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Elements of Lettering
AND
Sign Painting
y
PREPARED FOR STUDENTS OF
A Treatise on the History, Ct^assification, and Practical Application of the Various Styles of Letters OF THE Alphabet
also
The Latest Improved Methods and Processes Used Painting, and the Handling of Colors, Brushes, and Tools
in Sign
FIRST EDITION
SCRANTON
THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY
1S99
JAN
20
1900
Register of Copyrlglitft
tT3^
51369
Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year
1899,
8E00ND OOPV.
Printed by
('(impany.
SCRANTON, Penna.
/ /V/-yk!
PREFACE.
The bound volumes
Courses.
of
the student
if
they
were bound together in one large volume, we have printed them in folio form, with a plate on one leaf and the instructions for
drawing it on the other. All the plates belonging to each Course have been placed in a handsome and durable portfolio, which is sent to the student instead of a bound volume. The
students in those Courses that give instruction in Sign Painting
two Instruction Papers, with accompanying Question Papers, entitled "Elements of Lettering and Lettering and Sign Painting. The first, Elements of Lettering, contains the instruction necessary to enable the student to properly apply his knowledge of letters and their formation to suit every requirement, both in treatment and modification, and also in their various arrangement in all forms of inscription and combination designs. This
receive, in addition to the plates,
their
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
Paper gives a complete education in the art of lettering in all branches wherein a knowledge of colors is not necessary. The second Paper, "Lettering and Sign Painting," gives the
its
all
tools,
appliances,
and
by the advanced
sign painter.
It includes also
and the
materials."
It
contains
all
letters
by the use
of acids,
These C(jurses in Lettering have been prepared by a gentleman a very wide experience in studying the origin of
iii
iv
PREFACE.
formation and in teaching the art of lettering, and one is a thorough master of the subject in all its branches.
of
letter
who
Great care has been exercised in the selection containing the various styles of the alphabet.
published.
the plates
feel
We
to
con-
fident that nothing equal to these plates has ever before been
give the
student the true form of the various styles of letters shown on the plates. The Courses have been carefully arranged to meet the requirements of every one engaged in any business whatever that demands a knowledge of letters and their Only such instruction and plates are given as construction. have a direct connection with the particular Course selected by
the student.
Schools.
CONTENTS.
Elements of Lettering.
Section.
Page.
1
Introduction
1
1
General Rules
10
12 13 14 18 19
1 1
1
1
Component
Punctuation
Parts of a Letter
Spacing of Letters
Rules for Punctuation
1 1 1 1
1
22
25
27 27
The Highlight
Cutting In Letters
Classification of Letters
1 1
1
29
29
31
Ornamental Letters
Grotesque Letters Illuminated Capitals
Effects in Lettering
1
1
32 35 35
Condensing,
Elongating,
Telescoping,
and
1
Interlacing
1 1
1
38 39
Designing
Ribbons
Panels
Inscription Designing
Stencil Patterns
1
1 1 1
Purpose
of Stencils
40 42 46 48 48 49
vi
CONTENTS.
Section.
Page.
Geometrical Figures
Triangles
Circles
52 52
1 1
1
53 54 55 56
62
Ornamental Curves
The
Ellipse
...
1
1
1
1
74
75
and Material
2 2
2 2
2 3
Tools Necessary
Brushes
4
6
2
2 2
6 9
2
2 2
10
10
12 12
Handling
of Colors
2 2 2
2 2 2
13 13 15
16
18
18
19
Gilding Water
Size for Oil Gilding
2 2 2
2
or Metal
Gilding
Gilding on Glass
21 21
Gilding on
Wood
2
2
23 24 26 26 29
Pearl Filling and Etruscan Gilding Embossing Embossing on Brass Plates Embossing on Glass
2 2 2
CONTENTS.
Section.
vii
Page.
Letter Shading
2 2
of Colors
Colors Used
The Preparation
Relief Letters
2
2
30 30 32 32
34
Wood,
Metal,
and Glass
34
Elements
of
Lettering.
Elements of Lettering.
ixtroductio:n^.
It is the purpose of this 1. Purpose of This Course. course of instruction to combine the classical with the practical so as to meet the needs of all students desirous of studying the
esthetic
lettering.
and antique, as well as the plain and simple, styles of The plates are therefore arranged and classified on a
simple but progressive system, calculated to lead the student gradually from the plain and simple to the most difficult styles^
all
common
use.
alphabet, he should
forms and classifications of the letters of our become familiar with their history and the He should also note the important primitive forms of writing. national changes that have caused a transition from one form
into another, until our present
with
its
great
variety
of
styles,
in
character
one
from
another,
and each
from some
important period in the world's history in which the fundamental or parent style was closely allied to a corresponding
style of architecture.
may derive the greatest benefit from he should not rest content with merely reading this Instruction Paper carefully once or twice, but should study its contents carefully throughout his entire course. It is only by practice and steady progress in acquiring a knowlIn order that the student
edge of the styles and formation of
letters that
and importance
of
much
Paper
meaning appreciated.
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
SI
The
means
of
transforming the
Plain,
general heads
of
which may be classified nnder three Ornamental, and Grotesque. The history
our alphabet and of the forms known as the fundamental styles will be found not only of interest but also of great profit
to
one who
is to
The
monument
of the intellectual
advancement
all
of the present
a condition to which the people of uted although the reader may never
day
source nor the
fection.
many
changes necessary to
signs,
The twenty-six
or
letters,
:
we
call
the
two classes those representing no syllabic sounds in themselves, which are called consonants ; and those possessing two or more such sounds, called vowels. The latter in some cases are scarcely more tlian a l)reath sound, but each has a clear phonetic value, and fills an important place in By means of other characters placed our written language.
alphabet are separated into
above the vowels, every Avord may be written to express its proper sounds. We are, therefore, enjoying today the fruits of achievements of the human intellect through forty centuries the of development for, in tracing the origin of the alphabet and the signs that led to its construction, Ave are compelled to go back to the dispersion of the human race through a period of over four thousand years, each epoch of which furnishes interesting developments in the growth of our letters. It Avill be
;
at the
is
to
be found the
source of the forms whose transitions from one system of characters to another give us our present alphabet.
Nor can
Ave
The degree
Innnan
1
history
is
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
marked by the progress made in the methods of which enabled its people to record events, impart knowledge, and transmit messages to one another.
writing,
3.
lon
Ideograms.
The descendants
;
of
Noah
Shem, that of Babylon and Eastward Ham, Northand Japheth, Western Assyria and Asia Minor. Each system of writing began with rude pictures of objects, more or less conventional, which gradually became the representatives of words, afterwards becoming the symbols of letters,
dispersion
eastern Africa
;
or elementary sounds.
We
from the ideogram, or expression of thoughts by means of pictures, to the 'phonogram, or expression of sounds by means of drawn or written symbols. Many ideograms are in common use at the present day, which proves that the Egyptian method \vas not without some merit. For instance, the sign $ is derived
from the monogram U. S. The barber's pole the red stripe of which symbolizes a "blood-letter" (a custom of past ages) the three balls used by the pawnbroker, the American flag, the sign per cent. (%), the algebraic signs, and many others
are all ideograms.
4.
Ctmeiforni Writing.
The
letters of
origin the
form
of
each
letter,
we
While
on the other hand, which is not alphabetic, has growai more and more complicated, and affords an example of how a people, isolated for four thousand years from the rest of the world, were unable to advance beyond the ancient system of ideographic writing. The Chinese system is evidently the outgro\\'th
4
of the
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
The simplicity of arranged in groups to express a thought. our alphabet system compared with the Chinese may be appre-
when we consider that a boy ten years old, in an American school, has acquired the same facility in reading and writing English that would take a Chinese student twenty-five years to accomplish in the study of Chinese characters.
ciated
5.
IS^iimerals.
it is
Without
impossible to form a
one
is
inseparable
from
the other.
From
from Egypt, a period of several centuries, we Europe, Asia, and Africa and, though Chinese legends point to were largely peopled periods much earlier than this, the system by which they have come to us, being based on object pictures, produces no eviThe Hebrew writing, supposed dence as to their reliability. by some authorities to be the outgrowth of the so-called Semitic
of the Israelites
know
owe
its
for there
sufficient evidence to
come
from whom the Arabian race is descended, and to this race we are indebted for our present numeral characters 1, 2, 3, etc. The system known as the Roman was in use much earlier, and probably originated
period, however, occurs the birth of Ishmael,
in ideographic writing.
The
;
digits
I, II,
the
thumb spread
The
apart.
The
X
X.
V or
This system
is
is
still
which
6.
ment
and, therefore, when entering on a second historical period of about a thousand years, beginning with the exodus from Egypt
1
and reaching
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
to the captivity of Israel
5
find a
and Judah, we
forming a most important element of the divisions of nations and one strongly influencing the many systems of writing. To this great people, it is believed, was given an alphabet, and a language in laws and commandments, embodying civil as well The purity of this alphabet has as ecclesiastical polity.
remained to the present time, surviving thirty centuries, the only changes being the present Hebrew characters, which assume more of the square construction than the originals. From this nation also springs another system or alphabet that of the Samaritans but before considering this let us turn our The attention to another country and people, the Phenicians. Israelites occupying Palestine were neighbors of this aggressive and thrifty people, and were brought into harmonious relations with them. The chief cities of Phenicia, Tyre and Sidon, were, during the reign of Solomon, maritime centers of great activity. It is assumed, therefore, that the Greek alphabet came directly from the Hebrew and Phenician, while the Phenician in turn was evolved from the Assyrian, Egyptian, and Moabitish.
7. Tlie Samaritan Alphabet. We find that the Samaritan alphabet has Hebrew as a base, with a strong interspersion
Israel, about the middle of this was divided into two kingdoms, the two tribes constituting the kingdom of Judah and the ten tribes that of Israel. The latter, as well as the Egyptians and Phenicians, suffered severely from the Assyrian and Babylonian invasions. These powerful eastern empires took captive the ten tribes of Israel, thereby causing their complete downfall and loss of
of
period,
national identity.
that did not observe certain ceremonies after eight days would
be cut
off
from
Israel
ceremonies as a nation, and therefore lost their indentity in the Hebrew family. They returned to Samaria subsequently, however,
of Israel
and held to a revised Pentateuch hence the lost ten tribes and their relation to the Jews. Mention is made of
Samaritan
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
is
SI
little
alphabet, which
reference
is
usually
or
no
it
bearing as
The
frag-
monuments
ments
and on
;
of utensils.
Among
the
Fl(i. 1.
Moabite Stone, 9th centur}^ B. C. and the Siloam Inscription, 7th century B. C. This period closes with the captivity of the remaining two tribes in Babylon 588 B. C.
;
8.
ously stated,
and the
ascendency and decline of the Grecian empire and the establishment of the Roman marks another period, during which the alphabet characters attained their present development, as
shown by the
a cut of which
inscription on the
is
Arch
shown
in Fig.
1
thus
far
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
been
stated,
7
that our descended
we have
from
satisfactory proof
phonetic
alphabet
came
have slowly evolved from from syllabic signs, and these forms must have been developed from verbal phonograms. The verbal phonograms were adopted from ideograms, which could have originated only from picture writing. Surrounded by such advantages as the Hebrew and the Egyptian characters, and all other forms of writing, it is not surprising that the Phenicians should have constructed an alphabet of clear
9.
characters
The alphabet
hieroglyphic writings,
first
The name
of every letter of the Hebrew has a significant meaning, while the Greek names, though similar, are meaningletters
For instance, the first four less. Greek alphabet are as follows
:
of
the
Hebrew and
Aleph (ox)
Beth (house)
Alpha
Beta
Gimel (camel)
Daleth (door)
Gamma
Delta
10. The Greek Alphabet. Several centuries of the Hebrew period elapse before the Greek alphabet becomes an
important factor in the formation of our alphabet, in fact not
until after the fall of Greece as a universal empire.
But
as
880 B. C. there came with the birth of the Greek alphabet a most intellectual conception of literature, art, and architecture, of which subsequently the Latins Avere only
early as
imitators.
11
still
and with the fourth universal empire comes the Latin alphabet. As the Roman empire was composed of almost the entire civilized world, their alphabet formed tlie base, or was the mother of all modern styles of writing. The Roman alphabet
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
characters of the
first
known by
century are practically the same as the the name of Egyptian, Antique
12.
the
beginning
of
the
the alphabet for many centuries. The dark ages were evidently a germinating or budding period, and until the loth century brings us to an era historically known as the Renaissance, or About the middle revival of art, we find no progress whatever. of this century (1443) printing was invented, but it was many years before this important discovery accomplished much to benefit mankind for it must be remembered there was no cheap material on which to print, the parchment used to engross on The being far too expensive for the purposes of printing. process of printing had a very beneficial influence on the methods of writing, however, and incidentally on the alphabet itself. The letters had become so elaborate by this time as to appear almost like ornamental enigmas. The process of print;
forms used during the first century the Latin styles were therefore used, the former being known at the present day as Antique Egyptian and the latter as French Roman.
to return to the
;
should he borne in mind that ornamentation in such as marked the period just prior to the 15th century is not an improvement in style. The first principles to be observed in forming letters is simplicity, as the most impor-
13.
It
lettering
tant qualifications
of
always an evidence of
superfluous.
14.
to
Results of
tlie
Renaissance.
the 15th century, then located in Northern Italy, were not slow
art,
become imbued with the spirit of this new development in and Spain, France, England, and in fact all Europe was
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
by the great impulse,
of
largely on account of the achievean Italian family known as the Medici. Previous to this, the art of lettering was confined almost exclusively within the monasteries. The ecclesiastical devotees or monks were skilful in the art of calligraphy, and exhibited wonderful dexaffected
ments
terity in their
work
of designing
and illuminating
capital letters
;
on their manuscripts, many of which are extant today some dating back as far as the 5th or the 6th century are especially
clever.
It is to
monks
from
earlier
own.
During
this
to printing there
were
many varieties or styles of the alphabet originated. The style known at present as the Egyptian was originally known as the
plain
Roman,
or the style in
;
while the
Roman
day
is
Roman
of the period
indicated by
name.
The
,
which dates
derived
istic of
its
to
1349 A. D.
origin
was possibly the next style and from the ogival or pointed arch, character-
The Old English, 1400 A. D. (specimens of which are Westminster Abbey), was possibly the outgrowth of the 8th centur}' Romanesque, the Old German letters following closely on the Old English. There are many of the German
15.
still
in
and
that
still
remain.
The
Script
the most graceful and classic curves possible to produce, was of Anglo-Saxon origin. The style known as French Roman, having the horizontal strokes considerably narrower than the vertical, the extremities of these being finished with an antique spur, were of first-century origin, and were used by the Western
Roman
of the
provinces.
The
Italic script is
a modern interpretation
There are several forms of the Church Texts, which originated from the Old German as well as the Old English.
print.
Medieval Italian
10
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
16.
Modern
known
Styles.
Of
the style
as Rund-Schrift (round-writing),
which
is
an
German.
styles
known
Aside from this we name with much pride several the world over as American writing these are
;
the Full Block, Half Block, both plain and antique, Railroad
Full Block, Spencerian Script, and Shippers' Box These styles are used chiefly by letterers, while the varieties in type which are of purely American origin are so numerous that we Avould not attempt to classify or name them. Their form and style are peculiarly identified with printing, and are seldom if ever used by letterers while to the art of printing under its many heads is due all progress made in the
Block,
Round
Marking.
GENERAL RUEES.
17. The few
general rules following are very important to
it is
carefully observed
1.
Do
is inartistic
good manners," just so surely does association of the eye with that which is out of proportion, distorted, or irregular, leave an impression which is lasting in its eflfect on, and by no means easy to dispel from, When the student has advanced to the study of the mind. inscription designing and ornamentation, he will better appreciate the importance of this advice. Do not become discouraged if you do not make as rapid 3.
just as truly as
evil associations corrupt
"
progress as
that "it
is
you should
like to.
The
assertion is often
made
not possible for one to become a master of an art or profession, without a natural talent for it " this may be true
;
along some
especially
if
lines,
but
it
is
behind the
practice
power and
Concentration of thought
and constant
must
1
4.
