the internal and external validity of experimental designs; differentiate between control and experimental variables; identify each of the experimental designs.

Experimental Method of Research Of the different methods of research, the experimental method is the least used by researchers, because of the difficulty in setting up the experimental design, that is, to determine which should be the control variables and how to control them. While the independent variable is more discernible, the control

15

variables are difficult to distinguish and select. Travers (1978) defines the experimental method as that of advancing scientific knowledge, while Gay (1976) says that this method is the only method which can truly test hypotheses concerning cause and effect relationship. He further adds that the method is the most valid approach towards the solution of problems, both practical and theoretical. Actually the experimental method is the method of difference (Mill, 1982). He says that the manipulation of a variable is the one characteristic which differentiates the experimental method from other methods of research. Ary (1972) gives three characteristics of the experimental method. 1. 2. 3. An independent variable is manipulated. All other variables except the dependent variable are held constant. The effect of the manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent variable is observed and measured. The experimental method like all other methods follows the following steps: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. variables. Example 1. The researcher would like to know if the new textbook is effective in the teaching of management. In this case the experimental variable is the new textbook. To determine the results, the investigator uses two groups.A, the experimental group, is taught While we havealready identified the experimental with thenew book, while book. not yet identified If variable, we have B, the control group, is taught the traditional the control variables. The first control variable should be the teacher. The same teacher should teach the two groups. not, the resultsof the experiment might variables rather than the hook. The investigator should also control the characteristics of the students selected for the two groups. They should be controlled in at least the following variables: 1. 2. mental ability, since mental ability is a very strong intervening variable knowledge of the students in the subject; hence, the need to give them a pre-test which should be due to the teachers personal identification, selection of subjects, selection of a design execution of procedures formulation of hypotheses analysis and interpretation of data action on the null hypotheses

An experimental design always involves two sets of variables, the control and the experimental

16

Research I Module III Lesson 2

3.

show that they have the same background and that they have been pushed towards an initial condition of similarity other variables may be controlled, such as socio-economic status, course in management that they have taken. In other words, the students should have as much as possible equal or similar characteristics.

Gay (1976) explains that control refers to efforts on the part of the researcher to remove the influence of any other variable rather than the independent variable. Threats to Experimental Validity There are however, problems in experimental designs. Among these are: 1. Threats of internal validity (the basic minimum without which any experiment is uninterpretable) a. History - some specific events coming between the first and the second measurements of the dependent variable may cause changes in the dependent variable. I,ike in the example, other teachers may come in not knowing about the experiment and may adversely affect the results of the experiment. b. Maturation. Campbell and Stanley (1963) say that an experiment may be influenced by biological or psychological processes, like the students growing older, hungrier, more tired, or more bored. c. Testing. This refers to the improvement of the subjects performance in the post-test, as a function of the pretest and not of the experimental treatment. The students may recall the test items in the pretest, which can affect the results of the experiment. d. e. Instrumentation refers to changes in the calibration of a measuring instrument or changes in the observers or scorer used. Statistical Regression. This happens when the subjects of the experiment are the high and lowest scorers in the pretest. There is the tendency of those who got higher scores to regress towards the mean even without the benefit of treatment. f. g. h. Biases resulting in differential selection of respondents for the comparison groups. Experimental Mortality. When a student drops out of the experiment, the results of the experiment are altered. Selection - maturation interaction occurs when one group of the groups selected profits more from a treatment or it has an initial advantage because of maturation. 2. Threats to External Validity (deals with the question of representativeness or generalizability) External validity refers to the condition wherein results are generalizable or

17

applicable to groups and environments outside of the experimental setting. Among these factors that constitute external threats are the following: 1. pretest interaction- a pre-test might increase or decrease the respondent's responsiveness to the experimental variable 2. 3. 4. 5. selection treatment interaction - refers to the interaction effects of selection biases and the experimental variables specificity of variables reactive effects of experimental arrangements - preclude generalization about the effect of the experimental variable upon persons exposed to it in nonexperimental settings multiple treatment interference- occurs whenever multiple treatments are applied to the same respondents because the effects of prior treatments are not usually erasable. Ways of Controlling Extraneous Variables To minimize the effects of extraneous variables, or variables outside of the experiment, the following suggestions are made: 1.

randomization /

a. b. c. d. e. f.

person-to-person matching matching groups ranking method homogeneous groups using subjects as their own controls analysis of covariance, where the pretest scores are to be made initially alike.

