Web-Notes (2) The First Law of Thermodynamics and Its Applications

Key Topics
First law formulation for cyclical processes, system and control volume, internal energy, enthalpy, specific heats, internal energy and enthalpy changes for liquids, solids and ideal gases.

Objective
This module describes the first law of thermodynamics for the system and the control volume and discusses applications of the first law. The properties internal energy, enthalpy and specific heats are introduced.

Motivation and Relevance

The first law of thermodynamics, also known as the law of energy conservation is one of the well known laws of physics. According to it energy, in non-nuclear processes, can neither be created nor destroyed, but can be transformed from one form to another. Using the first law, one can calculate heat transfer in heat exchangers, determine compressor and turbine work and kinetic energy produced in a nozzle. Application of the first law is an important step in the analysis of thermodynamic cycles for power generation, and refrigeration and cooling.

Concepts, Definitions and Analysis

The First Law for a System The laws of thermodynamics are empirical in nature and are based on experiments and observations of scientists over an extended period. For a system undergoing a cycle, the first law can be expressed as,

2.1

Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

Equation (2.1), states the energy conservation principle for a cycle. It also states the equivalence of heat (Q) and work (W). Heat is a form of energy that is transferred solely due to temperature difference. In many practical situations, heat transferred is inferred by its effect of raising temperature of a given mass of substance (say a liquid). As we shall see later, by observing the temperature rise or drop (T) during heating or cooling, one can determine heat transfer (12 ) in a process 1 to 2 as

12 =

2.2

Where m mass, C specific heat of liquid. This technique for determining heat is often referred to as calorimetry. The First Law Formulation for a System Undergoing an Open-ended Process

Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

For a system undergoing an open-ended process (Fig. 2.2), the first law can be written as,

12 = 2 1 + 12 = 2 1 + 12

2.3

Note that the bulk kinetic and potential energy changes have been neglected. The property U is known as the internal energy (of molecules) and has a unit of kJ. The symbol u, known as the specific internal energy, is defined as,

2.4

Internal energy u is a property of a given state, and for a pure substance it is often expressed as,

= (, )

2.5

Internal energy (of molecules) represents the total energy of the system in form of kinetic and potential energies of molecules. It is a macroscopic property and is generally inferred from P, v

Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

and T data and other measurements of a pure substance. It should be noted, as shown in many thermodynamics textbooks, that existence of property u is inferred from the first law

formulation for a cyclical process. Like other properties u is also tabulated in thermodynamic tables. Formulation of the First law for the Control Volume For a control volume undergoing a steady state steady flow process, the first law and the mass conservation law can be expressed as:
.

2.6
.

2 + + = 2

2 + + + 2

The Mass Conservation Law:

. .

mi

me

Figure 2.3 The first law formulation for a control volume

Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

Where i and e refer to inlet and exit sections of the control volume. The property h is known as enthalpy, and is defined as: 2.7

+
The property h is related to the extensive property H by the relationship:

2.8

The property h depends on a given state, and is generally expressed as:

(, )

2.9

For a given value of temperature T and pressure P, h value can be determined from thermodynamic tables as illustrated in the sub-module Thermodynamic tables.

For a single inlet/single exit case (shown in Fig 2.3), above equations can be expressed as:

= =
2.10

2 2 + + + = + + 2 2

Above equation can be expressed, by dividing it by m, as:

2 + + = 2

2 + + + 2

2.11

Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

Where

2.12

Equation (2.11) can be applied to compressors, nozzles, diffusers, turbines, heat exchangers etc. For instance, for an adiabatic compressor (Fig. 2.4), the work of compression can be expressed as:

=
Note that

2.13

= 0, and changes in kinetic and potential energy have been neglected.