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
Give as
11
much time
satisfied to
make
to practice as possible do not be a letter several times only, but practice each
;
have mastered
its
it,
line
5.
all of
the instruction
Study
despise mediocrit}'.
The advantages
many
and
18.
rear of
ning, use a
Materials Required. When practicing in the evegood steady light, and place this directly in the the table on which you are working, and from 12 to 18
inches above the w^ork, while the eyes should always be pro-
The student
will
X 21
in.
Faber's im-
J doz.
sheets
Whatman's drawing
paper,
size
12 in.
X 19
in.;
royal
scale
and 4
in.
X 7 in.
Draftsmen and other students interested in a similar will find these tools sufficient for practice and specimen work. But for the benefit of the students that wish to apply a knowledge of lettering to sign painting we would advise that the practice work be done on cardboard or Manila pattern paper, using a camel' s-hair brush, and card black, the
19.
class of
work
By
this process
made any
size,
must invariably be 8^
in.
15
in.,
of the paper.
12
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
AIN^D
FREEHAlVr) EETTERI:N^G.
Drawing
The
is
manner
is
called a draiving.
which a drawing
ments,
as, for
is
is
made,
drawing
called
no
all
instruments are used, the lines drawn by the free hand, and
dimensions laid
is
called a free-
hand drawing.
is
usually called a
2
is
the shape,
object.
size, combination, form, color, or appearance of some Drawings also aid us in perfecting ideas when we are designing or inventing. The practice of freehand drawing trains both the hand and the eye. It enables one to estimate distances and lay them off on a drawing correctly, and to compare the relative sizes of angles, lines, and figures in general. It thus trains the hand to draw quicker and better with instruments. The ability to draw well freehand is one of the ]nost
useful of accomplishments.
22.
made
exclusively
with the aid of a straightedge and other instruments. These are the Full-Block Plate and the Half- Block Plate. The
others are
made up of straight lines and curves. These curves, though slight in many cases, are all drawn by the free use of the hand, and therefore, so long as freehand drawing enters into their construction, we have chosen to classify them under this
head.
We
1 making
styles,
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
13
all straight lines, whether in mechanical or freelmnd but do not recommend the use of the compasses in making curves in freehand letter styles, unless a perfect circle
is
required.
24.
and
is
Fine
liine.
The
spur
connecting the
usually a horizontal
line.
is
25.
Spur.
The
letter,
small
projection from
varieties,
the
extremity of a
according
26.
letter,
Face.
but
is
The
all
the the
27.
Shade.
This term
is
and is apj^lied to a letter to give it the appearance of relief from the background also to cause one part of the stroke to appear projected or depressed from
or finish of a letter,
;
the surface.
28.
it
Block.
This
is
and
is
used to give a
name
expresses, to give
a solid block effect, in -which case the shade also is sometimes used beyond the block in the form of a natural shadow.
29. 30.
and
left,
Outline.
letter,
The
outline of a letter
is
forms the
Width.
The
width
of
letters
and never
14
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
31.
Background.
Jield.
The
;
which the
ground, or
lettering is placed
it
32.
Condensing.
Condensing
is
letters, or to
normal width.
33.
Elongating.
Elongating
is
when
the letters are draAvn out to a greater Avidth than the normal.
This term should not be confvised with the appearance of a condensed letter, with the relation of its height to its width.
34.
C.vnia.
The cyma
is
it where the space is open and requires something more than the plain letter to make the word appear solid. This character derives its name from the Greek, its undulating form resembling a wave. The cyma is usually attached to the letters A, L, M, W, etc. it is used in but few styles of lettering, while in some styles it forms
;
itself.
SPACING OF LETTERS.
35.
in importance to
them
in
words in a way calculated to make the word not onl}^ legible but symmetrical this is called spacing. Nothing will destroy the harmony of a line of perfectly formed letters more effectAside from a few general ively than a disregard of this art. rules, the letterer must depend on his own good judgment, and
;
coml)inations of
letters.
many
ways, but true proportion must always reign in a word accurately spaced, so that its regularity is apparent to the eye at a
glance.
To accomplish
:
must be given
to
36.
Make
the inter-
To
do this may require the shortening of some extended letters, and the spreading apart of letters having vertical or parallel
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
This
is
15
and 3, in which the right and The L in Fig. 2 is shortened a full stroke in width instead of one-half stroke, which is the normal width of the letter and the space between the A and the is about one-half the width of the letter A at its base. At the top of the A is shown the cyma used to relieve the space which cannot be equalized. The cyma is also often used in a
lines.
shown by
Figs. 2
TAW LAW
Fig.
2.
Fig.
3.
vertical position
on the
Fig. 3
on the lower
right-hand spur.
shows the
effect of
some letterers, who allow the same space between the extremities of all letters, and make no allowance for unequal-sized interspaces. The parallel strokes of the A and the are the same distance apart as the L and the A, leaving the L full width. Many such combinations occur, and unless we observe this rule we may expect no better effects than in Fig. 3. Two
such words as "millinery," "butter," etc., and at the same time in connection with letters that are full face or occupying full width top and bottom, as shown in Fig. 4. In such cases the L should be made the width of the stroke
ILLN
Fig.
4.
UTTEI
Fig
5.
narrower than the full-face letters, and the spaces between the latter and the right-hand letters next to them should be onehalf the width of the stroke.
full
width
of the stroke
L. In Fig. 5 the T's are shortened only one-half the width of the stroke, allowing the same space between them and the letters on each side as allowed in Fig. 4 between the end of
and the
16
the right
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
L and the stroke of the N. The letters, therefore, with which we shall experience the most difficulty in spacing,
are the slanting- stroke letters A, K, V,
jecting letters F, J, L,
W, and
and
T.
37.
rules
:
Full Block
When
and Roman. When spacing such Block and Roman observe the following two letters having spurs come together, as
leave the Avidth of the stroke of the letter between the spurs.
When
leave
HO
Roman
come
together, as
letters.
When two
come
Slant-
space between the spurs, and the same space be a spurless letter.
38.
The
Leave width of stroke between all paralleland one-half this width between projecting letters. Between round letters coming together on rounded sides, as
leave J stroke.
NOC
less
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
of a full-sized letter, including spurs
;
17
possible, leave
and,
if
Never allow letters to touch each other, except shaded letters, and not then unless it is unavoidable. Two round letters coming together, such as
li spaces.
00
in condensed styles, having no spurs, touch each other without having the such letters as
may
be allowed to almost
effect of
doing so
while
JE
produce the
effect of
are.
39.
letter to suit a
The placing
of a
word
make them
Under
SENATE
selection of styles to
meet
all
requirement
is
fully treated.
The appearance of the spacing of letters is similar to that of a company of soldiers. If a portion of the company be separated by a space greater than the manual prescribes, it has the
appearance of a separate detachment and is noticeable at a glance. In the same manner, if a word is spaced properly throughout with but one exception, it has the appearance of
two words. For example, take the word Semite shown in Fig. 6, where the space between the N and the A gives it the effect of two words.
18
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
PUNCTtJATIOX.
40.
There
is
seldom
impor-
tant subject
among
letterers, as
street.
may
41.
The apostrophe
is fre-
understand the rule governing the possessive case origin of the mark used to denote possession, we should
know
is
we should look on the fly leaf of some name of the owner, "John
Later,
it
became a
custom
to
contract the
name and
article
possessed
"John Smith's book" and to insert the apostrophe to indicate that the "his" was omitted. By bearing in mind this
simple custom, one can always locate the proper place for the
apostrophe, according to the location
boys' clothing."
of
thus,
the pronoun.
would express
ing."
it,
According to the
"s"
not
"men's and
boys' clothing."
Thus, the
letter
"s" would
pronoun "their," which has no final "s, " is used; but for euphony, or to obviate harshness of sound, the " s " is often added after many words, and also omitted from words ending with " s " for the same reason.
is frequently used where For instance, the words "John Smith. Law Office." make two complete and independent statements, and each should be terminated I)}' a However, if the words used were "John Smith, period. Lawj^er." the case would have been different, as there is but one statement, which should be terminated by the period. is
42.
The Comma.
the
The comma
required.
the period
mark
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
RULES FOR PUXCTUATIOX.
19
43.
not
Period.
The
or
period
is is
put
It
at
the
end
of
itself,
every
word, phrase, or
interrogative
all abbreviations.
sentence that
complete by
is
and
after
exclamatory.
also
placed
The M.
James
Howard, LL. D.
44.
Colon.
The
colon
is
thing important.
His accomplishments, he
resolve,
2.
said,
were not
many
and
fifty cents.
cially
when
it
sums up the
:
meaning
in another form.
Avoid ashamed
evil doers
in
of himself.
45.
clauses
semicolon
l)y
is
used to separate
themselves divided
the
less
comma,
or that
;
comma and
;
than a colon
or
He was
equals
;
supercilious, to inferiors.
46.
all
is
The
which
it is
To
omitted.
2.
To
He
is
20
3.
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
To
set.
1
parenthetic, or
off
is
and breaks
their connection.
You
4.
be in no better condition.
is
To
set off
not
what
it
modifies, or that
is
removed from
by
inversion.
Behold the emblem of thy state in flowers, which bloom and die. By Americans generally, the liero of the Battle of Manila Bay is beloved.
5.
To
set
off
words or
phrases
used
independently or
absolutely.
Ristalfo, give
6.
me what
is
To
is
subject,
when
the
subject
ated parts.
The
fact that
is
To
loosely connected.
There mountains
8.
rise,
and
within them
Short simple sentences or clauses seldom require a point and phrases or clauses that stand in close connec;
i3oint
before them.
Tell
me when
after
he returned.
47.
Interrogation Point.
The
interrogation
it
point
is
forms a
What
Mend me,
Julius
Grsar.
is
48.
Exclamation Point.
The
exclamation
point
Woe
49.
purposes
Woe
Dasli.
:
The
dash
is
following
1
1.
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
To show omission caused by
Cassius.
21
interruption.
I fear
Yet
Caesar
him
Alas
show an
Heaven
3.
gives to
its
favorites
early death.
phrase,
especially
To
set
off
parenthetical
when
be
emphatic or when there are other points within it. To render the Constitution perpetual which God grant it may
felt
by
all
parts of
4.
'
'
Before
' '
echoes,
or
where
the
words
"that
is"
or
namely
are
understood.
first
The four greatest names in English poetry are almost the come to Chaucer, Spencer, Shakespeare, and Milton.
we
The
parenthesis
is
used
to
enclose
Know then this truth (enough for Virtue alone is happiness below.
51.
Qiiotatioii
man
Pojic.
to know),
Marks.
Quotation
apostrophe
marks
are
used to
there's
life,
there's hope."
52.
Apostrophe.
The
is
letters.
name
in print
A
53.
't.
Cliatterton.
Hyphen.
The
hyphen
(-)
is
to the
compound
words.
22
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
54.
Ditto Marks.
The
ditto
marks (" )
55. Underscore. The underscore is a line drawn under words in manuscript or copy to give them special emphasis, showing that they are to be printed in Italic or capitals, one line denoting Italic, two lines denoting small capitals, and three
lines large capitals.
SHADING.
56.
flat
Sliacling
on the
Shading is used to and thereby take away the Shading may be placed on the top,
Ijeft Side.
relief,
letter,
but
it
;
should
as, for
at first
always
left side
several reasons,
student
ence are
left,
as
on the right side until the he will use this side for all
practical purposes.
:
The reasons
Fig.
7.
Fig.
8.
in
S,
more
of the letters
etc.
when shaded on
the
left side,
such as the
E, C, R,
single stroke
on the
By shading
to the
left,
produce a better
the
to
letterer,
effect
majority of strokes in
the right, Avhich in
more in a given length of time, and in his work when finished. (3) The shading to the left are drawn towards
is
j^ushed
a strong
argument in favor
of the former.
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
23
5T.
shown by
reference to Fig.
at a, a,
8.
midway between
6, b,
to lines
where
com-
pleted.
The tendency
much
thickness where shade begins or finishes. All letters must be shaded "on the same angle at every point, and, after practice, this angle becomes as well established with the letterer as the horizontal or vertical lines. Every characteristic point of the letter must be shown in the shade, as at a, Fig. 9, and all
Fig.
9.
Fig. 10.
must be
ters,
width only
mum
58.
rately.
effect of
Block Shade.
There
are
many methods
of obtain-
The block shade, as its name indicates, consists of the making the letter appear to have thickness. This is
done by the use of two shades, the dark, or stronger, one being used underneath all horizontal strokes, and the lighter tint on
the side of all vertical strokes.
of the letter, in
itself, is
which case the block, shaded as shown in Fig. 10. Here the left of the letter the appearance
shadow.
59.
Cast Shado^v.
is
also
used in con,
etc.
giving the
24
letter
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
of standing upright, either
shade is on a line about one-fifth of the height of the letter below the top. The shade is made on an angle of 30 to the left, the point resting on the
of the
on a
level or
The top
Fig.
11.
lower
left
corner of the
the letter with a block shade and cast shadow, and (6) shows the simple outlined letter and cast shadow. The shade is
sometimes used l;)y duplicating the letter in the form of a shadow cast on the background, one-fifth of the height of the letter below the top, and on the same angle (45) as the
regular shade, as
shown
in
Fio-. 12.
60.
Relief Shade.
Relief shade
is
obtained by leaving a
space between the letter and the shade on the same angle as
Fig.
12.
Fig. 13.
the shade, as
making the space and shade of used in connection with block shade, it is often of the nature of the natural shade, and is added to the block shading without any line or space between. The
in Fig. 13,
shown
uniform width.
When
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
25
relief shade when used as a natural shade on a white or tinted ground is made to represent the strength of the shadow cast from an object on the ground on which the letters are placed. This shade is produced with the pen by means of lines, but more effectively by the brush and transparent color.
LETTER-FACE
61.
of the letter is a very
I.IGHTI:N^G
AND SHADING.
Importance of Subject.
shaded, remains
flat
and
unsatis-
can sometimes be overcome by the addition directly on the letter face itself. The face of the letter may be variegated or blended from a light to a dark shade, in which case a sharp outline must surround the entire letter, as shown in Fig. 14. Lighting and shading
This
effect
of lights
Fig.
14.
Fig.
15.
Fig. 16.
ment
to
62. Effects Produced. Another effect is produced by running bars of color across the center of the letter, and diminishing these bars in width to a point midway from center to top and bottom, as in Fig. 15. Diminishing circles are also used on letters of lighter face, such as the Roman, and can be made to
occupy the entire face, or, as is shown in Fig. 16, terminating at a given point, which must be regularly observed throughout the
line of letters.
26
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
63.
SI
is
Heavy
Iligliliglit.
used in
making the upper half of the letter a uniform tint, either by lining, as shown in Fig. 17, or with colors. The darker shade b is placed on the
the treatment of the face of the letter by
letter,
or the
upper
The
highlight
on the upper
is left
white.
By
many
by this means,
and
using such colors for a as blue, green, gray, or gold color, the
last of
64.
Beveled Shading.
of a letter to
a line of lettering a
finished
and pleasing
In this
Fig.
17.
Fig. 18.
it is necessary only to observe the rules of light and shadow, as shown in Fig. IS, by shading the letter on the left and bottom sides from a line drawn through the center of the This form of shading is often used on a face of the letter.
process
is
used on silver
There are
many
a plain
letter.
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
27
THE HIGHLIGHT.
65.
As
its
name
is
is
used to illumieffect.
nate or light
up a
letter,
which
it
The highlight
shade," or
opposite the
of the strokes.
It is
always a
is
it is to
be placed.
If
the letter
colored
letter,
On silver or aluminum, white only can be used. To be most effectual this highlight must be a fine, even line. The heavy highlight is used in letter-face lighting and shading, and is explained under that head.
or white.
CUTTIIS^G
IN I.ETTERS.
GG,
Uses of Cut-in
iietters.
This
term
is
applied to
in outline,
drawn
filled in
is
around them.
In inscription
Fig. 19.
