CHAPTER -1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 RESEARCH OVERVIEW INTRODUCTION INTO THE RESEARCH CONCEPT INDUSTRY PROFILE COMPANY PROFILE

1.1 RESEARCH OVERVIEW

1.1.1 Research Background

Air traffic controllers are widely recognized as an occupational group which has to cope with a highly demanding job that involves a complex series of tasks, requiring high levels of knowledge and expertise, combined with high levels of responsibility, not only with regard to risking lives, but also the high economic costs of aeronautical activities.

1.1.2 Research problem

Conduct a study on the stress levels experienced by Air Traffic Controllers and suggest remedies to mitigate the same.

1.1.3 Significance of the study

To gain insight into causes of stress among the ATCs identify the gap between the demand and supply segregate the causes into specific areas

1.1.4 Objective of the study

To study the job stress of ATCs Find out factors affecting the stress To find out the relationship between stress and Work load Operational procedures Equipments
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 Working environment Working organization

To suggest the remedies and measures to reduce job stress

1.1.5 Data collection

The Study is descriptive based on survey method. All the data will be collected directly from the respondents through the questionnaire, i.e. primary data. Secondary data will be collected from documents, reports, manuals and records of the company. For the purpose of analysis both primary as well as secondary data will be collected. The Primary data will be collected by using the following tools Questionnaire Structured and Unstructured Interview

Primary data will be collected from the workers by way of questionnaire and unstructured interview of the sample. Information can also be gathered by way of unstructured interview of duration 5-10 minutes. Questionnaire will be administered to employees followed by detailed discussion regarding various aspects mentioned in the questionnaire.

1.1.6 Sampling Plan

All the 30 employees of the Air Traffic Control (sampling unit) were part of the study. As all the 30 respondents were available to be part of the research, all the employees were chosen and census was the adopted Sampling Procedure

1.1.7 Limitations of the Study

The ATC being a zone of high security and requiring high level of clearance at all times, it is not easy to gain access to the Air Traffic Controllers for interviewing them. Moreover, the group subject to this study is only 30 in number. A larger group at a larger airport would be helpful to gain an in-depth understanding of the various stress levels that could have been possibly left out in this study.

1.1.8 Scheme of the Report

The Report has been divided into seven chapters. The first chapter deals with Introduction which gives idea about the Theoretical perspective, Research problem, Industry profile, Organization Profile, Objectives of the study, limitations and last the Scheme of the Report. The Second chapter gives explanation about various concepts and brief review of previous studies in the form of Review of Literature. The third chapter gives the percentage analysis and illustrations of the collected data The fourth chapter deals with the testing of various hypotheses using the Fisher exact test and Relative Risk The fifth chapter summarizes the findings, suggestions and the conclusion.

1.2 INTRODUCTION INTO THE RESEARCH CONCEPT

1.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Healthy and safe workplaces are a measure of successful employment relationships that exhibit mutual trust and confidence, and promote sustainable and productive relationships. Creating a healthy and safe workplace requires employers and employees to work together systematically to identify
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hazards and manage them. It also requires a workplace with ongoing and effective communications between the employer and employees. A part of creating a healthy and safe workplace is managing stress in the workplace. Stress arising from workplace factors can result from unmanaged hazards that have the potential to cause both harm and poor business outcomes. Some employers and employees will be approaching theissue of stress in the workplace for the first time. Others will find that this booklet reflects the good practice they already follow in their workplace. Working systematically to identify workplace hazards means you should not wait until an employee has a physical or mental health problem before taking steps to deal with stressors in the workplace. The concept of hazard identification and management also means that there is only a requirement to manage work stressors or the individuals stressed situation where you can be reasonably expected to know about the stress. Even then the obligation is only to do what is reasonably practicable in the circumstances.

1.2.2 What is stress?

There are many definitions of stress, and many theories about what causes it. Key definitions and concepts adopted by the Occupational Safety and Health Service (OSH) when it considers workplace stress are:

Stress Workplace stress is the result of the interaction between a person and their work environment.
For the person it is the awareness of not being able to cope with the demands of their work environment, with an associated negative emotional response.

Stressors These are events or circumstances that lead to someone feeling that physical or
psychological demands are about to exceed his or her ability to cope. Stressors can be of several types.

Stressors can: Be inherent in the job because of factors that make that occupation what it is for example, the mixture of pressures in police work, with shift work, the threat of violence and sometimes dealing with emotionally repugnant material. Arise because of the way the job is organised. This may include physical factors (excess heat, noise, cold etc) as well as physiological factors that affect the bodys balance (such as shift work, inadequate recuperative time etc). Arise out of excessive work demands such as unrealistic deadlines. Arise out of personal factors such as health status, relationships, ability to cope with difficult situations etc.

1.2.3 How (and why) does stress affect us?

Stress is a complex issue and no two individuals will be affected in the same way by either work requirements or the work environment. Employers should be alert to signs of stress in their employees. But employers can only manage stress or fatigue situations they can reasonably be aware of. So employees experiencing workplace stress should tell their employers about the stress they are experiencing. There should be systems in place that give employees confidence that if they report their situation to their employer, manager, or supervisor everything possible will be done to deal with their problem. In practice, it can be helpful to think of stress in terms of a simple bucket model:

The bucket model suggests that stress and fatigue result when a persons reservoir of personal resilience is drained faster than it is replenished. Things like interesting work, supportive relationships, good health and rest fill the bucket. Difficult working conditions, conflict at work, emotionally draining work, excess (or not enough) work and difficulties at home can drain the bucket. You are coping when you maintain the balance between these factors. As the bucket model shows, theres no point in filling the bucket if stressors keep draining it quickly. Control of stressors is frequently needed to plug the holes, or at least reduce their size in order to prevent stress building up.