The compressor power is given by the following expression:

= = (1 2 )

2.14

V1

V2

Figure 2.4 Adiabatic compressor

Figure 2.5 Adiabatic nozzle

Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

For an adiabatic nozzle (Fig. 2.5), the first law for a CV, Eq.(2.6), neglecting potential energy change yields:

2 + = 2

2 + + 2

2.15

Since the inlet velocity is generally small compared to the exit jet velocity , one can 2 neglect in Eq.(2.15), resulting in following expression for : 2

= [2( ) 1000

1 ]2

2.16

For an ideal gas with constant specific heats, one can express = ( ). The factor of 1000 is included in Eq.(2.16) to account for the fact that unit of enthalpy h is kJ/kg, while velocity is in meter/sec. It is to be noted that 1 kJ/kg = 1000 2 / 2 . Using the mass flow rate expression in terms of area of cross-section (A) and velocity (V), one can determine the area of cross-section of the nozzle exit.

= 2 2 2

2.17

Since 2 is known, and 2 can be determined from ideal gas relationship 2 = 2 /(2 ), 2 becomes :

2 = / 2 2

2.18

Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

The diameter 2 can be expressed as,

4 1 2 = ( )2 2

2.19

Definition of Specific Heats ( and ) Specific heats and are defined as,

) )

2.20

2.21

Since u = u (T,v) and h = h (T,P), one concludes that:

= (, ) = (, )

2.22 2.23

The above equations show that and

, as defined above, are properties of a given state

(P,T) or (T,v). In fact derivatives of all properties are also properties! For an ideal gas, one can show that properties h and u are functions of only temperature. As a result Eq. (2.20) to (2.21) can be written as,

Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

0 =

; h = h(T) ; 0 = 0 ()

0 =

; u = u(T) ; 0 = 0 () 0 = 0 ()

For ideal gases

and

depend only on temperature. The symbol 0 is attached to

symbolize ideal gas behavior constraint. For ideal gases, changes in enthalpy (dh) and energy (du) can be expressed as:

= 0 = 0

2.24

2.25

Equations.(2.24) and (2.25) can be integrated as:

2

2 1 =
1 2

0 0
1

2.26

2 1 =

2.27

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Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

Above integrals can be evaluated if dependence of 0 and 0 on temperature T is known. One often simplifies this procedure by assuming constant 0 and 0 values, generally valid for small temperature changes.

2 1 = 0 (2 1 ) 2 1 = 0 (2 1 )

2.28

2.29

Since values of 0 and 0 for a number of ideal gases are tabulated, 2 1 and 2 1 can be determined if temperature change 2 1 is known. Equations (2.28) and (2.29) can be used in the first law formulation for a control volume. For ideal gases, one can also show that,

0 0 =
Where R is the gas constant. The ratio of specific heats is known as K.

2.30

0 0

For ideal gases

2.31

For other substances

2.32

Energy and Enthalpy Changes for Liquids and Solids For liquids and solids, density is very high and correspondingly, specific volume is very low. Also, h is related to u by the following equation:

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Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

h = u+Pv dh = du + d(Pv) Generally, for solids and liquids d(Pv)<<du. As a result: dh du, and

since

Thus = C Since and are approximately the same, one concludes that unlike ideal gases, for liquids and solids there is only one specific heat C. This is also reflected in the fact that for liquids and solids, 2.33 2.34

() () =

2.35

Integration of Eq. (2.35) for constant C assumption yields:

2 1 = (2 1 )

2.36

2 1 = (2 1 )

2.37

12

Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

Water m (T1)

1Q2

Figure 2.6 Heating process

Consider the example in which m kg of liquid water is heated from 1 2 (Fig. 2.6). First Law: System

12 = 2 1 + 12 12 = 2 1
From Eq. (2.36)

12 = 2 1

2.38

Equation (2.38) represents one of the ways one can measure heat by measuring temperature rise of a liquid of given mass m if the specific heat C is known.

