INTRODUCTION: AQUARIUMS

Experiments were first made with freshwater aquariums in the mid-19th century (R. Warington, 1849), followed shortly after by the first marine aquariums using manufactured substitute sea water (P. H. Gosse, 1854). After the opening of the first public aquarium at London Zoo in 1853 others began to appear all over the world, and by the end of the 19th century the attitude that aquariums should be principally scientific rather than decorative had become established. With this background, and the policy of specialisation now adopted by many major aquariums, they are in many ways ahead of their zoological counterparts. Many recent aquariums have been designed to relate directly to their immediate coastline, and present their displays realistically in an ecological and geographical context. This diversification of the building type is expected to continue as new aquariums seek to differentiate themselves from existing more general exhibitions. In the past two decades the number of aquariums as independent institutions and not necessarily part of zoological gardens has grown rapidly worldwide. As an aquarium has a definable space requirement it can be housed in a multi-storey building on an urban site. It can be a commercial component of a regeneration strategy instrumental in revitalising run-down areas, particularly those associated with a waterfront. A new aquarium can also be seen as a vehicle to increase visitor attendance and revenue as part of a zoo. It is possible to accurately assess cost, attendance and operating expenses of a new aquarium, and there have been enough new facilities in the past decade to provide useful comparisons.

Exhibit design Flexibility built into a new aquarium allows for periodic alterations and new exhibits, which is important to its continuing commercial success. Consequently it will be more responsive to new developments in exhibition techniques and will be able to respond to the increasingly sophisticated demands of its visitors. In an aquarium complex with several display areas, the sequence of exhibits and information must be easily understood by visitors. The sequence may combine large tank displays housing a variety of animals, with small tanks showing aspects of aquatic life in detail. The trend is to encompass entire ecosystems and present living animals within the context of their habitat, in its widest sense, while also conveying information on animal behaviour, ecological and geographical aspects, water conservation and pollution, the fishing industry and tidal mechanics. The exhibits can be reinforced by a variety of multi-sensory techniques and employ multi-media presentations. Each display addresses a particular theme where biological information can be provided by interactive devices. Recent aquarium designs endeavour to recreate a complete aquatic ecosystem in which natural replenishment is possible. The specific environmental and behavioural needs of the exhibits have to be taken into account; from the provision of rock arrangements to accommodate rock dwellers and to allow fish to escape predators, to providing open space for sharks to follow their continuous swimglide existence. The successful exhibit has to combine the design skills of the architect and set designer with the expertise of the biologist.

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future solor Panels

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high-level vedilmtorr

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ventilation tube in winter collects rising heat ond solar poin ond returns to occuponcy level
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highly insulated light coloured roof,

undercroft air intoke open in summer closed in winter

thermally heoveight section of the building; northern aspect; encloses controlled environment; mechonical systems

thermolly lightweight section of the building; southern aspect; encloses concoursefentrance; naturally ventiloted; passive solor collection

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Environmental section from earlier scheme for National Marine Aquarium (Arch: Lacey Hickie Caley)

Water treatment

Exhibit construction

Water quality is of the utmost importance, as it provides the life-support medium for the animals. Water treatment must remove animal wastes, prevent the growth of harmful micro-organisms, remove toxic chemicals and maintain water clarity for viewing. It is necessary to control salinity, hardness and algal growth. It is also necessary to manage turbidity (resulting from suspension of fine air bubbles, silt etc.), colour and light levels. An aquarium building needs a specific engineering system to service the tanks, requiring approximately 90% of the building's area. The equipment includes filters, sterilisers, pumping systems, heaters, reserve tanks, piping etc. Most aquariums have been located near the sea and have an unlimited supply of sea water. The water quality in the tanks is maintained by an 'open system', directly circulating fresh sea water. When fresh sea water is unavailable as a result of location or impurities, a closed system in which water is recirculated becomes necessary. Water management filter systems include sand and gravel filters, diatomaceous earth filters, biological and ultra-violet filters. Treatment to eliminate micro-organisms and algae include chlorine, ozone, ultra-violet radiation, copper salts and protein skimmers. Each species requires a specialist designed system.