1.2.4 What are the effects of stress?

Short-term stress may make a person aware of being challenged and motivated. This is the some stress is good for you effect. Prolonged awareness of not coping, however, can lead to harm both for the person and the organisation. Prolonged unrelieved awareness of not coping, or of significant fatigue arising from stress can result in: immediate safety problems (such as I was so stressed out that I didnt see the warning light flashing) long-term health problems such as depression, burnout, heart disease and self-abusive behaviours (such as overuse of alcohol). A stressed individual may: become down, anxious, irritable or clinically depressed lose confidence, talk about sleeping badly, have slow reactions,or behave oddly have deteriorating relationships with colleagues be irritable or indecisive, or perform poorly or be more error-prone drink more alcohol than usual or turn to other recreational drugs complain about their health and, for example, get frequent headaches.

An organization where workplace stress is prevalent may demonstrate: numbers of staff with low morale high absenteeism and staff turnover poor employment relations low quality work and low productivity high (or rising) accident and illness rates high (or rising) numbers of customer complaints, or customers taking their business elsewhere increasing use of Employee Assistance Programme services, and grievance procedures. (Although the provision of an Employee Assistance Programme will tend to indicate an organisation that has recognised the necessity of dealing with employee stress, it will not necessarily help to tackle the causes of stress at work)

increasing numbers of employees saying they are under stress.

1.2.5 Causes of unnecessary workplace stress

At times work can be expected to be tiring and stressful to some extent, and a degree of legitimate tiredness can be expected at the end of the working day. But where stress or tiredness are excessive or gets worse each day particularly when people dont have enough time off to make a full recovery then, if work demands are involved, these will need to be examined. Causes of workplace stress may be job content and how the work is organised. In such cases simply providing an employee, or employees, with stress management advice may not be an adequate response. Improved work design can free up employees resources to concentrate on getting the job done, to do the tasks better, or to look further ahead to find out how to meet new challenges. Employee participation in health and safety issues can be a good way of getting both informed comment and employee buy-in to proposed solutions or prevention methods. Unnecessary work-related stress can emerge from two types of factors: job context (how the workplace is organized) job content (what the job involves)
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The following table summarises some of these factors, which can place unreasonable demands on people at work:

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1.3 INDUSTRY PROFILE

INDIAN AVIATION INDUSTRY Industry Evolution Year
< 1953 Major Milestones Nine Airlines existed including Indian Airlines & Air India

Nationalization of all private airlines through Air Corporations 1953 Act;

1986

Private players permitted to operate as air taxi operators

Air Corporation act repealed; Private players can operate 1994 schedule services

Jet, Sahara, Modiluft, Damania, East West granted scheduled 1995 carrier status

1997

4 out of 6 operators shut down; Jet & Sahara continue

2001

Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF) prices decontrolled Air Deccan starts operations as Indias first LCC

2003

2005

Kingfisher, SpiceJet, Indigo, Go Air, Paramount start operations

Industry consolidates; Jet acquired Sahara; Kingfisher acquired 2007 Air Deccan

2010

SpiceJet starts international operations

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Indigo starts international operations, Kingfisher exits LCC 2011 segment

Government allows direct ATF imports, FDI proposal for 2012 allowing foreign carriers to pick up to 49% stake under consideration

The Indian Aviation Industry has been going through a turbulent phase over the past several years facing multiple headwinds high oil prices and limited pricing power contributed by industry wide over capacity and periods of subdued demand growth. Over the near term the challenges facing the airline operators are related to high debt burden and liquidity constraints - most operators need significant equity infusion to effect a meaningful improvement in balance sheet. Improved financial profile would also allow these players to focus on steps to improve long term viability and brand building through differentiated customer service. Over the long term the operators need to focus on improving cost structure, through rationalization at all levels including mix of fleet and routes, aimed at cost efficiency. At the industry level, long term viability also requires return of pricing power through better alignment of capacity to the underlying demand growth. While in the beginning of 2008-09, the sector was impacted by sharp rise in crude oil prices, it was the decline in passenger traffic growth which led to severe underperformance during H2, 2008-09 to H1 2009-10. The operating environment improved for a brief period in 2010-11 on back of recovery in passenger traffic, industry-wide capacity discipline and relatively stable fuel prices. However, elevated fuel prices over the last three quarters coupled with intense competition and unfavorable foreign exchange environment has again deteriorated the financial performance of airlines. During this period, while the passenger traffic growth has been steady (averaging 14% in 9m 2011-12), intense competition has impacted yields and forced airlines back into losses in an inflated cost base scenario. To address the concerns surrounding the operating viability of Indian carriers, the Government on its part has recently initiated a series of measures including (a) proposal to allow foreign carriers to make strategic investments (up to 49% stake) in Indian Carriers (b) proposal to allow airlines to directly import ATF (c) lifting the freeze on international expansions of private airlines and (d) financial assistance to the
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national carrier. However, these steps alone may not be adequate to address the fundamental problems affecting the industry. While the domestic airlines have not been able to attract foreign investors (up to 49% FDI is allowed, though foreign airlines are currently not allowed any stake), foreign airlines may be interested in taking strategic stakes due to their deeper business understanding, longer investment horizons and overall longer term commitment towards the global aviation industry. Healthy passenger traffic growth on account of favorable demographics, rising disposable incomes and low air travel penetration could attract long-term strategic investments in the sector. However, in our opinion, there are two key challenges: i) aviation economics is currently not favorable in India resulting in weak financial performance of airlines and ii) Internationally, too airlines are going through period of stress which could possibly dissuade their investment plans in newer markets. Besides, foreign carriers already enjoy significant market share of profitable international routes and have wide access to Indian market through code-sharing arrangements with domestic players. Given these considerations, we believe, foreign airlines are likely to be more cautious in their investment decisions and strategies are likely to be long drawn rather than focused on short-term valuations. On the proposal to allow import of ATF, we feel that the duty differential between sales tax (averaging around 22-26% for domestic fuel uplifts) being currently paid by airlines on domestic routes and import duty (8.5%-10.0%) is an attractive proposition for airlines. However the challenges in importing, storing and transporting jet fuel will be a considerable roadblock for airlines due to OMCs monopoly on infrastructure at most Indian airports. From the working capital standpoint too, airlines will need to deploy significant amount of resources in sourcing fuel which may not be easy given the stretched balance sheets and tight liquidity profile of most airlines.