The break the monotony of several lines of plain lettering. of a panel or ribbon, on which the letters are "cut in," insertion
provides a colored background, against which the letters are outlined, allowing the same color for the letters as the main
ground
shown
in Fig. 19.
The
govern very largely the If the general ground is white character of letter to be cut in. or any light color, and the cutting-in, or outline, color is very dark, a heavy-faced letter may be used without causing any
color of the panel
and background
will
28
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
ill
appearance of clumsiness or
letters
sary^,
proportion.
be in gold, a
much
lighter-faced letter
is to make the letter appear than it actually is. A very fine line of gold on a black ground can be readily distinguished even at a great distance,
larger
and a white
letter
67.
Points to be Observed.
etc.,
In the practice
on the plainer
of cutting
styles,
such as
Fig. 19 shows the letters in outline, background filled in. In order to insure uniformity of width in the horizontal elements of the letters, faint lines may be drawn through the entire word by means of
the
Roman
or Script.
and
may
be readily dusted
off.
Cut-in letters
may
Fig. 21.
Fig. 22.
usually be permitted to stand closer than other styles of work, as they are seldom shaded, though when they are shaded, the
regular spacing should be used.
68.
letters
are
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
the angle of the ribbon, as at
29
The importance
of this
will be considered
more
the subject
now under
discussion
AMien
ters
letters are
should be maintained in a vertical position, as in Fig. 21, or perpendicular to the lines of the panel, as in Fig. 22,
CliASSinCATIOK OF LETTERS.
ORXAMEXTAL LETTERS.
69.
The plain
letters
include
all
absolutely
necessary
to
or outline
thus
added
may
place them
by
this
subject,
Fig. 23.
There
^=.===^=^=-
^^6
while
en-
composed
most value
are those
Fig. 24.
to the student
of
relief
scrolls,
30
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
70.
1
ornamen-
Ornamental Forms.
Letters
classified as
a variety that such as are used in connection with the shade to produce
a bent or rounded
^^e-p
effect,
as
shown
in Figs. 23-24,
might
be classed with this style. Fig. 23 shows the ground to be a plane surface and the letter bent or warped, while Fig. 24 shows the
letter
straight,
effect of
71.
but surrounded
by ornamentation,
as
shown
in
Fig. 25, is
called
an orna-
72.
lows
:
Other Forms.
in Fig. 26 can be
Other
made
in
fol-
shown
various ways.
of the letter this
may
be treated in
at (a),
manner, as
or by
simply suggesting it in the middle or edge of the letter, as in (h), A letter may be (c), and (f/).
plain, so far as its face is concerned, but
Fig. 27.
on account
of its
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
it
;i
may
be classified as ornamental,
letter-face orna-
shown
in Fig. 27.
There are
many
In Fig. 28 are shown three letters of the the one at (a) being decorated with filigree work, while (b) shows a geometrical design, and (c) simply
bination of both.
face-ornament
tlie
class,
cross-line shading.
GROTESQUE LETTERS.
73.
All
letters,
as previously stated
The
first
and their
different.
many
variations,
entirely
The grotesque letters have no recognized form, such as would place them among
the styles of the alphabet, but are
or classical
made
by using natural objects, which are arranged so as to conform to anj^ regular or irregular
shape that will cause them to represent a
letter,
therefore, is allowable
may
be recognized.
To accomplish
objects
such
as
a
Fig. 29.
human
figure,
and trunk
Of the three
leaves, tendrils,
made.
is
The
which
These
letters
can
l)e
made very
artistic,
32
great skill in
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
their
arrangement.
may
be
letters, as their
pro-
purely arbitrary.
Fig.
^^7^
W
Fig.
30.
some
rope.
human
Any
alphabet
the
be
ILLITMIXATED
C^XJ'ITALS.
74.
The
monks
art,
of
the
make
use of this
many
must have spent In treating days in designing and executing a single letter. this subject here, our purpose is simply to call attention to the most simi^litied forms of illuminating, especially those forms
sjjecimens of Avhich Avould indicate that they
letterer.
The
practical use
now
graphing
The printing and lithohave displayed wonderful skill in recent years in illuminated work, especially on show-bill designs. The use
work, and ecclesiastical decorations.
artists
of colors to light
to a
up the
complete line of
lettering,
and
is
used to form the background. Such colors as can be combined to give a brilliant effect are used in the form of a plaque.
i^l
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
is
33
shown
is
in Fig. 31.
The illumination
usually of such a nature as to produce a finished'and pleasing effect without resorting to colors. There
are
by engrossers
tliis
method
of a
the letter
FlG. 31.
mentation
surrounding
it
conform
is
to
any desired
design,
not
than the
letter,
but rather
tliat
the former
used as a means to
letter.
75.
Card Work.
of capi-
tals gives
34
plainness.
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
For practical purposes, such as attractive advertising cards, banners, etc., the illuminating of capitals will be found to hold an important place, and is coming into favor and more general use. There are also many forms and designs employed as a panel, on which illuminated
capitals are placed, in
solid
or
outlined letter
the outline
letter,
especially
when
The
letter outlined is
some-
times
filled in
bright color, Avhile the panel surrounds it with a tint of cream-white, yelloAV, or green. Two or three shades of color are sometimes used, either variegated or in the form of line work on top of tint, as in Fig. 33.
7(5.
Ecclesiastical
Decorations.
For
ecclesiastical
wbich
Church Text
is
style of
etc.,
where
first
used, the
81
capital
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
(and sometimes
silver,
35
all capitals) is
illuminated, either on
a panel of gold,
or color.
In
all cases
the panel
is
made
Fig. 34.
conform in a general way to the letter, as Fig. 34 shows. If is used for a ground, the letter must be a dark color. If a colored ground (which is preferable) is used, a gold or silver letter will be found to light up with colors and produce a most satisto
gold or silver
fac'tory
result.
77.
Heraldic
Sliield.
is
An
heraldic shield
often
on which the
is
illuminated capital
placed.
Flu.
35.
There are many designs or forms of this shield, which can be changed to suit any form
of a letter, as
shown
in Fig. 35.
EFFECTS IX EETTERIJ^G.
CONDENSING. KLONGATING, TELESCOPING, AND INTERLACING.
78.
means
a required space,
of
Condensing Xjetters. In conforming letters to till we are often compelled to resort to various
accomplishing
our
purpose, without making the
or
inscription
appear
distorted
out
is
of
proportion,
shorter than
^^l^en
much
would
admit
we
are compelled to
36
rules
of their
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
proportionate width.
be condensed
except
Railroad
Block,
which
Avas
invented
fully,
To
illustrate
more
COMPANY
the word Company
is
79. Example of Condensed tietter. In Fig. 36 is shown the condensed form, as may l)e seen by comparing
the
may condense width of those of 36, and find they are still too
The
letterer
COMP
^"''
'^^'
large
for
the
required space
the
reduced
to
one-half
greater, width,
and
less
space allowed
the word
to
This
reduces
the
80. Elongating Letters. To elongate the same word in same style of letter, make the height, for convenience, onethat of
Fig.
half
36
thus
M
it
will
be observed that
it
if
this
is
in Fig. 38,
it
would
Fig. RS.
of
Fig. 36.
To
further
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
37
width or these may be increased to if desired, also giving more space twice their regular width
vertical' strokes regular
;
By
this
means a word
IVI
Fig. 30.
can be
made
to
fill
a space
much
letter.
too
Telescoping. Telescoping is not of so much pracadvantage as condensing or elongating, and is used mostly This is done by giving the letters to produce a relief effect. the appearance of overlapping one another, as shown in Fig. 40,
81.
tical
Fig. 40.
Every alternate
plete identity of
letter
is
line to
These
letters
face, as this
82.
Interlacing.
Interlacing
monogram
somewhat different, and includes the interlacing of an entire word. This is very often resorted to by the designer, especially in the use of eccentric letters, which are made to extend far beyond the limits of the fundamental styles from which they are derived, as shown in Fig. 4L
lacing at present under consideration
38
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
OrTLIXI]VG
AXD FILLIXG
in
IX.
for all classes
83.
Water
Colors.
of designing,
and especially
with
knowledge
of the
handling of water
therefore,
is
a necessity to the
letterer.
Dry
color in
powdered form
required.
This
is
used when large areas of blended color are applied with a wad of cotton, with which the
3r^irf
dry color
is
The
all
water-color
work
The wider
this outline is
made, the easier will be the work of flowing the color evenl}^ and the less the liability of running over the line the fine
;
outline,
however,
is
used
in
many
places,
especially
for
84.
readily
to the
cards,
finish,
which
the
The
this
made with
glossy black to which the water color will not adhere, but flows
to
the
By
duced.
Water
colors
also
serve
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
39
For shading used that will as nearly as possible make the shade Avith one stroke, as water color cannot be worked over, when once applied, without showing brush marks. Therefore,
the letters, a brush
is
the color
well-directed
apply the brush again over a shaded part when the excess water has been absorbed by the card.
stroke, using care not to
85.
is
The subject
of designing
an almost inexhaustible one, and covers a broad field. There are, however, many general rules and many commonly accepted
forms, which establish a foundation on which
be
built.
new ideas ma}' Designing will ever be an art that, aside from these must conform
to the dictates
An
show
the
to
that
which
is
of as
much importance
letters.
as a
knowledge
of
is
proper formation of
The
first
thing, therefore,
first
letters, to
lie
beyond the
In showing the
many
Avays in
which curved
make
42
86.
Fig.
is
the combination
line.
shown The
Roman
The
some
line, block, or
letters
40
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
Next in importance
is
the
is
compound
curve, or ogee,
which
of
is
used
when
the inscription
about
are used
Fig.
42.
Fig. 43.
Fig.
44.
under a single curve and above a straight line. Where one word occurs, we use the double ogee, which is made by uniting two ogee curves, as shown in Fig. 44. In many designs, the inclined straight lines are used, as shown in (a) of Fig. 45, or diminished in widtli from the
outside to the center of the inscription, as
shown
in (b) of
lines
in
designing
lettering
in)
Fig.
45.
(b)
require a great
amount of skill in equalizing and arranging them properly, even in straight lines. In such designs only
letter
one style of
(but
is
made
ment may
require)
KIBBONS.
87. The Ribbon. The ril)bon is used in many forms, and can be made to suit almost any style of inscription by
folding or extending.
When
is
The ribbon
made
and broken edges. Fig. 46 shows the ribbon forms, of which the names of its component in some of its a, the bow are as follows b, the broken band parts c, the d, the returning band and regular band e, the streamer
or with irregular
many
;
/,
the
roll.
^1
ELEMENTS
is
OP'
LETTERING.
41
used also in a square or geometrical form, in and natural Avave does not enter, as shown in Fig. 47. This form of ribbon serves its place in conwliich case the graceful
The ribbon
The ribbon is used also in the same form as the double ogee, and when thus used it must be made symmetrical on both ends. The fold can also be made in middle of ogee, as shown in
Fig. 48,
without distorting
its
symmetrical
effect,
but rather
giving
it
ease
and
grace,
of the designer.
88. Shading the Ribbon. In shading a ribbon, to make it appear natural always observe the law of light and
the light should strike on one part of the ribbon, the opposite side corres])onding with it must necessarily be
shade.
If
in
shadow.
The study
of light
and shade
is
the
first
princi]de of design,
42
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
and has been considered with reference to individual letters under the head of "Shading." In designing, as in drawing from nature, strict adherence to this law is absolutel}^ necessary,
as the slightest disregard of
it
is
We
and
of
shading single
when they
are
mm-
combined
to
89.
Reflected Light.
In
the sha-
ding of ribbons or any rounded object, there occurs what is called the reflected light.
It
line which,
without
the observance
Fic.
-JO.
this
principle,
would
49 shows this principle of reflected liglit, the greatest strength of the shade being somewhat removed from the extreme edge of the object, as at , while the shadow cast by the object itself is strongest against the edge at h.
PAXET^S.
90.
Heetangiilar Panels. The panel has more forms and is made to serve many puri)Oses. The
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
43
simple or elaborate, as the material at hand in this style of design is inexhaustible. One of the many forms of the exterior
of the panel is
5L
This work
may
be
Fig. 51.
on which our
lettering is to
dis-
We
Fig. 52.
mind the
if
important,
is
of greater
its
prominence.
44
ELEMENTS
91.
OP'
LETTERING.
Part Panels. Another form of panel is that which combined with some other design, in which the panel is not When in the foreground of our design, as shown in Fig. 53. Fig. 53, it is the panel is left unfinished on one end, as in known as a part panel, and many beautiful effects can be produced by its use. In this the damask principle is used, the panel being blended into the ground by means of color or with The lettering is also blended the extreme of light the pen.
is
;
color
is
Fig. 53.
lettering
is
continued
on the
light
ground
92. Elliptical and lloiiiid Panels. Elliptical and round panels are also used and can 1)e made extremely ornamental. A touch of simple ornament in a design will often counterbalance a quantity of plain work, and give a general Fig. 54 shows an ellipeffect of ornamentation throughout. tical design, with simply a frame of ornamentation, which is sufiicient for the purpose of ornamenting a design when such work is placed on other plainer material in a design, it gives the whole the appearance of completeness.
;
93. Rococo Panels. Another style of panel that has come into our modern designs is the rococo panel not only is
;
itself,
but
it
is
frequently
many
1
Fig.
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
55 shows one of the great variety
of
45
made
conform
to the
Fig. 54.
lines
of
any
inscription,
or to
form a part
of
nearly any
style of a design.
The same style of scroll is frequently used for the purpose of up an open space in a design, although this is done also through the employment of natural forms, such as palms, olive
filling
leaves,
and convenvases,
griffins, etc.
tional
objects,
lamps, lions,
and, in
fact,
any
object
pertaining
to,
or in har-
mony
tion.
the inscription
pertains
to
of
a design
may
be
the
used
design
to
;
embellish
if
it
pertains to
with the
Fig. 55.
trades
design.
may
appear in the
symbolic
objects"
46
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
from a review which a suggestion may often be obtained that leads the designer's thought into an original channel, which, as we have stated before, is the chief aim of the designer.
for reference,
hand
INSCRIPTION DESIGNING.
94.
Proportion.
elaborate
A piece
may
of lettered
work, no matter
how
if
artistic or
it
be in
itself, is
not satisfactory
The tendency
in design-
Permanent
Association
OF CHICAGO.
ing
is to
If
we
keep in mind tbe law of art in a picture, it will help us in The foreground should l;)e the strength of a picture, designing.
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
This
'
47
should be indistinct.
is
The top and bottom lines of the design shown in Fig. 56 are Roman the words "permanent" and "association" are styles of heavier face,
designing, but also to satisfactory lettering.
;
while the strength of the inscription is centered in the two middle lines. The selection of the proper style of letters to suit each requirement should be carefully studied. A single word or line of letters can be made of any form or st3de, but as soon as another line is added the letterer is compelled to study their combinations, and to make their relation to each other harmonious to the eye and in proper proportion. In an inscrip-
c.;^^@^o
FINE
Fig. 57.
most prominent
and
Egyptian, while the less important should be of smaller letters, of such styles as one-stroke letter, or caps and lower case of the Roman or other styles. This rule does not interfere with
the general effect produced in Fig. 56.
that the inscription cannot be
designing,
Fig. 57 is
it is
made
to
design accordingly. In an inscription in which the first and last words are most important, and from which eight words therefore could be taken, and still in effect, the principal feature of the whole inscription would remain "Brown's Shoes"; these words, therefore, should have the greatest prominence liy making them large and of a solid-stroke letter.
shown a design
48
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
STE:N^CII. PATTERIS^S.
PLTRPOSE OF STEXCILS.
95.
Hietter Stencils.
tlie
The
;
letterer is
printer, especially
the method of hand work, must be laid aside for something that will have the effect of hand work, and still be accomplished with more rapidity, observing, at the same time, cleanliness and finish when the work is completed. The stencil pattern most effectually fills this place, and is made to stencil either the letter or the background. The stencil for the former purpose is made by
large order for advertising signs
therefore,
tie
when
in use.
second stencil
left
is
also required,
which
is
work
done by the
the spaces
plete letter.
first stencil
when
it
by the ties, and thus making a solid and comThe same rule is observed in regard to the cutting-in" stencils, which are used to make the background, and leave the letters the original color of the surface on which the
'
color
is
spread.