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Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

Practice Problem Set

The First Law of Thermodynamics and Its Application to Systems and Control Volume
Note: For all problems involving air or other gases assume ideal gas behavior and specific heats to be constant. Use values at 25C. 1. Determine the heat transfer in Problem 9 of the Practice Problem Set (Thermodynamic Tables and Processes). 2. Calculate heat transfer in problem 10 of the Practice Problem Set (Thermodynamic Tables and Processes). 3. Calculate heat transfer in problem 11 of the Practice Problem Set (Thermodynamic Tables and Processes). 4. Apply the first law to the problem 12 of the Practice Problem Set (Thermodynamic Tables and Processes), and verify the final temperature after mixing given in that problem. You can assume that the system is perfectly insulated. 5. Apply the first law to the problem 7 of the Practice Problem Set (Thermodynamic Tables and Processes), and determine the work and heat transfer during the process. 6. After a membrane breaks down air expands rapidly into the adjacent compartment maintained initially in perfect vacuum condition. The opposite wall is in the form of a movable piston which is kept fixed during the expansion process (12). It is now desired to bring the system (air) back to its original state by first conducting an isochoric process (23) followed by an isobaric process (31), thus completing a cycle 1231. You may assume the system to be adiabatic during the process 12.

14

Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

a. Draw a P-v diagram and show all processes. b. What is the work done during the process 12? c. What are the temperature and pressure in state 2, just after the expansion? d. Calculate 2W3, 2Q3, 3W1 and 3Q1. e. Can you verify if the statement of the first law for a cyclical process is satisfied? 7. Air is throttled through valve in a process that results in drop in pressure from 1000 kPa to 100 kPa. Assuming air to be an ideal gas with constant specific heats determine the exit temperature. Show the process on a P-v diagram. You may neglect kinetic and potential energy changes, and heat loss through valve surfaces.

8. An adiabatic steam turbine operates with conditions shown in the figure. Determine the mass flow rate to produce 10 MW of power. What is the ratio of exit to inlet pipe diameters?

15

Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

9. A water cooled compressor raises the pressure of air (ideal gas with constant specific heats) from 100 kPa to 1000 kPa. Water circulates continuously through a jacket surrounding the compressor at a rate of 2 kg/sec. The water temperature rises from 20C to 30C, and the outer surface of the jacket may be assumed adiabatic. Determine the compressor power. You may neglect kinetic and potential energy changes.

10. Air at 10C and 80 kPa enters the diffuser of a jet engine with a velocity of 200 m/sec. The inlet area of the diffuser is 0.4 m2. The air leaves the diffuser with a velocity of 100 m/sec. If the exit pressure is 95 kPa, determine, a. the mass flow rate,

16

Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

b. the exit temperature, and c. the exit area. You may assume the diffuser to be adiabatic. 11. An adiabatic nozzle accelerates air from 10 m/sec, 20C and 200 kPa to 300 m/sec and 100 kPa at the exit. The inlet diameter is 0.2 meter. The nozzle is adiabatic. Assume ideal gas behavior and constant specific heats. Determine the exit temperature and diameter.

12. Refrigerant R134a is to be cooled by air in a condenser. The refrigerant enters the condenser with a mass flow rate of 6 kg/min at 1 MPa and 70C. It leaves at 35C and 1 MPa. The cooling air enters at 100 kPa and 20C, and leaves at 100 kPa and 60C. Assuming air to be an ideal gas with constant specific heats determine the mass flow rate. Neglect kinetic and potential energy changes.

17

Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University

13. A steam air turbine is used to drive an air compressor as shown in figure. The states of steam and air are given in the diagram. The mass flow rates are 0.125 kg/sec and 0.5 kg/sec through the turbine and compressor respectively. The turbine and compressor are adiabatic. The turbine is so sized that it produces exact power required by the compressor. After the compressor, air flows through an after cooler where it is cooled. Assuming air to be an ideal gas with constant specific heats, and neglecting kinetic and potential energy changes, determine the temperature of air at the compressor exit.

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Author: Dr. Sushil Chaturvedi Old Dominion University