Historically, the Indian aviation sector has been a laggard relative to its growth potential due to excessive regulations and taxations, government ownership of airlines and resulting high cost of air travel. However, this has changed rapidly over the last decade with the sector showing explosive growth supported by structural reforms, airport modernizations, entry of private airlines, adoption of low fare no frills models and improvement in service standards. Like elsewhere in the world, air travel is been transformed into a mode of mass transportation and is gradually shedding its elitist image.

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Strong passenger traffic growth aided by buoyant economy, favorable demographics, rising disposable incomes and low penetration levels

India aviation industry promises huge growth potential due to large and growing middle class population, favorable demographics, rapid economic growth, higher disposable incomes, rising aspirations of the middle class, and overall low penetration levels (less than 3%). The industry has grown at a 16% CAGR in passenger traffic terms over the past decade. With advent of LCCs and resultant decline in yields, passenger traffic growth which averaged 13% in the first half has increased substantially to 19% CAGR during 2006-2011. Despite strong growth, air travel penetration in India remains among the lowest in the world. In fact, air travel penetration in India is less than half of that in China where people take 0.2 trips per person per year; indicating strong long term growth potential. A comparative statistic in United States, the worlds largest domestic aviation market stands at 2 trips per person per year. We expect passenger demand to remain stable and grow between 12-15% in the medium term, assuming a no major weakness in GDP growth going forward.

However domestic airlines operate under high cost environment; intense competition has constrained yields; aggressive fleet expansions have impacted profitability and capital structures

Despite reforms, the domestic aviation sector continues to operate under high cost environment due to high taxes on Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF), high airport charges, significant congestion at major airports, dearth of experienced commercial pilots, inflexible labor laws and overall higher cost of capital. While most of these factors are not under direct control of airline operators, the problems have compounded due to industry-wide capacity additions, much in excess of actual demand. Intense competitive pressure from Low cost carriers (focusing on maximizing load factors) and national carrier (looking to regain lost market share) have constrained yields from rising in-sync with the elevated cost base. Besides, aggressive fleet expansions (LCCs have added aircrafts mainly on long-term operating leases; FSCs have purchased aircrafts debt financed, most often backed by guarantees from the US EXIM Bank or Europes ECA) to leverage upon the anticipated robust growth and to support

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international operations have significantly impacted the capital structure and weakened the credit profile of most domestic airlines. Low-cost model now dominating the skies; viability remains to be seen

Internationally the LCC model came into existence when the US Congress passed the Airline Deregulation Act in 1978 easing the entry of new companies into the business and giving them freedom to set their own fares and choose routes (Prior to this routes and fares were fixed by a Government Agency). This was followed by entry of carriers like Southwest, which pioneered the LCC concept. Majority (~60-65%) of an airline cost are dependent on external factors, which cant be managed by an LCC. This includes the fuel cost (~40%), maintenance cost (~12%) and ownership cost (~12-15%). LCCs try to achieve a cost advantage in other ways by avoiding the in-flight services, operating from secondary airports, selling tickets through the internet, higher number of seats in the aircraft, inventory reduction through use of similar aircraft and lower employees per aircraft.

The Indian aviation sector was exposed to intense competition with the advent of a low-cost airline - Air Deccan back in 2003. The success of Air Deccan spurred the entry of other LCCs like SpiceJet, Indigo, Go Air and subsequently low fare offerings from Jet airways and Kingfisher airlines. As a result, the sector which was completely dominated by full-service airlines till a decade ago is now dominated by low-cost airlines. However, longer term viability of LCCs models in India remains to be seen (Kingfisher exited the segment recently) as airport charges are same for FSCs and LCCs in India. Besides, the fuel costs forms a larger proportion of overall costs as compared to international standards due to higher central and state government levies (viability of direct ATF imports remains to be seen due to lack of supporting infrastructure) and high congestion at major airports (half an hour hovering at major airport could increase fuel costs by Rs.60,000 to Rs. 115,000 depending on aircraft, besides impacting aircraft utilizations). These constraint can be resolved only if theresignificant improvement in infrastructure such that LCCs could operate on secondary airports.