Large
ties are
'
second
stencil, so cut as to
ties, is
also used,
96. Variegated Groiiiitls for Stenciled Ijetters. The ground having been prepared and the inscription designed, the spaces occupied by each line of letters can be blended
process
known among
together.
This
is
them
As
two or three delicate tints are used, and are laid on horizontally, and without regard to where the color is placed, except where the letters show. In all cases, the selection of
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
49
harmony and
contrast.
Paper.
The
stencils, oiled
and allowed
to stand
coating both
side's
thinly Avith
is
If
a light
used, no preparation
necessary.
on which the stencil can be cut with a good steel knife sharpened to a thin point. It is well to mark the ties with some bright color, to avoid cutting through them, as a single tie cut through destroys the whole stencil, and an imperfect stencil
will cause
more bother
in
its
use than
it is
Avorth.
It is best,
98.
Tin-Foil Stencils.
only
is
same
roller
brush
soft
large
produce better results than a stiff brush, and be less likely to destroy the pattern. In dipping the brush in color, great care should be used to rub it out Avell, so that but little remains before applying to the stencil. This is the secret of
brush
Avill
cleanliness in stenciling.
99.
the
Cutting Stencils.
allowing
ties
of cutting stencils.
letter,
First, Fig.
58 and 59 show one method 58 shows the stencil that makes to remain where most strength is needed
Figs.
shown
at a, called
the
register,
or guide,
by
in proper position.
for the
This stencil
No. 2
stencil, as
shown
in Fig. 59.
marked
from
ties
50
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
its
marks are cut in this though these marks are never used except where a border color is to be placed afterwards, and serve only for
shown
in Fig. 59.
Register, or guide,
stencil also,
Fig. rs.
Fig. 59.
a second stencil.
cases, serve as a
The edge
most
guide in stenciling.
so as to
do away with
If these rules are not followed, serious be experienced when using a stencil, and may necessitate the making of a new stencil before the first one has been made to fully serve its purpose.
100.
Backgroxincl Stencils
To make
grounds, everything
reversed from the
first
form.
The
letters
must
be covered, and
letters
all ties
ere
they
is
belong.
required,
it
If
a border
the
The
^'''^-
ties
is
1
better
to
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
have too
51
many
is
ties
to Fig.
leave one
more such
Fig. 61
places
form
of stencil.
60 shows two
letters R, O,
and
shows
101. Sign Stenciling. Stenciled signs are often relieved by a few touches of hand work, either in outlining the letters or by artistically using some bright coloring that produces the effect of study and labor. This is often accomj^lished by shading or ornamentation. For stencil work, a color must be used of a
slow-drying nature, otherwise the stencil will soon become
There is also danger of using color too thin, and thus causing it to flow underneath the edge of the letter, thereby destroying the
cleanliness of the work.
102. Cleaning Stencils. The stencil must be cleaned when in use. Not more than five or six signs should be stenciled before cleaning the stencil, which may be done by laying it face down on
often
vr
V~^il
V
\
\"
_
'
V
L.,
I
I
i^M
''!
'i
|
||7
|/
The
stencil
must
be
j
i
'
r'
j
never
,,,n,,:,,
|
,uM; .
|
lllllllllllilllllllillll
it.
neglected
will
either
cause
the
Fig. ni.
stencil to
break
extra
thickness
of
the
it
dried color.
so as to render
Color
it
much
unnecessarv trouble.
52
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
GEOMETRICAI. FIGURES.
TRIAXGLES.
103, Definition of Triangle. A triangle figure having three angles and three straight sides.
is
a closed
104. Isosceles Ti-iangles. An isosceles triangle has two equal sides and two equal angles (Fig. 62). The length of
Fig. 62.
Fig.
63.
and
is
usually different from that of the two equal The term base is, however, called the base.
is
is
supposed to stand.
105.
Altitixde.
Whatever
side
is
FiG. 64.
Fig. 65.
That vertex
is
106.
triangle
is
Angular Pediment.
called an angular
AVhen
the
height
of
an
isosceles triangle is
107.
however,
Gable.
may
is an isosceles triangle whose equal from the third side (see Fig. 64). Gables, also have the shape of Fig. 65.
A gable
elp:ments of lettering.
Equilateral Triangle. An and three angles, as
53
triangle
108.
lias
equilateral
in Fig. 66,
which
is
made up
of equilateral triangles.
109.
llig-ht-Ang-lecl Triangle.
is
A right-angled
The
is
triangle
(Fig. 67).
right angle
Fig.
66.
Fig. 67.
more
either
that
must be
CIRCLES.
110.
all
Definition of Circle.
same distance from a The term circle is the figure and to the
^^'^
more commonly
circle.
X
\
the
The
dis-
y
Fig. 68
the radius of
line through the center of a circle, and having its ends is the on the circumference, is called a diameter. In Fig. 69, C are radii, A B and D, A, and center of the circle, OB,
CD
are diameters.
54
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
into
Every diameter is equal to two radii, and divides the circle two equal parts, or semicircles, and the circumference into two semi-circumferences. Two diameters, perpendicular to each other as A B and CD,
112,
Curve.
A
of
curved
line,
or a curve,
is
is
;
a line no
part of which
straight
it
may
of
be
a
imagined
a
to
straight
is
Any
portion
curve
called
an
arc.
arc
A Circular Arc. A circular any part of a circumference. Circular arcs having the same center,
113.
is
also called
They are inside one another. They are concentric^ wliich means "with the same center."
ORNAMENTAL CURVES.
All Ogee. An ogee is a line curved in two ways, having, approximately, the form of the letter S, either in its
114.
Fig. 70.
Fig. 71,
natural
position, as in
The two
parts of an ogee
may
be circular
arcs,
but arcs
of other
Fig. 74.
effect,
Fig. 72 is
made up
of
two
ogees,
and
is
called a swell
line.
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
55
115.
shown
A A
Scroll.
scroll
is
in Fig. 73.
IIG.
i/oop.
and
left
scrolls,
connected as shown.
THE ELLIPSE.
IIT. Methods of Describing an Ellipse. There are many ways of making or describing an ellipse, some of which
For designing purposes, exclusive of knowledge of two or three methods will serve every purpose, and fill the needs of the average letterer and designer. The simplest method is by means of two tacks and a string or, if needed for landscape gardening or other large-proportioned work, use hemp cord and nails or pegs. Draw a horizontal line, and intersect equally with a vertical line point off on the horizontal line the length of ellipse desired divide the horizontal line, from this point to the vertical line, into four equal parts, and place the tack on the third point from the vertical on
are quite complicated.
architectural work, a
; ;
either side
arovmd both
and
tie
from
hori-
the vertical
zontal line
;
on
the
inside
and follow around, perfect ellipse and we have a ^ ^ Fig. 75. as a result, as shown in By moving the tacks farther away from the vertical Fig. 75. line, the ellipse is elongated, if the same string he used.
.
118.
squares,
ter of
To draw the ellipse shown in Fig. 76, construct two and draw lines from the corners intersecting in the ceneach square from this point of intersection, describe the
;
56
arcs,
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
;
^1
c,
with compass from a to b from the points upper and lower hnes from a to a and b to b.
describe
119.
of
is made by two circles, which together form the length of the ellipse, and drawing a horizontal line through
the
ellipse
descril:)ing
circles,
each semias
line at
is
three
equal
a, a, a, a,
and a
Fig.
figure will be
an
apj^roxiellipse
mate
is
ellipse.
The
sometimes spoken of as an oval. This word, however, is a misnomer, as the oval derives its name from the Latin ovum, meaning "an egg," and its shape is the outline of an egg. Never refer to the oval therefore as an egg-shaped oval,
for
the
statement
would
be
equivalent
to
speaking of
round
circle.
120. The various styles of alphabet included in this course known as the fundamental styles, from which arise other
characteristic modification
styles that,
little
though they resemble the above somewhat, have so that they are scarcely worth
Moreover, these alphabets are of
1
little
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
57
fusion,
advantage to the student, but to avoid the danger of conwe will briefly refer to a few of the principal varieties.
Ijatin
121.
plainly
Roman. The
of
characteristic feature of
its
the
is
is
original Latin
Roman
alphabet was
irregularit}',
1.
which
space
Titus, Fig.
No
allowed between the words, the separation being implied by a dot on a line with the center of the letter. The tail of the R
and the
letter
Q
was
of
the
letter.
The
but
its
employed
to express the
sound
of U,
modern use in that capacity by some designers is erroneous. The other sound of this character in Latin resembles that of our W, having somewhat the sound of the V instead of the LT. Hence, the origin of the W, which is not derived from L^ but from V, and originally written VV, expressed by two
separate characters.
122.
Ancient Roman.
The
Ancient
forms of
A H
letters
(a)
0>>
Fig. 78.
from in modern practice that some of the modified have become more familiar than the originals.
This can
1)6
is
123.
each
Antique Egyptian.
of
There
are
several forms of
if
letter
seen
by the
him
is
to
inquire
why
;
he should observe any system or regularity of uniformity is, in lettering, what the order
sul^ject to criticism.
of form.
The law
is
in architecture
one form
is
These styles, therefore, must not be conadopted there must be strict adherence
58
to that
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
form throughout the lettering of the design. This may be more clearly shown by two or three of these forms of the When capital letters and their corresponding lower case.
the
slanting
"^
^^^*^^
stroke
letters
it
is
^^^^'^
as
H, M, N, and V,
occurs in
also
many
of
the
a, d,
lower-case letters, as
letters
h,
m,
n,
and
u, as
the
N,
a, d,
The
letter o is
and the
letter
sometimes used in this style, as here shown, t is crossed above the line.
Otlier Forins of Antique Egyptian. Another form of the Antique Egyptian style is shown in the curved stroke, in jilace of the horizontal middle stroke, of many capital
124.
Fig.
so.
Fig. 81.
and lower-case
letters, as in the E and t in Fig. 80; while a change in the spur of the horizontal strokes changes the charac-
shown
in the letters
L and
T, Fig.
8L
There are many other slight departures from the normal style, one of which occurs in the middle bar of the A and H, as
shown
in Fig. 82.
is
There
form
is
still
another form of
its
letter that
This
simple in
construction,
and does
not bear sufficient distinction to classify it but in one respect, this form of with the fundamental styles letter is closely alhed to the French Roman, and the similarity
;
is
shown
heavy and
light line, as
shown
in Fig. 83.
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
few
letters of
59
to give the
shown
There
is
The latter should not exceed ^ that of the stroke. almost unlimited license granted in forming these
Fig. 83.
letters,
as
shown
in
the two
In making
letter, as this
the French
of
Roman
and
it
to
widen the
the
stroke
brings
within classification
limits
of
the
Never show a suggestion of a straight line on the inside of the round letters, but always make a perfect ellipse This letter holds an important place or a symmetrical curve. with our modern designers, but a knowledge of the Egyptian and French Roman only is necessary to produce this modification. This is likewise true of all letters used. By a thorough knowledge of the few fundamental styles, the student can readily trace all variations arising from these to their parent style.
Egyptian.
125.
Boston Roman.
The
Boston
Roman
has a slight
form shown in
Plate 14 Avhich occurs in the spur only, but Avhich gives it a marked difference in appearance from the regular style. The
spur, instead of being finished
as
is
on the end,
shown
cut
off
Roman,
84.
on an angle
of
126.
A third
style,
known
as the
of
varieties.
Such
In one
60
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
as the middle stroke, as
variety the short strokes of the lower-case letters are cut on the
same angle
phown
in Fig.
-So,
the angle
Peas Fear
Fig.
85.
Fig. 86.
Another variety
fine line
of this letter
the
same
in appearance,
and a
dot, as
Beauti]
Fig. S7.
shown
in Fig. 86.
This form of
letter
the variety
shown
in Fig. 87 recjuires
can be spaced more condensed spaces, and even less space than either
EEC
(a)
(b)
Cc;
Fig.
81
of
the others
off,
tlie
letter
somewhat
relieved of
by the
The
1
same
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
E and
F,
61
which are
127.
shown
is
French Roman.
The
French
Roman
is
also in
difference
Roman
style
and bottom.
the spurs
shown
at
(b)
which
at (c).
are
with a
flat
end.
The round
Flemish
Fig.
89.
this style is
shown
128.
man
Text,
The
and fine shown in Fig. 89, its other features being practically the same as the German style. In the lower-case very little change
line, as
Fig.
90.-
is
added
to
many
of the long-
shown
in the figure.
Variations. There are so many styles of letters, from some simple idea, that any student of lettering may apply to a fundamental style and such ideas are so numerous, that it will be impossible to call attention to more than one or two of these in conclusion.
129.
arising
62
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
The curved
stroke
is
letters
D, R, U, G, in
Fie;.
one such style, and is shown by the Another of these styles is pro90.
duced
block
TEL
Fig.
91.
l^y
letters, especially
9L
Note. The modifications considcnd in the foregoing pages of this Instruction Paper refer to fundamental sttjli^, iiKt n ij of which the student will not have occasion to refer to, or mahe comparisons with until well advanced in his course, we woidd advise, therefore, that a study of these variations be deferred until the plates mentioned in this connection hare been received, and the fundamental
styles
to the student.
mecha:nical lettering.
130.
mechanical
When
etc.
compasses,
are
lettering,
distinguished
from freehand
^^m;"l
lettering,
Fig. 92.
which
is
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
All the instruments
63
for this
:
131.
well-seasoned
need a board
all,
of
;
dimensions
thickness
length over
21 inches
-i
width, 16 inches
the
There should be two end-pieces If inches wide, as shown in Fig. 92, which are fastened to the board proper by means of nails or screws. One or both of these pieces should be perfectly straight.
be
inch.
may
made about
Fig. 93.
better board
the nails or
1
shown in Fig. 93 here the end-pieces are by a glued matched joint in addition to screws, and there are two cleats on the bottom
is
;
The
inch by ^ inch, extending the whole width of the board. cleats raise the board from the table and make it easier to
change in position.
piece
is
The board
is
shown
in Fig. 93.
132.
lines.
The T square is used for drawing horizontal straight The head A is placed against the left-hand edge of the
64
board, as
is
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
shown in Fig. 94. The upper edge G of the blade B brought very near to the point through which it is desired to pass the hne, so that the straight edge C of the blade may be
Fig. 94.
manner Avill be parallel. The triangles Vertical lines are drawn by means of triangles. most generally used are shown in Figs. 95 and 96. Each has Fig. 95 has two one right angle, marked 90 in the figures.
drawn
in this
Fiu. 95.
and one of 30. and 60 triangles, respectively. To draw a vertical line, place the T square in position to draw a horizontal line, and lay the triangle against it, so as to form a right angle.
They
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
65
Hold both T square and triangle lightly with the left hand, so as to keep them from slipping, and draw the line with the pen
or pencil held in the right hand,
triangle. &
of the
triangles
position.
It and T square
Fig. 97
shows the
IlltJilo
"'
ojll
''
vertical
simplest
and
is
best
way,
when
the
lines
are near
together,
to
place one
on the given line cd, and lay the other triangle, as B, it fast with the left hand then move the triangle A along the edge of B. The edge a b will and when the edge ab reaches the be parallel to the line cd point g, through which it is desired to draw the parallel line, hold both triangles stationary with the left hand, and draw the line cf by passing the pencil along the edge ab. Should
Fig. 98,
Fig.
98.
the triangle
after a
the
number of lines have been drawn, hold vl stationary with left hand and shift B along the edge of A with the right
66
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
134.
line
may
which
is
one of the shorter edges, as ab, of the triangle B so that it will coincide Avith the line cd; then, keeping the triangle in this
position, place the triangle
so that
its
with the
to
left
hand, slide
A securely in place B along the edge of A with the right m n, etc. may be drawn perpendicular
Now, holding
of the triangle B.
The dotted
lines
Fig.