Pre-Experimental Designs Among the most popular of the experimental designs are the following: 1. Design 1 - The One-Shot Case Study X O

where X = the treatment O = the posttest 2. Design 2 - The One-Group Pretest Posttest Design

o, x
the posttest

where: O, - the pretest

o2

X = the experimental variable 02~

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Research I Example: Module III When onewants tofind the relative Lesson 2
then have theseminar and Thedifference then

effects ofa workshop or seminar, give a pretest, after the seminar givethem a posttest.

between the pretests and the posttests are tested for significance. If the test shows a significant difference between the pretests and the posttests, then the seminar has been effective; if otherwise, it has not been effective. Quasi-Experimentai Design Random assignment of subjects to the experimental and control groups is a veiy important feature of experimental design. Where random assignment is not possible, an experiment having internal and external validity can still be performed using the quasi- experimental design as follows: 1. Design 3 Nonequivalent Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

This is the most widely used quasi-experimental design. It involves non- random assignment of subjects/groups to experimental or control group. Experimental group Control group 2. Design 4> Time series design This is used when a control or comparison group cannot be included in an experiment. A single group of subjects is measured at periodic intervals, (Ol to Og); the experimental treatment (X) is administered in between one of these intervals. The effect of the treatment is indicated by the discrepancy in measurements before and after its appearance. Oj 03 X X O,, 04

3.

Design 5-

o, o2 o3 o4 x o5o6 o7
Counterbalanced designs

o8

This de^gn is generally used when several experimental treatments are to be tested. The different experimental treatments are administered to the same subjects. The order of exposure to the experimental situation differs for each group, although the sequence is usually the same.

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Group A Group B Group C Group D True-experimental designs

Time 1 XO, X02

xo3 xo4

xo2 xo3 x4 xo,

Time 2

xo3
xo.

Time 3

xo, xo2

xo4 xot xo2 xo3

Time 4

The true-experimental designs are control group designs with random assignment. Among these designs are the following: 1. Design 6Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design

This design involves (1) random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups, (2) administration of a pretest to both groups, (3) administration of treatment to experimental group only, and (4) administration of a posttest to both groups. It is used when the experimental situation allows for a lab set-up wherein researcher has much control of the situation. Experimental group Control group 2. Design 7 R R O, O, X 02 04

Posttest-Only Control Group Design

This design is similar to the pretest-posttest control group design minus the pretests. It is recommended when a suitable pretest is not available or when a pretest may affect the experimental treatment. Experimental group Control group 3. Design 8 R R X
0{

02

Solomon Four-Group Design

This design is a combination of the pretest-posttest control group design and the posttest only control group design, ft is a powerful experimental design but requires a large sample and much researcher effort. The effort is justified if there is a high probability that pretesting will have an effect on the experimental treatment and if the researcher wishes to measure this effect. Experimental group Control Control group

A R Oj X B R 03 A, R X
B, R

u2 04 05
O,

group Experimental group

Research X Module III Lesson 3

(SEE NO. 3 OF "INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT")

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SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST Enumeration: (2 points each) 1. The three characteristics of the experimental method of research are: a c. 2. .____________________ _____________________ b_________________________ . "

Name the two variables that are used in an experimental design: a. b _____________________
.________________________________

3.

The internal threats to validity are: (mention at least four) a b c d .____________________ .____________________ .____________________ .____________________

4.

Four forms of external threats are:

a. b. c. d.