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Fig :Growing LCC Market Share

Fig :ATF Price Trends (Mumbai, Rs/KLitre)

Fig :Rupee Depreciation (INR/USD)

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Fig: Domestic Airlines - Gross Sales Growth (%, YoY)

Fig: Domestic Airlines Fuel Costs (% of Gross Sales)

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Fig: Domestic Airlines Reported PAT (% of Gross Sales)

LCC Strategies Categories Single model of aircraft Operate on secondary airport

Remarks Reduces maintenance and inventory cost. Lower charges, lower turnaround time due to less congestion.

Point to Point Model

Improves aircraft utilization by reducing waiting time at airports.

Single class configuration

More seats per flight so spread costs over a larger base.

No In-flight services

Helps to keep the costs and hence the fares low.

Fewer employees per aircraft

Reduces employee cost and leads to higher employee productivity.

E-Ticketing

The traditional method of ticketing costs around US$ 4.5 per passenger whereas the cost of an e-ticket comes to US$ 1 which helps reduce selling expenses.

Ancillary Revenues

Primarily on-board sales. Provides

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The domestic airlines industry is facing significant operating (slowing growth, rising fuel costs) and non-operating (interest costs, rupee depreciation) challenges as evident in the quarterly performance trends of listed airline companies.

Sales Growth: After a strong rebound in 2010, the pax growth has been moderating over the last few quarters due to moderating economic growth and weak industrial activity. Besides, severe competitive pressure from domestic LCC players (rapidly gaining market share) and Air India (trying to maintain market share) have resulted in price wars (at times below cost pricing), lowered yields and moderated sales growth for the airlines. Even on international routes, the yields have remained weak due to weaker economic conditions and severe competition from global airlines.

Rising ATF Prices & Steep Rupee Depreciation: The airlines industry had been severely impacted by the significant increase in ATF prices (up 57% in last 18 months) as Indian Carriers do not hedge fuel prices and have exhibited limited ability to charge fuel surcharges due to irrational and undisciplined pricing dictated by competition rather than costs / demand. Besides, the steep rupee depreciation (~18.7% depreciation in CY11, although partly reversed through 7.3% YTD appreciation in CY12) acts double whammy as apart from fuel costs, substantial portion of other operating costs like lease rentals, maintenance, expat salaries and a portion of sales commissions are USD-linked or USD-denominated.

Profit Margins: With combined impact of 1) moderating pax growth 2) lower yields due to excessive competitive 3) rising ATF prices 4) steep rupee depreciation and 5) rising debt levels and interest costs, the profitability margins of the airlines industry have been severely impacted. As per Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation (CAPA), Indian carriers could be posting staggering losses of $2.5 billion (~Rs 12,500 crore) in 2011-12, worse than the losses of 2008-09 when traffic was declining and crude oil prices spiked to $150 per barrel. Overall, the industry has been marred by cost inefficiencies and is bearing the brunt of aggressive price cuts, rising costs, expensive jet fuel, a weaker rupee, high interest payments and hence mounting losses. The government support required to bailout the loss making Air India has increased substantially; while the leading private players like Kingfisher Airlines, Jet Airways and SpiceJet are making significant losses. With Banks unwilling to enhance their exposure to the industry, recast their loans or pick up equity stakes without viable business plans, industry needs to come out with strong equity infusion
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plans. Hence, the government is mulling allowing foreign carriers to pick strategic stakes in domestic airlines to help them stay afloat in these difficult times, besides bringing global expertise and best industry practices over the medium term.

FDI in Aviation: Feasibility and Impact Analysis for various stakeholders

FDI Proposal: The Civil Aviation Ministry is expected to soon circulate a proposal before the union cabinet to consider allowing up to 49% equity investment by foreign carriers in domestic airlines. In case of listed airlines, if the proposal does not get a waiver from SEBIs Takeover Code, foreign carriers may have to first make an open offer of 26% stake to public shareholders and later acquire up to 23% stake (from promoters or fresh equity), such that their stake remains within the 49 % cap.

Indian Carriers: The FDI proposal, if approved, would certainly be an important milestone in the aviation sector and may provide much-needed relief to the domestic aviation industry reeling under the pressure of mounting losses and rising debt burden. Besides, the move will help bring global expertise and best industry practices over the medium term.

Foreign Carriers: It will not just provide entry into one of the fastest growing aviation market globally but also an opportunity to establish India as their hub for connections between US/Europe and SouthEast Asian countries. While full-service airlines could help them further consolidate their market position on international routes (and improve connectivity within India), acquisition of low-cost airlines could help them compete in a market where travelers are highly price sensitive.

Consumers: New players could enter the market as they could now have a strategic foreign player with deep pockets to support the airline in difficult times. Besides, it would provide more flexibility in international travels when one travels through the same airline domestically as well as internationally. Overall, this could increase competition, offer more alternatives, reduce tariffs and improve customer service standards over the medium term. However, the Global Airline industry is itself currently going through a tough phase (Bloomberg World Airline index down 22%, Asia-Pacific Airline index down 25% in last one year), due to below trend
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economic growth across advanced economies and high crude oil prices ($100-125/Barrel). Besides, aviation economics currently remain unfavorable in India due to intense competition, mandatory route dispersal guidelines, higher taxes on ATF, airport related charges and inadequate airport infrastructure. For example, airlines like Air Asia (citing high infrastructure costs) & American Airlines (parent facing financial stress) have recently withdrawn from India. Lastly, foreign carriers already enjoy significant market share of profitable international routes and have wide domestic access through code sharing agreements.