99.
of the triangle
B when moved
along the
135.
method
of
The right-hand portion of Fig. 99 shows another accomplishing the same result, and illustrates how
be used for drawing a rectangular figure, make an angle with the T square such that the latter cannot be used.
the triangles
may
when
so that
its
SI
ELExMENTS OF LETTERING.
The
c
67
parallel lines ce
and
(If
may now
the triangle
and d by sliding on the triangle A, as described in connection Measure off the required width of the figure on
again to
its
original position,
B
cd.
upon
A A
passes
will
through
e.
Draw
and ef
be parallel to
practice with
his
The comijasses, next more than any other instrument. A pencil and a pen point are provided, as shown in Fig. 100, either of which may be
136.
to the
T square and
triangles,
arc
used
draw-
The other
leg
is
fitted
with a
drawn.
rate
In
all
a sepawire,
round
end
steel
held in place in
a socket proof
vided
at
the
the
leg.
which a
projects.
fine,
The
shown
circles
be drawn.
compasses should hold tlie legs same time should permit their being opened, or closed with one hand. The joint may be
joint at the top of the
The
68
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
is
be noticed in Fig. 100 that each leg of the compasses this is done so that the compass points may always be kept perpendicular to the paper when drawing circles, as in
It will
jointed
Fig. 102.
137.
The following
Any
draftsman or
handles
Fig. 101.
matter
This
how good
is to
workman he may
be.
The tendency
of all
beginners
is to be avoided. The student should learn at the start to open and close them with one hand, holding them as shown in Fig. 101, with the needle-point leg resting between the thumb and the fourth finger, and the other leg between the middle finger and the forefinger. When drawing circles, hold the compasses lightly at the top between the thumb and forefinger, or thumb, forefinger, and middle finger, as in Fig. 102. Another case where both hands should not be used is in locating the needle point at a point on the drawing about which the circle is to be drawn, unless the left hand is used merely to steady the Hold the compasses as shown in Fig. 101, and needle point.
1
incline
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
them
until the
G9
rests
under side
of the
hand
upon the
This will steady the hand so that the needle point can be brought to exactly the right place on the drawing. Having jilaced the needle at the desired point, and with it still resting
paper.
may
be
any desired
radius,
is
as indicated in Fig.
lengthening bar
used, both
138.
that the needle point will not dig large holes in the paper.
Fig". 102.
Keep the needle point adjusted so that it will be perpendicular A to the paper, when drawing circles, and do not bear upon it.
slight pressure will be necessary
point, hut
The dividers, shown in Fig. 103, are used for laying distances upon a drawing, or for dividing straight lines or circles into parts. The points of the dividers should be very sharp, so that they will not punch holes in the paper larger
off
139.
70
ELExMENTS OF LETTERING.
than
Compasses are someis absolutely necessary to be seen. times furnished with two steel divider points, besides the pen and pencil points, so that the instrument may be used either as
This is the kind illustrated in Fig. 103. using the dividers to space a line or circle into a number of equal parts, hold them at the top between the thumb and the forefinger, as when using the compasses, and step off the spaces,
compasses or dividers.
When
If the turning the instrument alternately to the right and left. line or circle does not space exactly, vary the distance between
so continue until
it is
spaced
When
exercii-ed not to
manner, great care must be press the divider points into the paper for, if
spacing in
;
Fk.. 103.
the points enter the paper, the spacing can never be accurately
140.
Pencils.
is
pressed ^ Royal, the size of which is 12 in. X 19 well, and withstands considerable erasing.
It takes
ink
one
and press a thumbtack through one of the corners about ^ or f of an inch from each Place the T square in position for drawing a horizontal edge. line, as before explained, and straighten the paper so that its
upper edge
wall be parallel to the edge of the T-square blade.
thumb-
another thumbtack.
corners.
Do
For drawing in
Dixon's
Artists'
pencil,
may
hv.
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
71
The pencil should be sharpened to a medium point. Cut the wood away so as to leave about J or f of an inch of the lead projecting then finish the point by rubbing it against a fine file or a piece of fine emery cloth or sandpaper that has been fastened to a flat stick. The lead for the compasses should Be sure that the be sharpened to a flat or chisel-shaped point.
used.
;
compass lead
is
so
center.
141.
circles,
Inking-.
lines other
the x-nlingIt
it is
called) is used.
the board as possible, Avith the hand in the position shown in Figs. 104 and 105, bearing lightly on the T square or triangle, After a little against the edge of which the line is drawn.
practice, this position will
will
become
natural,
and no
difficulty
be experienced.
142. The beginner will find that it is not always easy to make smooth lines. If the pen is held so that only one blade bears on the paper when drawing, the line will almost invariably
72
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
When be ragged on the edge where the blade does not bear. held at right angles to the paper, as in Fig. 105, however, both blades will rest on the paper, and if the pen is in good conThe pen must not be pressed dition, smooth lines will result.
against the edge of the
T square
In drawing circles with the compass pen, the same care should be taken to keep the blades perpendicular to the paper
Fig. 105.
by means of the adjustment at the joint. In botli the ruling pen and tlie compass pen, the width of tlie lines can be altered by means of the screw which holds the blades together.
143.
Drawing- Ink.
The ink
A
every bottle of this ink, by means of Avhich the pen may be Dip the quill into the ink, and then pass the end of it filled.
between the blades of the drawing pen. Do not put too much ink in the pen, not more than enough to fill it for a quarter of an inch along the blades, otherwise the ink is lia1)le to drop. Many draftsmen prefer to use stick India ink and, for lettering
;
1
purposes, this
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
is
73
liquid ink
In case the stick ink is bought, put recommended above. enough water in a shallow dish (a common individual butter then place plate will do) to make enough ink for the drawing
;
one end of the stick in the water, and grind by giving the stick Do not bear hard upon the stick. Test the a circular motion. Draw a fine line with the ink occasionally to see if it is black.
pen,
If it shows brown and test again. Keep grinding until a fine line shows hiaclx., which will usually take from fifteen minutes to half an hour, depending on the quantity of water used. The ink should always be kept well covered with a flat plate of some kind, to keep out the dust and prevent evapoThe drawing pen may be filled by dipping an ordinary ration. writing pen into the ink and drawing it through the blades, as
in a strong light.
previously described
used, all the lines
quill.
If
Higgins' ink
is
on
and no time will be lost in grinding. poor economy to buy a cheap stick.
dollars'
ink
is
used,
it is
worth
of liquid ink.
ink
is
and
time
saved in grinding. Trouble will probably be caused by the ink drying between
is
when drawing fine wipe out the pen frequently with Do not lay the pen down for any great length of a wet cloth. wipe it out first. The ink may time, when it contains ink sometimes be started by moistening the end of the finger and touching it to the point, or by drawing a slip of paper between Always keep the bottle corked. the ends of the blade.
the blades and refusing to flow, especially
lines.
is
to
144.
ened.
When
If
the
ruling, or compass,
must be sharpan
For
this
be purchased, a small, flat, close-grained stone should be obtained, those having a triangular section being preferable, as the narrow edge can be used on the inside of the
oilstone is to
74
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
made
is
to
swing apart so as to
The
first
step in sharpening
back and forth over the stone, changing the slope of the pen from downward and to the right to downward and to the left The object for each movement of the pen to the right and left. of this is to bring the blades to exactly the same length and shape, and to round them nicely at the point.
This process, of course, makes the edges even duller than
To sharpen, separate the points by means of the screw, and rub one of the blades to and from the operator in a straight line, giving the pen a slight twisting motion at the same time, and holding it at an angle of about 15 with the face of the Repeat the process for the other blade. To be in good stone. condition the edges should be fairly sharp and smooth, but not sharp enough to cut the paper. All the sharpening must be done The inside of the blades should be on the outside of the blades. the stone only enough to remove any burr that may rubbed on have been formed. Anything more than this will be likely to The whole operation must be done very injure the pen. carefully, bearing on lightly, as it is easy to spoil a pen in the Examine the points frequently, and keep at work process. until the pen Avill draw both fine lines and smooth heavy lines.
before.
SENT.
The tube we send Paper should be used by you for sending us your drawing of Plate I upon finishing it. Send one plate to us at Thus, after you finish the first plate, send it to us, and a time. In the meantime Ave will then start on the second plate. On your receiving back the first return the first plate to you. plate from us, you should carefully note all corrections and
plates will be sent
you
suggestions that
may
he sent with
it,
drawing the succeeding plates. On no account send us the L^pon second plate until you have received the first one back.
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
lis
and
start
on the third
and
in the
meantime we
you.
It is
Do
;
very essential that you strictly comply with these direcsince, otherwise,
to j^ou.
it
tions
your mistakes
to
adhered
it
will
if
;
enable you to
there are a
on your early plates we are merely pointing out ways in which the drawing or letterof corrections
progress.
Do
not be discouraged
may
be as nearly
best to help
if
made.
No one
unless the
work
is criticized,
you
to succeed.
We
we did
is
The number
to
us,
of
corrections
no
On
all
plates that
you send
write your
name and
This
should in
no case be omitted,
your
work
PLATES.
146.
over
Preliminary Directions.
The
size of
each plate
be 1\\ in. X 18;^ in. Whenever any dimensions are All specified, they should be laid off as accurately as possible.
all will
drawings should be made as neat as possible, and the penciling The hands entirely finished l)efore inking in any part of it. should be perfectly clean, and should not touch the paper
except
when
necessary.
;
No
for,
lines
when
whenever a line has once been erased, the dirt flying around in the air and constantly falling on the drawing will stick to any spot where an erasure has been made, and render it very difficult, if not impossible, to For this reason, all construction lines that entirely remove it.
absolutely necessary
drawn
paper
may
not be destroyed
when
erasing them,
Lettering
-AND-
Sign Painting.
consist
merely of painting
on sign boards or windows, but includes all classes of work, from the plain black lettering on the glass of an office door to the most artistic pictorial designs used on banners and other elaborate gold and silver signs.
The
sign painter
must
manner
and stone
society banners.
2.
stated,
Qualiflcatious Necessary.
under
this
The
head
is
is considered artistic. He should be thoroughly familiar with the use of colors, having due regard for their harmony and
that
can be produced by he should also be familiar with the result of applying one color over another, when one has been prepared so as to dry slowly, and the other prepared to dry quickly and with the results produced by the varied
contrast,
and
also the
many
effects that
on which he
is
to letter.
many
painter.
While theoretical
knowl-
the basis of
all
much remains
to be learned from experience. The physician is graduated from his college with a full knowledge of his profession, but his
2
incumbent on him before he We have is fully therefore given in the Elements of Lettering the knowledge necessary to qualify the student that desires to become a practical letterer. But the instruction contained in the following pages is of such a practical nature as to advance him in lettering so that he may enter the sign shop beyond the year or two of servitude required, and, by a complete knowledge of the methods and formulas employed, be fitted to become at
year or two of hospital service
qualified
to engage in private practice.
;
Brush AVork. It
is
necessary
that
the
student
and
as
paint,
by confining
It
is
much
possible.
becomes skilled in the use of the brush in forming straight lines and curves with accuracy, in order to give to each letter its proportionate Avidth and uniform stroke.
5. Brushes Required. The brushes for practice work should be as follows the small brush, capable of making a
:
letter
from 3
to 6 inches in height,
;
having a quill
y^^-
inch in
diameter, and hair f inch long and the large brush, with a Cut off ^ quill I" inch in diameter, and hair ^ inch long.
warm
water to prevent
it
from
fitted in quill)
without touching
the quill with the ends of the fingers, which Avould, on account
of the imperfect quill, roll
and, to prevent
it
from drying or hardening when not in dipped in kerosene oil after cleaning.
it
use,
should be
6.
Card Black.
-The
color
known among
good preparation
letterers
as
to be a
for practice
is
an intense
after
:
and
moments
the application.
may
Use a vessel that will hold at least ^ pint in this put coach black (ground in japan), in bulk, equal to a large English walnut add three times this quantity of best asphaltum,
;
of
best
coach japan.
Stir
until
thoroughly mixed, and thin this with a small quantity of turj^entine until it becomes equal to the consistency of cream,
or so that
it
Put
this
mixture
This should
known
7.
always be well shaken before it is used. Another preparation as " Letterine" is also an excellent mixture.
Manila paper, white cardboard, or will serve the purpose for With the exception of cardboard, these should practice work. be securely fastened to the drafting table before beginning
Papei*.
light
The
flat
papers
to
practice.
PAi:N^TrNG.
TOOLS :n"ecessary.
GEKERAL, TOOLS
8.
AND APPLIANCES.
Principal
Tools ISfecessary.
The
principal
tools
boxwood
edge, yardstick, 30
and 45
is
triangles, easel,
and drafting
all
table.
With
that
prepared to letter
;
ordinary signs
may
sides of
and and plank are also used for work above The T square with swivel top and the reach of the step-ladder. thumbscrew can be adjusted to any angle, and will be found a Three compasses, at least, should be used very useful tool.
Trestle horses
;
wood compass) should be capable of an expanThe sign easel should be made of extra-heavy the weight put Upon it is sometimes very heavy.
The
when working.
in front,
feet 2 inches
high
up
adjusted accordingly
in
either
9.
Improvised Appliances.
There
are
many
tools
and
always improvise, such as the arm rest, which is a strip about 3 inches wide by 1 inch thick, with blocks underneath each end, thick enough to raise this rest above the sign on which the the adjustable frame, on which cloth signs letterer is working
;
which
;
is
a frame usually
hold glass signs and insure their safety during the process or the adjustable frame used to hold finished lettering The ordinary tools necessary in a sign shop, such work, etc.
of
;
any
18
description.
solid
table,
in.
24
in.,
covered with
;
if
made
it
and
beside the
work on which
BRUSHES.
10. Caniel's-Haii* Bi'uslies. We will first consider the Of those used exclusively for brushes to be used for lettering. purpose, the most connnon variety is the ordinary camel' sthis
These are the least expensive, and range in size from the 5-inch, known as No. 7, to the "swan quill," which is The "goose the most stocky quill brush in use for lettering.
hair brush.
2
qnills" are
(|uill v.'ith
5
a l-inch
No.
1 is
"ox-hair writers" are and numbers, but are harder to "breik in," or bring into perfect working order, and are used to best advantage in heavy color, such as white lead.
"Writers.
similar to the camel's hair in size
11.
Ox-Hair
The
12. Superfine Bro'wn-Sable Writers. The "superfine brown sable writers are also of four sizes. Their numbers are 1, 4, 6, 8, and their lengths correspond with the camel' s-hair brushes. These will be found excellent brushes, and when thoroughly broken in will give good service while the camel's
' '
lasting equality,
of
when used
smooth
for
lettering
surfaces.
13.
Retl-Sable Bruslies.
oil,
For
as well as
These range in sizes numbered from 1 to 12, successively. The hair of No. 1 is ^ inch long, while that of No. 12 is -fg- inch long. These brushes are well made, and generally give satisfaction. The flat red-sable brushes are chisel-shaped, and for use in making a letter, such as the Old English, will be found
of great advantage.
14.
to,
Swan
Quill.
The swan
be found invaluable, both in lettering and striping, on account of the great amount of color it can be made to retain.
will
These brushes are used with light flowing color only, and to use in any color made with white lead would ruin them at They are made especially for sign painters, in two sizes, once. inch and 1 inch long, and one size made for carriage stripers f
them
is
2 inches long.
15.
letters
;
Other Bruslies.
The
fitch
and
bristle
varnish
brushes are used for lettering on cloth signs, and other large
and, on account of their size and chisel shape, can be
used with great rapidity, and will give the work an appearance The only other brushes used by of neatness and cleanliness.
the
fitch,
or fiat
brush
ing,
(made exclusively
for
varnishing
purposes).
These
letter-
and
duster,
etc.
THE
16.