_____________________ ___________,__________ _ ___________________

_______________________

5. 6.

What are the two means of controlling extraneous variables? a. Give the 2 pre~experimenta! designs with their proper diagrams. a. __________

.______________

7.

Enumerate: a. the three quasi-experimental designs 1.___________________________________ 2. _______________________________ _ 3. ________________________________ b. three trae-experimenta] designs 1.___________________________________
n

Research X Module III Lesson 3

Lesson 4, (SEE NO. 4 OF INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT) CASE AND FEASIBILITY STUDIES

Lesson Objectives: After studying this lesson on case and feasibility studies, you will be able to: 1. 2. 3. detennine the characteristics of case studies; give the parts of a case study analysis; identify feasibility studies.

Case Studies Case studies are important to students taking up business courses, as there will be use of these in their work. Each problem or each case study represents a real more than one major problem in a case. The steps of a a. Define the problem in the case. At least the major and the minor problems should be sorted out. In each case, the problem should be explicitly placed in the order of importance. Defining the problem of a case is often the most difficult job facing the business student. It should be done for the entire analysis depends on the problem The problem b. should be stated in a declarative sentence. Set objectives for problem situation. Once the problems are determined, then the student deckles what to do. Explicit objectives to be achieved or attained must be given. Without such objectives, it would be impossible to tell a good decision from a bad decision. The decision will be tested against the objectives, since the objectives are the criterion measures. It is important that the student decide upon standards of evaluation when he is setting his case objectives. Standards should be specific enough to lend themselves to easy implementation. The student should present as well as major and minor objectives, if any. c. Considerations There should d. be discussions, preferably in sequential form as they are related to the alternatives, methods of quantifications and assumptions, if any. Outline alternative courses of action. Once the problems have been outlined, and specific objectives have been isolated, the alternative solutions are given and examined. Each alternative will have its strengths and weaknesses and these should be made explicitly. None of these will be perfect but by keeping the objectives and standards in mind, one or two approaches can be chosen There is no right or 4<wrong problem solution; the merits of a case analysis depend on the depth carefully, definition. lifebusinesssituation. There case analysis report are may be asfollows.

e.

of analysis (as well as on the decision reached. A student who reaches a sound decision for unsound reasons is a poorer business manager in the long run, than one who reaches a questionable decision for very sound reasons. In any case, the student will have to make assumptions about facts that are not explicitly outlined in the case. The fewer the assumptions that have to be made in a case analysis, the better the analysis is. If you must make assumptions, they should be made explicit. In no case should a course of action revolve solely around an assumption. Come to a conclusion. The student decides on a course of action after analysis and supports and justifies the action. The conclusion should be an answer to the objectives or problem of the study. Actually this is the period of crystallization of the most preferred alternative or option.

Project Feasibility Studies Muro (1991) defines a project feasibility study or a project or feasibility study as "an investigation which ascertains the viability of an undertaking," either a new or proposed venture or an existing enterprise. Its objective is to guide project promoters, business managers, and financial executives towards bringing about the successful operation of the project. The preparation of the feasibility study involves the 1) collection of the data relevant to all aspects of the undertaking; 2) analysis of the collected data; and 3) formulation of recommendations based on the analysis. A feasibility study has the following seven basic and terminal parts: 1. Management aspects - include the management complement, proponents, personnel or work force, organization and project implementation timetable. 2. Marketing aspects - cover supply and demand, pricing, marketing program, and projected sales quantity 3. Technical aspects - pertain to the manufacturing process, plant rated capacity, machinery design, plant location and layout, structures specifications and operating requirements 4. Taxation aspects - cover tax liabilities of the project and its proponents as well as other legal aspects affecting the project/industry 5. Financial aspects- include cash requirements and financing leverage of the firm as well as investment policies of financial institutions 6. Financial projections ~ cover profitability and cash estimates 7. Social desirability - pertains to specific project contributions tothe Philippine economy/society and social rate return The above aspects of feasibility study require knowledge of management, accounting, and engineering; thus, its preparation entails a lot of effort and study.