Factors that support investments in Indian Aviation Sector

Strong growth prospects Passenger traffic growth has grown at a CAGR of 16% in India over the past 10 years Relative underpenetrated market Penetration of air travel at <3% is significantly below benchmarks in other markets An opportunity to create India as an hub An opportunity for foreign airlines to create India as their hub for international traffic between Europe and South East Asia; Additionally offer better connectivity within India with international destinations

An opportunity to create India as an MRO centre Foreign airlines could also look at leveraging on Indias low-cost arbitrage by setting up MRO facilities in India

Low Valuations Market valuation of listed airlines in India has suffered due to poor performance

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Factors that are not in favor of investments

Aviation economics are not favorable in India Higher taxes on ATF and airport charges continue to be key headwinds for the sector; besides higher cost base, airlines in India are also mandatorily required to fly on certain unviable routes

Inadequate Infrastructure Development of airport infrastructure has not kept pace with demand, thereby resulting in delays and higher costs for airlines

Poor financial health of most airlines Intense competition, sharp fluctuation in ATF prices and high debt burden continue to weigh on the financial performance of Indian airlines; foreign exchange fluctuation and lack of adequate hedging mechanism (for fuel) have added to the woes

Highly competitive & Price Sensitive traveler base

Direct ATF Imports: Benefits and near term feasibility remain misty In addition to the proposal on FDI, the empowered group of Minister has also recently approved the proposal for airlines to import Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF) directly, a demand that the airlines have been lobbying for quite some time now. While the cabinet approval is yet come by, in our opinion, the impact of this development is likely to be a mixed bag. Although the taxation differential (between currently applicable sales tax rates and likely import duty) certainly suggest a large potential saving for airlines, the availability of infrastructure is likely to be a considerable roadblock. Given the monopoly of OMCs at major airports, airlines would have to resort to a fee-based structure for utilizing their infrastructure for fueling, storing and transporting ATF. At the same time, airlines will also have to
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engage a fair bit of working capital in sourcing imported ATF as against credit period available from OMCs. Given the current liquidity constraints, managing additional credit lines from banks is also likely to be a challenge for airlines and overall would reduce the potential savings being envisaged. At present, airlines buy ATF from OMCs which is priced on an import parity formula and is also subject to sales tax varying from 4%-30% depending upon states. Given the higher tax rates at major airports, airlines pay on an average 22-26% sales tax on ATF for domestic operations. With the option to import directly, the effective taxes on ATF would prima facie reduce as airlines will pay import duties and will be exempted from paying sales tax thus resulting in large savings for airlines. While the savings appear to be significant, there are various practical issues that airlines will have to sort out before they could start importing ATF directly. At most airports (barring the private ones), state-run OMCs own and operate the infrastructure for sourcing, fueling and storing aviation fuel. For sourcing fuel directly, airlines will have no other option but to utilize the existing infrastructure possibly on a fee-based structure with OMCs. In addition, airlines will also lose out on volume discounts (ranging between 45%) and credit period offered by OMCs and would need to pay in cash for direct imports, implying incremental funding requirement. There is also an additional worry that the states may implement an entry tax (as applicable on crude oil in some states) to offset the revenue loss from sales tax. Given these hurdles, the effective savings could be much lower than what is reflected from tax differential. In absolute terms, the impact will be higher on airlines with higher share of domestic operations like Indigo or SpiceJet.

International Routes: Freeze on international permissions to private carrier removed In another major boost to private airlines (especially IndiGo and SpiceJet), the Civil Aviation Ministry has lifted the freeze on their overseas expansions. The government had imposed the freeze in Mar-2011 with the objective of protecting the financially strained Air India from more competition on foreign routes. However, lower utilizations of maximum permissible limits under the bilateral Air Service Agreements (ASAs) have prompted the move to allow eligible domestic airlines (with more than 5 years experience) expand their international operations. The move will benefit the private carriers (although may increase competition and losses for the national carrier) as international flights provide better margins owing to the availability of fuel at international rates, higher auxiliary revenue through

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in-flight sales and higher fleet utilization, as international operations could happen during the otherwise idle night hours.

Financial guarantees to the debt-ridden national carrier in securing funding at competitive rates As per media reports, Group of ministers (GoM), headed by finance minister cleared the financial restructuring plan for Air India under which the national carrier will be allowed to raise Rs 7,400 crore through government- guaranteed bonds bearing a coupon rate of 8.5-9%. According to official data, Air India has outstanding loans and dues worth Rs 67,520 crore. Of this, Rs 21,200 crore represents working capital loans, Rs 22,000 crore long -term loans taken for fleet acquisition, Rs 4,600 crore dues to vendors and it carries an accumulated loss of Rs 20,320 crore. The ministerial group also decided to restructure the carriers Rs 21,200 crore working capital loans - Rs 7,400 crore shall be come from the bond issue, Rs 9,800 crore will be converted into long-term debt of 10 to 15 years and the balance Rs 4,000 crore will remain outside the restructuring exercise. While the financial guarantees may help it overcome near term headwinds, operation turnaround at ailing national carrier remains critical for overall health of the industry.