SQUARE.
having either a square top or bottom, the T square can be used, not only for marking out the letters, but also for guiding the hand in using the brush, though to accomIt will be advisable, plish this perfectly requires much practice. therefore, that the student take pains to acquire this method, and become accustomed to the position of the hand, and the manner in which the brush should be held. Fig. 1 shows this
all signs
is held between the thumb and the first handle pointing towards the letterer, allowing the three fingers to guide the hand along the edge of the T-square The left hand is used to secure the square in position, blade. either by holding it firmly at the head when working on a narrow sign, or at the end of the blade when working on a wide sign, which will prevent the square from slipping if the forefinger is rested against the bottom of the sign board as
On
position.
The brush
finger, the
shown.
By the use
of the
T square and
all
this
method
of striping,
first,
the letterer can draw all vertical and angle lines, having
horizontal lines,
using a
same position of the hand and brush. The block, and all straight-line letters of any style can be made
POSITIO^V^
OF
IIAIS^DS.
17.
ing the
in
The
left
hand should
steady
rest in
it
;
little finger, to
making a
stroke.
The
right
hand should
comfortably
of
Although this may seem somewhat awkward at first, it on practicing- a little, that it is the most natural and comfortable position, as well as the one by which the best Avork can be accomplished. It allows perfect freedom of the hand in making all strokes of the letter, giving a greater scope in making large letters than any other position or method it
18.
will be found,
Fig.
2.
entire
control
over his
brush.
By
may
be
drawn with the brush, either vertically or horizontally. When making letters under 1 inch in height, it is best to use but one hand in the position used while writing and a red-sable brush,
;
from No.
fill
1 to 5,
letter, will
be found to
19. There are but two methods of striping with a brush, both of which are employed by the sign painter. The first of
and the one most generally used, is shown in Fig. 1. By method, the brush is drawn over the surface, spreading its hairs somewhat, and touching with almost the entire brush length, the letterer at the same time being careful to keep the width uniform. In some cases, when striping by this method,
these,
this
Fig.
it is
3.
necessary only to observe the line made by the ))rush on one side, as in lettering or striping to the edge of the letter. This system the carriage painter uses exclusively, and for a brush he uses the one known as the swoi-d pencil, a long flat brush with which he can make the stripe called the fine line, which is almost a hair line.
20. To accomplish the same results, the sign painter employs an entirely different method, producing equally as fine and perfect a stripe, but using the point of the lettering
brush, or pencil, called also the writer,
at
10
working, and
line possible, or
to produce the finest one that possesses a good point, which will not allow any of the hairs to spread while using.
chisel-shaped end,
21.
for
any
Fig. 3
the other
method
of
striping referred
to.
It will
shows be good
of
on a sheet
line,
shown
in Fig.
mastered.
3, until the perfectly straight hair line has been This will require considerable practice. Use the
same brush, well filled with water or broad stripe by the method shown
this
oil color,
and
practice the
for
in Fig.
1.
The brush
purpose should be rather large, as a small one will not The spread the color to the full width of the stripe desired. effort to accomplish this by means of a brush that is too small while the large will cause an irregular or wavy stripe brush will make the broad stripe with the hair in its normal
;
position,
and no
is
required.
COLORS.
CLASSIFICATION OF COLORS.
22.
and Neutral
namely
:
Colors.
primary, sec-
The
The primary
of
and
blue.
By
a mixture
;
produced and, by the addition of white and black in combination with the primary or secondary colors, all neutral colors, shades, and
any two
tints are
produced.
A combination of yellow and duces the secondary orange. A combination of red and blue produces blue produces green.
purple.
The union
of black
color.
11
combination of the three primary colors produces a neiUral by using a proper quantity of each in proportion to its strength. A combination of the three primary in unequal proj)ortions produces colors known as tertiary colors.
color,
23. Color. The trade term color always refers to any mixture that will produce each separate hue by compounding the primary and secondary colors while the spectrum shades of the colors always refer to the blending of the primary and secondary colors, in the following order red, orange, yellow,
;
:
and
violet.
24.
Producing
are formed
shade of each
is
produced.
25.
Semlneutral Colors.
Brown, gray, and maroon, produced by mixing blue and green neutrally,
From
into
come the
is
subdivided.
26.
Warm
and Cold
Colors.
Colors
are in
harmony
effect,
such as the chrome yellow and sienna, chrome yellow and umber, or such colors or tints partaking of the red or yellow,
called
warm
colors, or
producing colors or
27.
all
Contrast.
Colors
are in contrast
such colors
may
geneous
effect, as
12
are
most discordant
is
to the eye
when placed
Just as the
Coloring, therefore,
close observation
plished only
professional
by
and experiment.
musician produces some combined sounds that thrill us, so the professional colorist produces effects that are beyond the comprehension of the unskilled. More particularly
is
by the
nature.
He may, by
HANDLIlSrG OF COI.ORS.
ITARMO> Y AXD CONTRAST.
28.
the
Scope of Subject.
The
handling of
colors, in the
mean simply
the knowledge of
many ways
This relation in colors classifies them as either harmonizing or contrasting with one another. A colorist should understand the result and drying effects of placing one mixture on another, each having as a base an entirely different medium
another.
All of these details must be considered by the and many annoyances and serious complications can be avoided by bearing in mind the following important instructions.
or liquid.
painter,
29.
Colors.
Colors
the
mixed
be
dry,
oils
or varnishes, can
when
first is
even though quite tacky. But to cover this surface, if not perfectly dry, with a color mixed with some quick-drying japan
or varnish, will produce a crackled, pebbled, or uneven surface
when
it
does chy.
is
One
before another
applied.
The same
result will be
produced
should a slow-drying color be placed over a quick, if the first This coat is not perfectly dry before the second is applied.
can easily be understood, as
the
quick
color
possesses
13
nature.
mixed with oil or varnish, is of a flowing or expanding As the under color continues to dry out after being
its
covered over,
30.
Durability.
when exposed
stands
next in value for the same purpose but japan or turpentine as a mixture will produce colors with little durability. English
vermilion is a color that cannot be used for outside purposes with any assurance of its remaining long or holding its original brilliancy. This color is a pigment of mercury and sulphur,
to the elements bleaches out to a dull pink, about the strength of flesh color. The American, or aniline,
is
one of the
many
products of coal
tar,
and
its effect
may
them
neutral, but at
best the color is not one to be used freely for outside work.
will outwear all colors. It is often seen on have stood many years of exposure, where the black has remained with a good surface, while the three or four coats of ground color have entirely disappeared, together with portions of the weather-beaten wood, giving the sign an embossed appearance. Blues as a rule are not lasting, while all other colors may be considered of about equal durability.
31.
Lampblack
signs that
GROUND
32.
Preparation.
FIJ^ISHES.
SMAIiTIXG.
Smalting
a.
dyed a
This process, though simple, is of the greatest importance to the sign painter, as he can thereby produce a ground that gives a most finished appearance to his work,
suitable color.
14
causing rough or uneven sign boards to present a smooth surface. The success of snmlting depends largely on the color upon which the smalt is to be placed. This color is called the "cutting-in color," and should always be mixed fresh and prepared as follows The best refined lampblack is mixed with boiled linseed oil, and ground on a marble or plate-glass table, with a palette knife, until all lumps and specks have disappeared. The mixture should be thick enough to grind easily, and not flow or spread out on the table surface. To each half cup of color, add a lump of white lead equal in size to an English walnut, and add to this equal parts of boiled oil and coach
:
ja2:)an,
mixture a consistency that will allow it from the brush, but still retain a good body. This mixture can be used for black, blue, or dark-green smalt without changing. For brown smalt, twice the quantity of white lead should be added, colored strongly with Indian red. For light-green smalt, green or yellow should be used in place
so as to give the
to flow freely
of
Indian
red.
33.
in
Metliocl of Application.
sign, this color is
After
on the
any ridges
of color to
form
may
be,
and
flat soft
brush
is
Manila paper or enamel cloth are spread on the table or floor, and the sign is so laid over them that one edge is on the paper ^or cloth. The smalt is then sifted on evenly over the entire surface through a smallmesh wire sieve. After remaining a few moments, all the surplus smalt is removed by tipping the sign edgewise and shaking the smalt on the paper. Black smalt is used more than any other color, but is more The use of smalt that has been kept in likely to show defects. a damp place for some time without first drying thoroughly, will cause streaks of gray to appear in the finished sign, for which there is no remedy. In smalting, care should always be
filled in, strips
15
edge of the
or
letter
its
when
the surplus
is
tipped
thrown
off.
The edge or band of a smalted sign should invariably be painted with colors mixed with varnish, giving a glossy finish
to
it.
Black
is
34.
Flock.
On signs exposed
to the weather,
smalt
is
the
For inside signs, however, a material known as "flock" is used; this is a ground cloth that can be obtained in several colors, although the maroon and black are most commonly used. Flock is applied to signs in the same manner as smalt, but the cutting- in color on which the maroon is placed must be made to match
the color of the flock as nearly as possible.
VARIEGATED GROUXDS.
35.
Variegated grounds are often used on large advertising
signs, as well as
on many kinds
of stenciled signs.
is
the background
when
the sign
finished
If
to
tints,
sienna or orange,
ground is to be black, any color can be maroon ground, with a variegated blue letter, makes a
be used.
If the
may
36.
are laid
Two
colors
on lengthwise
to
of the line to
be
surface
each color.
The top
is
white, the
medium shade
shade
colors
is
come
is
it
When
the sign
though
letter will
appear as
]6
37.
kinds of sur-
may
be called
upon any
solid
material known.
sign
may
which
will
penetrating quality
When
l^aint,
This is done with orange board has been thoroughly dusted off. the shellac is dry, the sign is ready for the first coat of called the priming coat. This must invariably be white
destroyed.
lead
mixed with
When
this
has been
dried and the board has been run over lightly Avith sandpaper
and dusted, all nail holes or other defects are filled with putty, after which the second coat is applied, and should be mixed
with one-fourth turpentine to three-fourths boiled
coat
is
oil. This sandpapered also, and the third, or finishing, coat is then applied, which is a mixture quite reversed from that used The third coat should consist of about for the second coat. two-thirds turpentine to one- third boiled oil, and will insure a
flat-
or dull-finished surface to
work
on.
if
38.
of
Defects. A
oil color
one
upon another
to leave the
is liable to
to creep, that
is,
ground
This may be avoided by pitted spots to appear. rubbing the surface with curled hair, or with pumice stone and water, or by dusting a small quantity of whiting over it. White enameled oilcloth is used extensively for lettering pursmall
poses
;
to
insure against
the
above
difficulty,
benzine
or
WMte Finisli. If a French enamel white finish is desired, the sign should be painted evenly with two coats as above, but the third coat should be of This should be rubbed white "rough stuff," applied as paint. down to a smooth surface with white i)umice stone and water
39.
French Enamel
17
stuff
application.
are necessary, one each day, repeating the rubbing process after
For finishing
and
mixed
is
One
is
applied,
and
If
not evenly covered, a second coat of the zinc and Florence white is necessary and also another rubbing, after which one coat of
light English finishing varnish, colored well with the zinc
and
Florence white,
is
it
used to change the color of the varnish, but not enough to a solid color.
make
40.
Carriag-e-
or Piano-Body Finish.
To
make
two coats of lead, as previously directed, adding black enough to produce a lead color, after which the surface is given a coat of
ordinary
^^
rough
stuff
^^
After
this
has
remained twenty-four hours it is rubbed with lump pumice and water. To insure a j)erfect surface, at least four coats of rough stuff should be applied (one each day), after which the sign is
ready for the finishing coats.
If
a black finish
is
desired, the
This
One
coat of best
is
When
the sign
if
is
the
may
black on the
first
may
be
overcome by
made
of white lead
and
41.
lettering is
Frosting on Glass. This is a process by which made to show in a conspicuous manner, and also
18
often placed
on windows opening into a hall or area. By the nse of sour beer and Epsom salt, a frosting may be produced that closely resembles the fantastic marking of the natural frost on the window pane but the frosting usually applied by the sign painter is produced by the use of sugar of lead (in tube) or white lead. The former, having less body (or substance), is made to imitate more closely the frosting produced by the sand-blast pr-ocess, and is applied with a brush as thin and
;
made
especially
filled
to
way
as sugar of lead.
When
it is
desired
most prominently, the white lead is used, it being when applied opaque, and much whiter than sugar of lead.
lettering
show the
SIZES
FOR GILDING.
water.
size for gilding
gil,lh:n^g
42.
In the preparation of
on
glass,
the
greatest care
must be observed
made.
In
is
necessary throughout
any foreign
pure water, a piece of Russian isinglass about the size of a silver dime. The vessel containing the water is then placed
over a gas stove, coal
fire,
it
fire,
and allowed
to cool
it
should then
size
which
must be
after
distilled,
is
practically
useless
made with
being preferred.
19
on wood or metal are of two kinds, The former is used when the sign or surface to be gilded is large, and will require considerable time to complete the gilding while the latter is used on small zinc or japanned iron signs, where the letters are small and the entire gilding can be completed in from one to five hours.
43. known
as slow size
and
oil.
is
in a
linseed
it is of
about the consistency of molasses, and is then called fat oil. Equal quantities of fresh boiled oil and coachmakers' japan are mixed together this mixture and the fat oil are then united
;
in
chrome yellow
the surface to
together, will
be form a
gilded.
These,
when thoroughly
stirred
four hours.
The drying
in
by the temperature
which
Size.
allowed to stand.
using this slow
size, it
45.
Use of Slow
In
must
brushed out evenly to cover the entire surface, to which it is If one part is more thickly coated than another, it will not dry to the surface of the sign, and will afterward break through the gilding when the surplus gold leaf This size will is being removed, or when the gold is burnished. keep ready for use for a long period if placed in a corked bottle
applied to an even depth.
or tightly capped
jar.
46.
of course
Quick
Size.
Quick
size
is
made
it
in several ways,
This is to dry. governed largely by the amount of work ahead of the About 30 drops of boiled oil added to letterer to be gilded. ^ ounce of Hedden & Wheeler's japan gold size will prepare a This can be made size that will dry in about two hours. But to add (juicker drying by reducing the quantity of oil.
oil in
20
necessary for
little
slower
surface
size.
orange or
The above size should be colored with a lemon chrome yellowy well mixed together on a
of a palette knife.
glass
by the use
47.
A Medium-Slow
Size.
Another
stand
longer than the above is prepared by ^ ounce of drops of coachmakers' japan. coach finishing varnish, about 30 In all work of importance This will stand four or five hours.
stirring, in
it is
upon a
will stand
may
be
accurately known.
Some work
hours or sooner.
be
The reason
should be ready to gild in three for this is that slow size cannot
produce an even or sharp edge on smooth surfaces. be preserved in a tight jar in the same manner as the one previously described, though it has a much stronger Better work can be produced tendency to become thickened. with quick size, freshly prepared, as it not only flows from the
to
made
This
size
may
brush more
a
little
of the foregoing
but is also more reliable in drying. Either quick sizes may be thinned, if necessary, with turpentine, but too much turpentine will destroy the
freely,
48.
b}'
Proper Materials
]S"ecessary.
It will
be observed,
one familiar with the action of the elements on certain colors, that size used for signs on the exterior of buildings will show the effect of the elements very soon after its exposure to A common the weather, if it has been improperly prepared.
mistake
is
aluminum
leaf or bronze,
which
for
is
likely to
Size
2 ounces of
of pure white
japan gold
surface,
size
of turpentine.
The
leaf
and is just dry enough so that bronze will not show an uneven surface when applied. The bronze must always be put
21
on the surface in large quantities, with a chamois-skin pad filled with cotton. If used too sparingly, the surface will present a clouded appearance, which cannot be overcome or remedied.
49.
The
size for
leaf,
gold bronze should be the same as that but colored with lemon chrome yellow.
For copper bronze, use orange chrome, darkened with a little Indian red, which produces a color resembling somewhat the copper bronze.
GILDING.
GILDIXG OX GLASS.
50. Gold Leaf. The gold leaf used for this purpose should be of the best quality. The gold beater usually prepares two grades of leaf
that used for this purpose is not beaten as thin as the ordinary leaf used on wood. The thin
;
leaf will
only
causing
break easily in the process of laying on glass, not considerable annoyance, but also involving
It is therefore desirable
extra expense.
made
the manufacturer.
51.