Research X Module III Lesson 3

Muro points out that care should be exercised in deciding on thespecific items to be considered and on the degree of importance to be given each item.

(SEE NO. 3 OF INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT) # Research 1 Module III Lesson 4 SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TEST Enumeration: (1 point each)
1.

Excluding case and feasibility studies, mention the three major methods of research.

2.

Differentiate the three methods in terms of a. time orientation 1. ____________________________________

2.
3.
_________________________

b.

hypotheses formation 1._____________________________________ 2.

3.

Name the different types of descriptive, researches. a____________________ ._______ _________ _________
b . I ____

t___________________________________________

g- _______________________________
4. Mention the necessary evidences needed in a historical research.

a. b.

________________________,______________ _ What are the parts elements of a case studies? a________________________ .________, b. _________________ ___________ Give the basic parts of a feasibility study. a. __________________,__________ b. _____________________________ c. _____________________________ _ d. _____________________________ e________________________________ .___________ f .____________________________ g-________________________________ _

(SEE NO. 4 OF INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT)

Research 1 Module HI ANSWER KEYS TO THE SELF-PROGRESS CHECK TESTS Lesson 1. 1. a 6. a 2. b 7. a 3. 4. 5. a b a 8. 9. 10. b b c

Lesson 2 A. 1. descriptive method 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. historical method case study surveys surveys census of tangibles census of intangibles sample survey of tangibles sample survey of intangibles follow-up documentary analysis correlational study

27

1. 2,

census survey

b. ample census of tangibles

28

b. census of intangibles c. sample survey of tangibles d. sample survey of intangibles 3. 4. 1. 2. 3. Lesson 3 (2 points each) 1. Three characteristics of the experimental method of research: a. b. c. 2. An independent variable is manipulated. A11 other variables except the dependent variable are held constant. The effect of the manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent variable is observed and measured. Two variables used in the experimental design: a. b. 3. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. 4. experimental variables control variables History Maturation Testing Instrumentation Statistical regression Biases resulting in differential selection of respondents for thecomparison groups Experimental mortality Selection Four forms of external threats (any four of the following) documentary analysis trend historical 4. descriptive 5. descriptive 6. descriptiv e descriptiv e descriptiv e

Internal threats to validity (any four of the following)

a. b. c. d. e. 5. a. b. 6. a.

Pretest-interaction Selection treatment interaction Specificity of variables Reaction effects of experimental arrangements Multiple treatment interference Two means of controlling extraneous variables Randomization Matching Two pre-experimenial designs with their proper diagrams One-Shot Case Study X O where X = the treatment O = the posttest

b.

One = Group Pre-test Posttest Design 1 where Oj = the pretest X = the experimental variable 2 - the posttest X o2

7.

A. The three quasi-experimental designs a. b. c. B. non-equivalent pretest-posttest control group design time series design counterbalanced designs

Three pre-experimental designs a. b. c. pretest-posttest control group design posttest-only control group design Solomon four-group design

Lesson 4 (1 point each) 1. (in any order)

a. b. 2. a.

historical descriptive methods; time orientation (in any order) 1) 2) 3)

c. experimental

Comparing the three

historical - past-oriented descriptive - present oriented experimental - future oriented historical - hypothesis free descriptive - sometimes hypothesis free experimental - never hypothesis free

b.

hypothesis 1) 2) 3)

3.

Types of descriptivestudies (any order) a. case studies b. surveys c. d. e. f. g trend studies follow-up studies documentary or content analysis developmental studies correlational studies

4.

Evidences needed for a historical investigation: a. b. documental and relics primary and secondary data Define the problem Set objectives for problem evaluation Consideration Alternative courses of action Parts of a feasibility study (any order)
a.

5.

Parts of a case study I. II. III. IV.

management aspects

b. c. d. e. f. g.

marketing aspects technical aspects financing aspects taxation aspects financial projections social desirability