1.4 COMPANY PROFILE 1.4.1 Organization

Airports Authority of India (AAI) was constituted by an Act of Parliament and came into being on 1st April 1995 by merging erstwhile National Airports Authority and International Airports Authority of India. The merger brought into existence a single Organization entrusted with the responsibility of creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation infrastructure both on the ground and air space in the country. AAI manages 125 airports, which include 11 International Airport, 08 Customs Airports, 81 Domestic Airports and 27 Civil Enclaves at Defense airfields. AAI provides air navigation services over 2.8 million square nautical miles of air space. During the year 2008- 09, AAI handled aircraft movement of
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1306532 Nos. [International 270345 & Domestic 1036187], Passengers handled 44262137 Nos. [International 1047614 & Domestic 33785990] and the cargo handled 499418 tons [International 318242 & Domestic 181176]. Vision : ''To be a world-class organization providing leadership in air traffic services and airport management & making India a major hub in Asia Pacific region by 2016.

Mission : ''To achieve highest standards of safety and quality in air traffic services and airport
management by providing state-of-the-art infrastructure for total customer satisfaction, contributing to economic growth and prosperity of the nation.''

1. Passenger Facilities
The main functions of AAI inter-alia include construction, modification & management of passenger terminals, development & management of cargo terminals, development & maintenance of apron infrastructure including runways, parallel taxiways, apron etc., Provision of Communication, Navigation and Surveillance which includes provision of DVOR / DME, ILS, ATC radars, visual aids etc., provision of air traffic services, provision of passenger facilities and related amenities at its terminals thereby ensuring safe and secure operations of aircraft, passenger and cargo in the country.

2. Air Navigation Services

In tune with global approach to modernization of Air Navigation infrastructure for seamless navigation across state and regional boundaries, AAI has been going ahead with its plans for transition to satellite based Communication, Navigation, Surveillance and Air Traffic Management. A number of co-operation agreements and memoranda of co-operation have been signed with US Federal Aviation Administration, US Trade & Development Agency, European Union, Air Services Australia and the French Government Co-operative Projects and Studies initiated to gain from their experience. Through these activities more and more executives of AAI are being exposed to the latest technology, modern practices & procedures being adopted to improve the overall performance of

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Airports and Air Navigation Services. Induction of latest state-of-the-art equipment, both as replacement and old equipments and also as new facilities to improve standards of safety of airports in the air is a continuous process. Adoptions of new and improved procedure go hand in hand with induction of new equipment. Some of the major initiatives in this direction are introduction of Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) in India air space to increase airspace capacity and reduce congestion in the air; implementation of GPS And Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) jointly with ISRO which when put to operation would be one of the four such systems in the world.

3. Security
The continuing security environment has brought into focus the need for strengthening security of vital installations. There was thus an urgent need to revamp the security at airports not only to thwart any misadventure but also to restore confidence of traveling public in the security of air travel as a whole, which was shaken after 9/11 tragedy. With this in view, a number of steps were taken including deployment of CISF for airport security, CCTV surveillance system at sensitive airports, latest and state-of-the-art X-ray baggage inspection systems, premier security & surveillance systems. Smart Cards for access control to vital installations at airports are also being considered to supplement the efforts of security personnel at sensitive airports.

4. Aerodrome Facilities
In Airports Authority of India, the basic approach to planning of airport facilities has been adopted to create capacity ahead of demand in our efforts. Towards implementation of this strategy, a number of projects for extension and strengthening of runway, taxi track and aprons at different airports has been taken up. Extension of runway to 7500 ft. has been taken up to support operation for Airbus320/Boeing 737-800 category of aircrafts at all airports.

5. HRD Training
A large pool of trained and highly skilled manpower is one of the major assets of Airports Authority of India. Development and Technological enhancements and consequent refinement of operating standards and procedures, new standards of safety and security and improvements in management techniques call for continuing training to update the knowledge and skill of officers and staff. For this
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purpose AAI has a number of training establishments, viz. NIAMAR in Delhi, CATC in Allahabad, Fire Training Centres at Delhi & Kolkata for in-house training of its engineers, Air Traffic Controllers, Rescue & Fire Fighting personnel etc. NIAMAR & CATC are members of ICAO TRAINER programme under which they share Standard Training Packages (STP) from a central pool for imparting training on various subjects. Both CATC & NIAMAR have also contributed a number of STPs to the Central pool under ICAO TRAINER programme. Foreign students have also been participating in the training programme being conducted by these institution

6. IT Implementation
Information Technology holds the key to operational and managerial efficiency, transparency and employee productivity. AAI initiated a programme to indoctrinate IT culture among its employees and this is most powerful tool to enhance efficiency in the organization. AAI website with domain name www.airportsindia.org.in or www.aai.aero is a popular website giving a host of information about the organization besides domestic and international flight information of interest to the public in general and passengers in particular.