To lay gold
the
tip,
leaf
is
first^
which
a
;
which is a soft camel' s-hair brush, and third, a handful of soft well-carded
Tlie tip will not pick
first
up
is
to
do
so.
This
same time pressing the hair of the tip so as to allow some of the natural oil of the human hair to adhere to it. Gold leaf being extremely sensitive to the touch, the most trifling amount of
tip across the head, at the
adhesive
is all
that
is
necessary, as too
much
serious trouble
persistently,
of the glass,
by causing the leaf to adhere to the tip too or by the oil coming in contact with the surface and destroying the luster of the gold, or even by
22
preventing
ver}^
frail
2
leaf is
is
from adhering
its
to the glass at
all.
Gold
necessary in
52.
to
))e
Method of Procedure.
is
The
design or inscription
gilded
through which whiting is pounced, thus showing the outline of the letters or parts to be gilded or the
of a perforated pattern,
;
design
may
readily leave a
mark on a glass surface. The surface on which the gilding is to be done must be perfectly cleaned by removing all possibility of oil or even finger marks. The book of gold leaf is laid on a flat surface, with the opening toward the right. One leaf of the
book
is
the
is
left
hand, thus
The
then accomplished
the right hand, by running the on the gold, using the folded book leaf for a guide. The piece of gold so cut is picked up with the tip (which is held in the hand during the cutting process) and laid on the glass lightly, after having first covered the part to receive the gold with a copious coat of the size, the preparation of which Gilding Water. is treated under heading The brush used
with the
little-finger nail of
nail along
'
'
'
'
All letters
should be covered with a liberal supply of gold leaf, allowing When the size under the gold is it to overlap the marking. perfectly dry, the surface should be well rubbed with cotton
batting,
which
will
remove all scrap leaf that has not adhered and will expose to view any spaces or
have not been properly covered. The size is then over the work (beginning at the bottom), and gold is laid on all spaces that have not been previously covered. When this is dry, a second rubbing with the cotton will remove A third or fourth washing of size does no harm the surplus. to the gold, and when diluted with warm water, produces a
parts that
flowed
all
brilliant
burnished
effect.
53.
Sheet-Glass Signs.
if gilding
must
23
leaf, which by the letters. To prepare a paint to letter over gold leaf on a window that is exposed to frost (the great enemy of window gilding), a slowdrying varnish, colored well with lemon or orange chrome yellow, should be used, and when dry the gold leaf extending beyond the letters can be cleaned off easily with water, a little whiting, and cotton batting. For a backing or lettering color
again be pounced
for
framed glass
signs, a
As these
is
color
is
and that will not be seen sign is finished, should any small cracks or spots have been left in the gilding that would
leaf,
however, that
GILDING OX
WOOD OR METAL.
54.
Metliod. of Procedure.
of the tip
and handling
its
we
will
now
consider
application to a
wood
or metal surface.
laid
differs.
The manner in which the gold is The slow^ size will allow us
leaf,
to cover the
with gold
and,
if
before rubbing
down
to a burnished surface
the letters are large enough to take the whole leaf with-
out
much
book face
book Avithout by turning the leaf back and placing the downwards on the size, rolling the leaf on gradually,
tip,
it.
so as not to Ijreak
bear's-hair brush
is
gilded surface
scrap, carrying
is
it
When the. sign is entirely covered, a 2-inch used to remove the surplus, and the whole well rubbed. This will take the superfluous
letters, filling in all
if
along the
cracks or small
spots that
large, will
may have
not show when the gold is burnished. After rubbing with the brush, a handful of cotton batting should be used, and the gold rubbed with this until no laps or spots are seen.
55.
the
first
To gild on quick size, gild rubbing down the first letter only
j
24
proceed immediately to gild the third, afterwards rubbing down the second, and so on until the sign is gilded. The reason for
doing this
is that, if
on quick
size
before burnishing,
is
prevented
which
leaf,
Outside Gilding. For outside gilding, or gilding where the wind is strong enough to prevent both the use of the tip and the process of gilding from the book, another method is followed. This is accomplished by cutting wax
56.
in places
paper in sheets large enough to leave a margin of ^ inch beyond leaf, which is applied to the wax paper by
wax paper on it and pressing it evenly. The waxed gold leaf is then placed in an empty book and is The size being more tacky than the wax surface ready for use. of the paper, the leaf of gold will leave the paper and adhere to the size by pressing the waxed leaf with the hand. After the letters have been entirely covered, they should be rubbed down as described, using the bear's-hair rubbing brush and cotton
batting, as in other gilding.
PEARL
57.
riT.LIXCi
AXD
ETRUSC-^VX GILDIXG.
pearl filling often seen in the
is not in such general use has been supplanted somewhat
Pcai'l Filling-.
The
it
lettering
by the Etruscan
filling
gilding,
which
The material used for must be the best quality mother of pearl in perfectly flat and thin pieces, and applied after the letters are gilded, shaded, and otherwise finished. The open strokes of
within an outline of bright gold.
pearl
filling
of
japan gold
size
lapping the edge of the strokes, but without covering the shade.
2
especially
25
varnish
is
the shade is of semitransparent colors. The then allowed to stand a few moments until it will
The
covered,
is is
well-crumpled
tin-foil
back of the
glass.
letters,
and
not finish more than one or two letters at a time, unless, however, there is positive surety of the drying qualities
Do
of the varnish.
The
the appearance of a
58.
Etruscan Gilding.
effect,
a chased-gold or silver
foregoing.
The Etruscan gilding produces and is accomplished by a simpler There have been many kinds of
suggested for this purpose, but the one producing the best
may
be used.
The beer
size is applied
same manner
To cover
all places
that
may
have been left in the first gilding, the part already gilded is covered with a second application of the beer size after the former has thoroughly dried, and any open spaces are then When dry, this should be painted over with a gilded over. varnish color, somewhat of the same shade as the gold.
59.
protect
glass.
Finishing Coat.
it
All
lettering
on glass should be
from
frost
and from the wear caused by cleaning the on glass from even-
tually peeling
especially
when
but with extra caution, window-glass lettering may be made to A coat of best coach varnish, overlapping the stand for years.
edge of the letters about y^ of an inch on the clear glass, will prevent frost from penetrating underneath the edge of the letters, and thus hastening their tendency to peel.
26
Imijortance. This work requires a greater amount than any other branch of sign painting. Not onlyare the materials expensive and mistakes costly, but the chemicals with which the work is done are dangerous, and any improper use of them would be likely to impair the health or Embossing on brass even destroy the eyes of the operator.
60.
of caution
includes not only the preparation of the plate, but the etching
and
The
in most frequent use. must be well buffed before lettering. The design should be made on medium-thick Manila pattern paper, and transferred After to the brass plate by means of carbon transfer paper.
and gauge No. 16 is the thickness The plate This is y^ of an inch thick.
the design
is
it is
ready to cut
in,
61.
black
is
Asphaltum
used to protect the plate while in the acid bath, and must be applied with an even, solid surface, and not thinned more than is absolutely necessary. Use only the best quality of asphaltum, and thin with equal parts of coachmakers' japan
and coach
finishing varnish.
The
letters
The cut in with this color, leaving the letter and stripes clear. entire sign is then covered evenly to the edge, and allowed to
dry twenty-four
hours at
tracing should then be
cloth is then used to
The marks made by the least. removed with water. A new cotton rub the entire surface, which is done to
first coat,
second
be seen, after, which a second coat of the asphaltum is applied with care, to keep as close to the edge of the first one The second coat is allowed to stand forty-eight as possible. hours, after which the sign is ready for the etching bath. A coating of beeswax is also used as a resist, and is applied
to the brass, silver, or white-metal plate
may
when
hot.
it
When
this
material
is
is
traced through
on the surface
2
of the
27
The wax
is
used only
when a
adapted to
and is therefore more especially small work, on which the letters are of miniature size.
62.
off
Etching.
The etching
apart for this exclusive purpose, as the fumes and gases given
The sign to be very poisonous, and should never be inhaled. etched is laid on a table, the top of which has been rendered
perfectly level,
and over it is suspended a funnel-shaped hood, to collect the fumes and carry them off to the outside air or to This arrangement is shown in Fig. 4, where a chimney flue. At c is shown the h is the etching table under the hood a. off the obnoxious vapors. vent that carries
ing
63. Beeswax Dam. The sign is now prepared by bankup the edges with beeswax, all around the four sides, so as The beeswax is prepared to give it the form of a shallow tray. by melting together over a slow fire ^ pound of beeswax and h pound of rosin, and adding about 3 fluid ounces of boiled oil.
thoroughly melted, this mixture is poured into a vessel and is then ready for use. Should the mixture become too hard, by standing, to work easily (it should be
of cold water,
When
it
may
be remelted and a
little
more
oil
added.
28
Use of
tlie
Acids.
of
1
is now poured to a depth of about J inch. immediately begin to effervesce, and strong pungent fumes of a yellowish color Avill rise from the surface. The hood should now be adjusted to receive and carry off these
parts water
will
The Uquid
an
The depth
of the letters
may be determined by feeling their edges with a pointed tool of any kind, tbough care must be exercised not to scratch the
asi)halt surface.
it
may
be hastened
b}-
on the surface of the plate, and stirring it around carefull^Mvith a whisk broom, or, if too strong, the acid may be diluted with Strong acid has a tendency to undercut the letters and water.
destroy the sharj^ness of their edges.
The
etching, therefore,
it
65.
the plate
Cleaning
is
tlie Plate.
is
complete,
off
poured
(by
wax dam
The bath
;
tray,
usually built of
it
should be
enough
and deep enough to The wax is then removed from future use, and the asphalt coating
wiped off after it has been thoroughly softened with turpentine. Should there be any slight imperfections in the surface of the plate, due to the action of the acid through an exposed place in the asphaltum, they can easily be removed (if they are not more than surface marks) on an ordinary buffing machine.
GG.
Filling.^The etched
is
letters
ance of a vitreous mixture. This, however, is a separate business, and outside the province of the letterer. The etched letters are
29
sometimes filled by the letterer with gutta percha or a black made with patent dryer, though the results are not as good as Gutta-percha filling is made and with the other material. Take equal parts gutta percha and applied as follows asphaltum, and melt together in an iron pot, with about onequarter their bulk of finely powdered gum shellac, and while Should a the mixture is still hot it is penciled in the letters. red or blue filling be required, the asphaltum can be replaced with vermilion or cobalt blue, according to the one required.
:
EMBOSSIXG ON GLASS.
67.
Bifluoric
Acid.
The
is
preliminary
details
and
an intensely corrosive compound it comes in contact It is usually put up in lead or rubber flasks, and can with. For use, the acid be purchased only in the original packages.
of the acid.
Bifluoric acid
is
though,
may
be increased.
of glass
the edges of
The
object
embossing in lettering is to show a richness in gilding by contrast. This is accomplished by gilding the etched letter and surrounding the edge so as to show an outline of bright gold. The gilding on the etched center of the letter is mottled, and shows the thickness of the etching, presenting a decidedly
rich effect, especially
when designs
letter.
68.
Testing
tlie
Acid.
The
may
must
effect
be tested, in order to
know when
edge of the
letter or surface of
30
edge of the
is
This acid letter and produce tlie mottled effect. removed in the same manner as the nitric acid, and the asphaltum dissolved with turpentine, after which the plate is well cleaned with whiting and water, and the embossed glass sign is ready for the finishing process, or the gilding and coloring.
It is
may
be obtained
The
acid
is
on various glass surfaces. Plate than sheet or crown glass. influenced, therefore, by the metallic oxide con-
IjEtter shading.
COLORS USED. 69.
letter
Combinations in Shading.
There
may
is
great
variety of
be added to a
forcibly
by the use of colors. A law exists in nature that is very shown in combining colors when shading, and this must be regarded, or the work will not produce satisfactory
results.
if
when mixing,
;
many
shades lighter
and the reverse is likewise true. If the same color be placed on a white ground, it appears many shades darker. Letter shading may consist of several shades of one color, or several
distinct colors
may be
by
outline.
70.
Transparent Shading-.
This
method
is
of service
factory results.
stirring a
both saves time and gives most satistransparent shading mixture is made by
few drops of well-ground black in a medium-drying varnish, adding also a few drops of turpentine. This mixture
forms a shade for all light colors and tints, and, if properly applied, produces what is known as the natural shade, or the same strength and shade as would be cast from a projected
object on the
same ground.
31
Transparent shade is used in the shade on such colors as vermilion, green, blue, yellow, etc. by adding a color corresponding with that with which it is combined. For example, the glaze shade applied on vermilion should l)e mixed with carmine (in tube). For green or blue,
form
of a glaze
Prussian
strong
or
some
is
other
blue
used,
etc.
sienna on yellow,
and The
glaze shade
placed
is
on
the
another
latter
is
always shade
thor-
when
as
.
shown
in Fig. 5 at c
and
Double
is
also illus-
trated in Fig. 5, in
which a
line used
Fig.
5.
to
some bright
c is
shows on
placed
etc., of
while / is the natural shade on the ground color, made with the same as e, but giving an entirely different
shade
shade.
S p e c t r 11 produced by blending shades together, and its use is confined almost Fl... 6. exclusively to the gilded and silvered letters on glass, although the same colors cannot be used on both. The natural color of the gold is warm, and while the silver therefore harmonizes with almost every color
73
Shade.
This
The
is
32
is
2
it
and suitable
colors to
combine with
( 1 )
must
therefore be selected.
when
;
vermilion
is
cream
(3) orange (4) vermilion (5) carmine. (2) lemon yellow In Fig. 6 In all other cases, four shades of one color are used.
;
is
It will
comes against
1 the lightest
and 3 are equally divided in strength between these extremes. The shades always occujiy the same relative position shown, except on letters having a horizontal stroke, in which case but two colors, 3 and ^, are used underneath these strokes.
THE PRKPARATIOX OF
COTjORS.
74.
Much rapidity
is
gained
in lettering
colors, that
material.
can be used to the best advantage on a particular Suppose, for example, we have an elaborate silk
;
banner on which a design is to be executed unless the proper mixture were used, the oil or other medium would be absorbed by the silk and so spread as to ruin the material at once. This
condition
to the
may arise in the use of colors and their application many materials, where a successful design will depend
of
on the kind
mixture used.
75. Lettering on Cotton Sheeting. Cotton sheeting must be wet before being lettered, and while quite damp the Color for this purpose can be mixed lettering may be applied. with equal parts of boiled oil and japan, and thinned with
turpentine.
1-inch
flat
and for small letters the Shading colors thinned well camel' s-hair swan with turpentine can, without danger of spreading, be applied
rapidity,
if
the letters
are
quill is used.
when
the cloth
is
almost dry.
33
76. Cardboard and Enamel Clotla. Cardboard must always be lettered with water color or card black. Enamel cloth will also take this latter color, and it will be found to be
the only color that can be used on this material with absolute
certainty that
it
77.
Silk.
On
silk, different
;
preparations
must be used
under different circumstances for instance, if the design is in the form of a large panel on which a picture is to be painted, An a paint must be used that will render the material pliable.
outline of hard-drying color ma)^ be used,
design
filled in
with any
oil color to
Ordimelted beeswax to the amount of one-fifth of the color. nary orange shellac is used for a lettering preparation, and will The shellec is used clear, but be found a very reliable one. not too thin, though when too thick to flow easily from the Letters on silk must brush it may be diluted with alcohol.
material, before
have two or three coats of this, according to the grain of the it is ready to size for gilding, otherwise the size Another will not bear out, and the gold will appear mottled. preparation for the same purpose is the clear asphaltum, which should be thinned out with gold-size, japan, and a few drops of turpentine this will be found much better to use on closeAll shading colors used on grained silk than the shellac. silk or satin should be mixed with naphtha to prevent them
;
from spreading.
78.
Black-Surface Cai-dboard.
On black-surface carddissolve
it,
board, the white used for lettering should be water color, which can be mixed by filling a tumbler two-thirds full of zinc
white,
to
and,
when
This should
to
Either
to stand a day or so before flowing consistency and kept in an Florentine white or Krenmitz white
be found to be an excellent color al^o, but these must be mixed with a little mucilage to keep the color
(unsized) will
34
2
is
For
glass,
black,
this
and
lettering.