Improvements in glass and acrylic, from which are made the.viewing panels used for enclosing aquarium tanks and marine animal pools, have enabled the visitor to have a close view of aquatic life. Despite the advances in glass technology in recent years it cannot offer the versatility provided by acrylics. Not only can acrylic be manufactured in curved shapes but it is also possible to achieve virtually invisible fullstrength joints between panels of very considerable thickness and strength. In addition, it can be shaped into dome and cylindrical sections. Dome windows that project into the tank and tunnels heighten the underwater experience, while cylindrical tanks are particularly effective when displaying shoaling fish. Acrylic is a good insulator and can cope with temperature differentials such as with hot, humid or cold water exhibits) that could promote condensation. Acrylic panels can be assembled with mullions, sealant joints or with bonded joints. The latter joints can be almost invisible but if created without structural mullions they have to be designed to incorporate a high factor of safety. The following sizes have been achieved with acrylic elements: window panel 7.3 m by 2.4m high by 200mm thick (Living Sea, Epcot, USA); seamless cylindrical tank 1.8m in diameter (Monterey Bay, USA); tunnel 19.8m long, 1.5m in radius (Great Barrier Reef, Australia).

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The London Aquarium, County Hall (Arch: Renton Howard Wood Levin Partnership)

Various factors determine the decision to use acrylic or glass. Acrylic can be scratched by pinipeds (seals, walruses and sea-lions) and turtles; on the other hand, glazed exhibits require colour filtration to compensate for the greenish tinge. To reduce the likelihood of condensation, glass panels have to incorporate an intermediate space filled with inert gas, or the space can be ventilated to remove condensation. Fire presents a hazard to both glass and acrylic: the former will crack, and the latter is inflammable, so floodlights and heaters have to be located with care. However, the major limiting factor is more usually the available financial resources, particularly in the UK and Europe, and 25mm glass has major cost advantages over annealed glass laminates and acrylic.

lighting

Good lighting design is a fundamental component of a successful aquarium. Aquarium principle lighting was introduced with the early aquariums, where the viewing area receives only indirect light from top-lit tanks. This method remains the logical basis for exhibition design, whereby light sources should be hidden and directed away from the visitors. For tanks combining underwater tunnel viewing with side panel viewing lighting is more complex. If it is the intention to suggest a natural underwater habitat, the appearance through the water of other visitors, or the reflection of signs and light sources will destroy the impression. Location of light sources can give an impression of greater space; by locating floodlights over a large tank at the opposite end
1 mountain and estuary
exhibit

2 office 3 shop and concourse 4 shark tank and viewing 5 6 7 8

ore0 plant and curatorial coral reef exhibit temperate reef exhibit shore and shallow sea exhibit lecture room

mountain and estuary exhibit plant and curatorial shore and shallow sea exhibit temperate reef tank viewing gallery

1 concourse viewing area

2 shark viewing theatre 3 coral reef exhibits

4 temperate reef exhibit

lecture theatre

shop shark tank schools facilities plant and workshops ramp up to ticketing area

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National Marine Aquarium, Plymouth (Arch: Lacey Hickie Caley)

from the public access the impression of a great volume and depth of water with shafts of light penetrating to the sea bed is achieved. Lighting can be designed to reflect the quality of the daylight found in the region forming the subject of the exhibition. This can be achieved by varying the angle, intensity and colour of the lights. Fluorescents, giving a predominantly cool, allpervasive light source, represent the quality in temperate zones, while warmer incandescent and metal halide sources give the effect of tropical light. Within these general categories particular effects such as dappled light through overhead leaf canopies or shafts of sunlight penetrating deep ocean waters can be achieved. Visitors Visitors requirements include facilities in common with all visitor centres: car parking, entrance area, gift shop, food, lavatories etc. An

increasingly important feature of a successful aquarium is a focus such as a significant display or a touch pool with raked seating. MARINE ANIMAL PARKS, OCEANARIUMS ETC. Such centres have until recently been based on entertainment run on a commercial footing, often incorporating a stadium for shows, designed to exploit the intelligence and exuberant behaviour of dolphins, porpoises and killer whales. Now the general trend is away from pure entertainment and towards recreating an environment in which animals can carry out their natural patterns of behaviour, rather than perform. Species exhibited include cetaceans (whales, porpoises and dolphins), pinipeds (seals, walruses and sea-lions) and smaller water-dependent mammals such as the otter,

aerial cut-away perspective

1 entrance 2 water tubes 3 seawater displays

4 cliffs

beach walk

6 fresh water displays

7 canal displays 8 sea laboratory

9 caf6 and shop

plan

1 entrance

exhibition space

3 ocean tank 4 schools room

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6

staff room plant room

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7 quarantine 8 food preparation 9 office

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National Sealife Centre, Birmingham (Arch: Foster & Partners)