1.4.2 Board Members of AAI

Shri V.P. Agrawal Chairman

Whole -Time Members

Shri K.K. Jha, IRS Shri S. Raheja Shri V. Somasundaram Shri G. K. Chaukiyal

Member ((Human Resource) Member (Planning) Member (ANS) & Addl.Charge-Member (Finance) Member (Operations)

27

Part-Time Members

Shri E.K. Bharat Bhushan, IAS

Additional Secretary and Financial Advisor Ministry of Civil Aviation (Official) & Director General of Civil Aviation

Shri Alok Sinha, IAS Shri Deepak Parekh Shri Arun L. Bongirwar Shri Sajjan Jindal

Joint Secretary, Ministry of Civil Aviation (Official) Non-Official Non-Official Non-Official

1.4.3 Functions of AAI

The functions of AAI are as follows: 1. Design, Development, Operation and Maintenance of international and domestic airports and civil enclaves. 2. Control and Management of the Indian airspace extending beyond the territorial limits of the country, as accepted by ICAO. 3. Construction, Modification and Management of passenger terminals. 4. Development and Management of cargo terminals at international and domestic airports. 5. Provision of passenger facilities and information system at the passenger terminals at airports. 6. Expansion and strengthening of operation area, viz. Runways, Aprons, Taxiway etc. 7. Provision of visual aids. 8. Provision of Communication and Navigation aids, viz. ILS, DVOR, DME, Radar etc.

28

1.4.4 AAI TODAY

Airports Authority of India (AAI) manages a total of 125 Airports, which include 11 International Airports, 08 Customs Airports, 81 Domestic Airports and 25 Civil Enclaves at Defence Airfields. AAI also provides Air Traffic Management Services (ATMS) over entire Indian Air Space and adjoining oceanic areas with ground installations at all Airports and 25 other locations to ensure safety of Aircraft operations. The Airports at Ahmedabad, Amritsar, Calicut, Guwahati, Jaipur, Trivandrum, Kolkata & Chennai, which today are established as International Airports, are open to operations even by Foreign International Airlines. Besides, the International flights, National Flag Carriers operate from Coimbatore, Tiruchirappalli, Varanasi, and Gaya Airports. Not only this but also the Tourist Charters now touch Agra, Coimbatore, Jaipur, Lucknow, Patna Airports etc. AAI has entered into a Joint Venture at Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bangalore and Nagpur Airports to upgrade these Airports and emulate the world standards. All major air-routes over Indian landmass are Radar covered (29 Radar installations at 11 locations) along with VOR/DVOR coverage (89 installations) co-located with Distance Measuring Equipment (90 installations). 52 runways are provided with ILS installations with Night Landing Facilities at most of these Airports and Automatic Message Switching System at 15 Airports. AAI's successful implementation of Automatic Dependence Surveillance System (ADSS), using indigenous technology, at Calcutta and Chennai Air Traffic Control Centres, gave India the distinction of being the first country to use this advanced technology in the South East Asian region thus enabling effective Air Traffic Control over oceanic areas using satellite mode of communication. Use of remote controlled VHF coverage, along with satellite communication links, has given added strength to our ATMS. Linking of 80 locations by V-Sat installations shall vastly enhance Air Traffic Management and in turn safety of aircraft operations besides enabling administrative and operational control over our extensive Airport network. Performance Based Navigation (PBN) procedures have already been implemented at Mumbai, Delhi and Ahmedabad Airports and are likely to be implemented at other Airports in phased manner.
29

AAI has undertaken GAGAN project in technological collaboration with Indian Space and Research Organization (ISRO), where the satellite based system will be used for navigation. The navigation signals thus received from the GPS will be augmented to achieve the navigational requirement of aircrafts. First Phase of technology demonstration system has already been successfully completed in February 2008. Development team has been geared up to upgrade the system in operational phase. AAI has also planned to provide Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) at Delhi and Mumbai Airports. This GBAS equipment will be capable of providing Category-II (curved approach) landing signals to the aircrafts thus replacing the existing instrument landing system in the long run, which is required at each end of the runway. The Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and Control System (ASMGCS), installed at Delhi, has upgraded operation to runway 28 from CAT-IIIA level to CAT-IIIB level. CAT-IIIA system permits landing of aircrafts up to visibility of 200mtrs. However, CAT-IIIB will permit safe landing at the Airports at a visibility below 200mtrs but above 50mtrs. AAI's endeavour, in enhanced focus on 'customer's expectations', has evinced enthusiastic response to independent agency, which has organised customer satisfaction surveys at 30 busy Airports. These surveys have enabled us to undertake improvements on aspects recommended by the Airport users. The receptacles for our 'Business Reply Letters' at Airports have gained popularity; these responses enable us to understand the changing aspirations of Airport users. During the first year of the millennium, AAI endeavours to make its operations more transparent and also make available the instantaneous information to customers by deploying state-of-art Information Technology. The specific training, focus on improving the employee response and the professional skill up-gradation, has been manifested. AAI's four training establishments viz. Civil Aviation Training College (CATC) Allahabad, National Institute of Aviation Management and Research (NIAMAR) - Delhi and Fire Training Centres (FTCs) at Delhi & Kolkata are expected to be busier than ever before. AAI has also undertaken initiatives to upgrade training facilities at CATC Allahabad and Hyderabad Airport. Aerodrome Visual Simulator (AVS) has been provided at CATC recently and non-radar procedural ATC simulator equipment is being supplied to CATC Allahabad and Hyderabad Airport.

30

AAI is having a dedicated Flight Inspection Unit (FIU) and it has fleet of three aircrafts fitted with latest state-of-art fully automatic flight inspection system capable of inspecting. 1. ILS up to Cat-III 2. VOR (CVOR/DVOR) 3. DME 4. NDB 5. VGSI (PAPI, VASI) 6. RADAR (ASR/MSSR) In addition to in house flight calibration of nav aids, AAI also undertakes flight calibration of nav aids for Air force, Navy, Coast Guard and other private Airfields in India.