To mix
use dry lampblack, best quality, grind thoroughly with a Thin with palette knife, and add only best coach varnish.
equal parts of coach varnish and turpentine. Dry colors mixed with water and glue are used for temporary lettering on window Many beautiful effects are produced by their use, as glass.
80.
boiled
For
lettering
on brick or
lampblack of an inferior grade, as it will answer for this purpose as well as the best quality. Mix the lampblack, boiled oil, and a cupful of japan to a
is
gallon of color.
81.
faces,
Plastered Surfaces.
For
lettering
on plastered
sur-
a light flowing color, such as the card black, will cover If colors are desired, the surface and will not spread or run. mix them thick with coach varnish, and thin freely with turpentine.
oil colors
These colors will dry flat (or without a gloss). If were used on this surface, the oil would flow from the color into the white plaster and show a yellow line surrounding the letter. The nature of the mediums, regarding their drying qualities and the application of colors, is therefore a constant study with the sign painter, and requires his
careful consideration.
REIilEF LETTERS.
TTOOD, METAL,
AXD
GLASS.
are
82.
Wooden
Letters.
Relief
made
of
wood,
letters
itself is of
metal, in
The manufacture
of
wooden
letters is
many
sign painters
letter
is is
The outline of the undertake the whole process. with coach black on thin Manila paper which drawn
glued
35
out,
the
and a rasp to round the letters, after which they should be finished by using very coarse sandpaper, and a smooth surface is then ji reduced with fine sandpaper.
83.
on the
Large wooden
letters
used
made and
from
much
feet,
These
letters,
height of 8 or 10
place.
although reaching in some cases a are simply constructed and easily put in
They
are usually
made
of 1^- or
l^inch
and each
give strength, as
on edge
Fig,
7.
letter in
least
At
irons
two
be
angle
should
Fig.
7.
from the roof, and two round braces behind latter would vary according to the size of the
rod,
letter.
^-inch
extending over
of staples, L, etc.
,
all
the
letters,
is
by means
as the
I, J,
and
stiffness to
and protects all single-stroke letters, such and gives the whole sign sufficient strength These letters, withstand a violent wind storm.
in order to
black,
show to the best advantage, should always be painted and the irons lead color.
84. Metal Letters. The metal letters, usually fastened on the brass or white-metal sign plates, are cast from wooden patterns, as before stated, and are afterwards filed, buffed, and plated with gold or nickel, to protect them from the weather.
36
They
drilled
on the plates with screws, holes for which are in the center of the letter and through the sign plate.
are carefully
desired,
To
and whiting
is
dusted around
letter.
Two
by the
which the
letters
letter
is
The
and screwed on
plate.
Compo signs, the letters of which are molded signs made by pressing a woodenpattern design into "compost," or composition, which maybe either the material used for stucco work (a sized plaster) or the compo used in the manufacture of picture-frame moldings.
85.
Signs.
also in relief, are
Compo
attractive, especially
signs may also be of an artistic which will depend entirely on the shape Ribbons and panels can be fastened back of the framework. to back on wirework, and such a sign will not catch the wind, and may be made to read from two opposite directions.
86.
Wire Signs.
Wire
87.
signs,
are valuable,
The
only by the amount of the roof surface to which the braces or The frame may be the extreme width of wire can be fastened. the building, as the wires or braces are fastened in two opposite
directions
only.
The
letters
wood, and are hung shown in Fig. 8. This width by 36 feet in height (the
are
of
average length of the gas pipe is 15 feet), made to read from one direction only. A wire brace extends from every intersection of gas pipe to a staple in the roof or wall.
37
times reach
the panel
Advertising Signs on Brick Walls. These someimmense proportions. It is not unusual to see the
design at any part
of
the
work, as
may
is
The work
scale,
which in
or
|-
and
Fig.
8.
and lined off on the sketch with red ink. Two or three plumb-lines dropped from the roof of the building from points 10 feet apart, with tapes tied around them at every 10 feet of their length, will locate each square on the building, and work can be carried out with as much certainty, at any part of the design, as though the whole sign were but 10 feet square.
square,
Electric lighting has done branch of sign painting, and signs that would otherwise be unseen after dark can be so arranged as to serve the twofold purpose of advertising and illuminating.
89.
Transparent Signs.
much
to develop this
The
materials
usually
common
glass,
sheeting, white
employed for transparent signs are Holland shade cloth, and frosted and
stained glass.
Many
made
of the stained
38
covering almost the entire front and reaching from the lower
left
is
letter, and is any rough lumber, of uniform thickness, sawed to the The whole design is firmly secured together, design required. and opal glass is cut to cover the face, after first coating the
made
lead.
The opal
beyond
The
sign
is
then covered along the edge with zinc, molding, which serves to hold the opal
form
of a half-round
glass in position.
91.
its
Hanging the
finished appearance
Sign. The value of a sign depends on when placed in position on the outside
or inside of a building,
work that may indicate his skilled eye and hand but he should study the relation of his sign to its surroundings, and These should, first of arrange its final fastenings accordingly. all, be the securest possible, and be capable of resisting the
piece of
;
may
also be
attached without
its
neatness
marred.
work
or
Architectural ironwork is they are of an ornamental nature. used for swinging signs, either as an ornamental crane, or in
scrollwork conforming to
heraldic shield or panel.
some
Elements OF Lettering.
Elements of Lettering.
(1)
{a)
What name
is
given
it
to
the
earliest
foi-ni
of
writing?
(2)
(8)
(/>)
By whom was
styles of
used?
Name two
What
W^hat
letters
that
came
into existence
(4)
(5) (0)
elongatin!/
What
class of people
(8)
What is meant by the term iiiterlarivy / On what materials can transparent water color
advantage?
be used
to the best
(9)
(10)
What is meant by a "part panel"? What is the "stroke" of a letter? What is meant by the term hdclqiromid?
Wh at
are
"cut-in"
side
of
et ters ?
On what
(a)
the
letter
slK)uld
the
shade
be
(14)
What
is
"background stencil"?
letter stencil?
(6)
How
dili'er
lettering?
(17)
patterns
njaterial
is
most suitable
class
of
foi'
making
stencil
What
style
of
brush
is
best
adapted
for
use in
stenciling?
ELEMENTS OF LETTERING.
(20)
i^
What
capitals ?
(21)
method
is
safest to
(22)
tirst
How
is
to insure
accuracy
(23)
\V'hat alphal)et
the mother of
all
modern
styles
of writing?
(24)
signs
may
?
stencil pattern
should be cleaned
])art
(25)
placed
?
On what
of
expressed when
first
intro-
When
What What
letters
are placed on
(28) (29)
is
meant by
tlie
term condeii^iny
is
hand
lettering ?
(30)
What
(31)
In what
way did
(32) (33)
(34)
On what
l)e
placed?
Of what importance
letter^face
shading?
What is the "spur" of a letter? Where would you ])lace tlie possessive (35) the following: "Mens and Boys Clothing"?
(36) (37)
(38) (39) (40)
as
aj)ostrophe in
When are colors applied in their dry state? Name some of the styles of letters known exclusively
For what })urpose
is
"American writing."
(41)
the stencil pattern used?
Lettering
AND-
Sign Painting.
(2) (3)
How
is
plate
for
the
purpose of embossing?
(4) (5)
is
letters
used?
How How
What
where
it
to be left
unetched?
are
(6)
applied to a sized
surface ?
(7) (8)
(9)
is
a neutral color?
the priming coatf
is
What
What
is
acid
(10)
used?
in
(11)
How many
is flock f
sign painting?
(12) (13)
What
In making
letters
should be used?
(14) (15)
What
What
painting ?
What
?
is
the
applied
(17)
How
What
made
to read
can a wire sign projecting from a building be from opposite directions? should be the height of a lettering table?
(IS)
What name is given to the long-hair l)rush used to (19) pick up the gold leaf?
(20) (21)
Describe the transparent shade.
How
is
destroyed
(22)
What gauge
From what
of
engraving brass
is
(28) (24)
is
oil is
slow size
made?
How
How
What
is
should
lettering
brushes
be
preserved
from
drying or hardening?
(26)
are
compo
signs?
size are
What What
What
is
meant
l)y
the term
tint'^
is
when exposed
to the
elements?
(30)
is
filling to
produce
a solid letter?
(31)
What
?
are
the
principal
classes
into
which
colors
are divided
mixtures
should
be
used
for
lettering
on
2
(33)
(34) (35)
(36)
is
When
What
What
are colors in
color
is
harmony
in their
combination?
size for
gold?
(37)
(38)
plate
is
How
What
What
(39) (40)
(41)
a secondary color?
is
cold color?
How many
work?
acid
for practice
What
is
When
be etched in glass?
(b)
a xhade
of
color?
How may
letters
(46)
How
What What
l)efore
are applied?
(47)
is
itkirm color f
fill
(48)
materials
used to
letters
etched
in
brass plates?
(49)
On what
colors
is
In embossed work, to what depth (50) be allowed to eat the brass plate?
(51)
What would
be the result
first
if
a coat of
paint were
dried,
4
(52)
(53) (54)
Name two
semineutral colors.
How many
brush
is
?
of striping liy
means
of a lettering
(55)
When
What
frosting
on glass used
as
ground
for
lettering ?
(56)
(57)
is
How
glass?
is
to
be gilded placed on a
window
What is the best protection against frost that (58) be applied to a finished letter on glass?
(59)
may
What
is
maltf
of colors
(60)
What mixture
produces purple?
Index.
INDEX.
Sec.
INDEX.
,Scc.
Page.
54
28 27 49
14
Sec.
Pagi
13
17
Curve
Cut-in letters, Points to be observed
Fine line
Finish, Carriage- or piano-body
1 1
2
2
1
Use of
Cutting stencils
1
1
Cyma
D.
Dam, Beeswax Dash
Decorations, Ecclesiastical
25
61
2
1
15
30
16
2
1
1
12
"
mechanical
ing
letter1
Defects of surface
Definition of circle " " triangle
2
1
12 16
1 1
1
1
block Modification of
marks
2
1
1
2
1 1
1 1
Fundamental
"
G.
Gable
Gas-pipe signs General rules (reometrical figures Gilding
"
"
1
2 2
2
1
1
E.
Ecclesiastical decorations
Effects in lettering " produced by letter-face light,
.
21
1
1
Etruscan
Materials necessary for
2
2
2
25
21
"
"
1
23
21
2 2 2 2
23
24
18 18
Roman
Ellipse
Elliptical
16 55
44 14
(ilass,
"
water
2
2 2 2
Elongating
1
1
Embossing on
Frosting on Gilding on Lettering on
29
17
35 26 29
16
"
'
2 2 2
21
2 2
2
34
Enameled
cloth, Lettering
on
2
1 1
33
9
53 27
25
Etching brass Etruscan gilding Example of condensed letter Exclamation point Experience and theory
2 2
1
signs. Unlimited Glaze shading Gold leaf Greek alphabet Grotesque letters
38
31
21
7
2
'..
1
1
31
36 20
1
2
letters
1
13 48 48
15
Variegated
F.
Face
"
1
II.
"
"
1 1
1
Roman
Handling of colors Hands, Position of Hanging a sign Harmony and contrast
2 2 2
2
I
2
1
Heavy highlight
INDEX.
Sec. P(ujc.
Sec. Pac/e.
Hebrew alphabet
Heraldic shield Highlight
1
1
Letters,
Component
Condensing
parts of
1
1
1 I
18 35
35
27
26
"
1
1
of illumi1
1
"
32
2
1 1
74 21
27 36
31
2
1 1
35
29
46 34
Hyphen
"
ornament
.^..
1 I
30
14
Spacing of
Wooden
Ideograms
Illuminated capitals, History and general use of Importance and scope of designing " of spacing Improvised appliances for sign painting Incorrect spacing
1
2
1
34
25 42
.55
1
1
Loop
1
1
M.
Marks, Ditto " Quotation
Material for stencils " necessary for gilding Materials used for re-iisting acid
2
1
Inking in
Inscription designing
1
1
lettering
styles
size
Medium-slow
letters
2
2
Metal, Gilding on
2 2
Method
"
of applying smalt
" describing
an
ellipse
L.
Latin alphabet
"
1
Roman
tion of
alphabet,
Modifica1
Modification
of
Ancient
Roman
alphabet
57
Left-side shading
Modifications of antique
22
25
31
Letter-face
"
lighting
and shading,
1
1
"
"
"
Boston Roman
alphabet
2
1
1
30
48
"
French
stencils
Roman
Roman
1
Lettering, Effects in
alphabet
" '
" "
35
12
Freehand
ical
and
mechan1
1
fundamental styles
Latin
alphabet
Irregular-surface
28
62 33
2 2 2
2
N.
Neutral colors Numerals, Arabic
34
33
" "
"
cardboard
cotton sheeting enameled cloth
glass
"
32
33
34
Roman
().
2
2 2
1
"
"
"
"
"
"
34
75
2
1
33 29
Letters, Classification of
INDEX.
See.
Page.
30
29
Sec.
Page.
16
4
Ornamental forms
"
letters
1
1
Roman and
"
full
block
1 1 1 1
1 1
numerals
elliptical
for
1
1
31 38
24
5
2 2
Round and
44 19 10 71
Rules
s.
Panels
Elliptical
Part.
42
and round
44 44
39
1
"
"
Rectangular Rococo
42
44 3
of sign painting
Scroll
55
10
Paper
" "
and pencils
stencils
70
49
21
44
48
24 52
19
11
74
13
23
24
11
Pearl filling
Pediment, Angular Pencils and paper Pen, Ruling Period Phenician alphabet
Plastered surfaces, Lettering on Position of hands Practice and material
2 2
70
71
Shades Shading
Beveled Glaze
"
letters
1
22
26
31
19
6
2
2
1 1
30
41
34
6 2
22
2
1
30
23
75
22
32 35 33
32
16
10
Sheeting, Lettering
Shield, Heraldic
on
2
1
1
2 2
1
1
Primary colors
Proportion of letters
46
18 12
appli2
.-
ances
'
4 3
1 1
Methods used in
essary
48
"
"
"
Qualifications nec2
1
Q.
Qualifications
"
Scope of subject
tools
2 2
1
1
necessary for
sign
2 2
1
painting
stenciling
stencils Signs,
"
..
51
51
Quick
size
Quotation marks
Compo
Gas-pipe
2 2 2
36
36
R.
Radius of circle Rectangular panels
Red-sable brushes Reflected light
Relief letters " ornament letters " shade
1
on brick walls
Sheet-glass
37
22
37
2
2
2
1
"
Transparent Wire
2 2
1
36
33 39
18
19
Silk, Lettering
on
2
1 1
1
Simple combinations
Size for gilding " " oil gilding " Medium-slow
2 2 2 2 2 2
1
Renaissance
"
Results of
20
19
19
14
1 1
..
40
53
44
17
INDEX.
Puqe.
Sec. Page.
14 14 14
13
Treatment of face of
Triangles
letter
25
53
52
Importance of
of letters
Triangle, Right-angled
"
Spur
Stencil,
64
Background
cutting patterns
signs
..
50 49 48
51
Altitude of
Definition of
52 52
53
Equilateral
Isosceles
52
63
6
48
51
T square
Cleaning
Materials for
49
" "
Paper Purpose of
Tin-foil
49 48 49
9
'.
Striping
Stroke
Styles,
13 2
the
comma
.
Fundamental
Mechanical
water colors
"
12 10
()1
Modern
Variations of Superfine brown-sable writers. Surface, Defects of " Preparation of Swan-quill brushes
Variations of styles
1 1
61
Variegated grounds
48
15
16 16
5
Vowels
^\'
T.
Telescoping
Testing bifluoric acid
Tin-foil stencils
1 1
Warm and
cold colors
2
1
11
2
1
...
38
16
13
2
1
2 2
36
2
1
Wooden
letters
34 23
5
5
Wood
or metal. Gilding on
2
2
2
2
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