31

32

33

1.4.5 AIR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

AAI has drawn plans to upgrade ATM infrastructure in the country both in terms of conditional provision of automation systems and upgradation of technology which also involves shifting from ground based navigation to satellite based navigation. Functions of Department of Air Traffic Management 1. Provision of Air Traffic Services (ATS) to all arriving, departing & enroute aircraft over flying Indian airspace. 2. Establishment of ATS routes, realignment of existing air routes in consultation with user airlines and international bodies such as IATA and ICAO. 3. Establishment of control zones and control areas and changes to existing control zones and areas. 4. Establishment of Danger/Prohibited and Restricted areas and changes to mentioned areas in coordination with Military Authorities. 5. Providing Search and Rescue co-ordination for aircraft in distress. 6. Providing Aeronautical Information Services (AIS) as prescribed by ICAO to all domestic and international airlines and AIS of other countries. 7. Survey of airports, publication of aeronautical maps and charts. 8. Development of Instrument Approach to Land (IAL) procedures & IAL charts. 9. Monitor and control of obstructions/constructions around airport to ensure compliance with the SARPs of ICAO. 10. Co-ordination with International Civil Aviation Organization, Regional office Bangkok and Headquarters Montreal, Canada on matters relating to airspace management and aviation rules and regulation. 11. Manpower planning, training and award of ratings to Air Traffic Controllers in confirmity with ICAO rules and regulations as stated in Annex-I (Personnel Licensing).

34

12. Monitoring of standards and procedures in the provision of Air Traffic Services. 13. Investigation of Air Traffic incidents in co-ordination with DGCA and corrective actions thereupon. 14. Matters related to aviation security. 15. Monitoring of environmental hazards at airports. Modernization of Air Traffic Services a) At Mumbai and Delhi

Upgradation of automation systems to (Auto Track-Ill) with new Air Traffic Controller assistance features such as Arrival Manager, Departure Manager, is almost complete and is at various levels of testing prior to declaring operational.

Advanced Surface Movement Ground Control Systems (ASMGCS) added to improve efficient handling of Aerodrome Traffic.

Automatic dependent surveillance I CPDLC has enhanced the surveillance of suitably equipped aircraft over the entire Flight Information Region.

b) At Hyderabad and Bangalore

Advanced integrated automation systems, that integrates state of the art Radars, flight data processors, air situation display Advanced Surface Movement Ground Radars, have been installed by SELEX Integreti for providing effective Air Traffic Management.

c) At Chennai / Kolkata

ATS modernization project is underway for replacing old Radars, surveillance systems by the latest state of the art technology one par with Mumbai I Delhi to provide a common platform for integration of the entire systems over Indian Airspace, which will effectively increase Air Traffic capacity and bring synergy in ATS operations.

35

d) At Other Area Control Centres (Nagpur/ Varanasi/ Ahmedabad/ Trivandrum/ Mangalore)

Integration of Radar with flight data processors has been completed by ECIL in collaboration with AAI for providing indigenous automation solutions for effective Air Traffic Management within the designated airspace.

e) Initiatives to Enhance the Standards of ATS

Performance Based Navigation: (PBN), Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs) and STARs (Standard Terminal Arrival Routes) have been introduced at Delhi, Mumbai, Ahmedabad and Chennai order to reduce delays to aircraft.

Established a number of ATS Connector routes in Mumbai and Chennai airspace to facilitate PBN operations.

AAI has drawn the concept of future India Air Navigation (FIAN), and is on the threshold of introducing Air Traffic Flow Management over busy routes, dedicated helicopter routes, providing automation systems at 35 non metro control towers, and the use of space based augmentation system (GAGAN).

36

CHAPTER -2

LITERATURE REVIEW

37

1. Introduction to Stress in Air traffic Control 1.1 What is stress?

It is not easy to properly define what stress is, although it is quite a common experience for everyone.

Stress

is

a part of everyday life and not

necessarily a negative phenomenon, being a

physiological stimulus usually connected with human-environment interactions.

However, it can become a harmful risk factor for health when it is perceived as an imbalance between an excess of demands and the individual ability to meet them. This causes a perturbation of the psycho-physical equilibrium, taxing physical, psychic and behavioural responses aimed at coping with it. If this coping fails, stress can have harmful consequences on physical, mental and social well-being, with high costs both for the individual and society.

Stress at work can be generated by job demands, environmental conditions, work organization and human relations; its impact on job satisfaction, performance efficiencyand health can vary widely depending on the psycho-physical characteristics and coping resources of individuals, as well as on the social support received.

1.2 The sources of stress in air traffic control

Air traffic controllers (ATCs) are generally considered one of the working groups having to deal with a highly demanding job.

In fact, it entails a complex set of tasks requiring very high levels of knowledge and expertise, as well as the practical application of specific skills pertaining to cognitive domains (e.g. spatial perception, information processing, logic reasoning, decision making), communicative aspects and human relations. To have an idea of its complexity, it is sufficient to mention that, according to a job
38

analysis of en-route controllers carried out by a group of American researchers, 1 six main activities can be identified (i.e. situation monitoring, resolving aircraft conflicts, managing air traffic sequences, routing or planning flights, assessing weather impact, managing sector/position resources), which include 46 sub-activities and 348 distinct tasks. For example, the relevant cognitive/sensory attributes required for high performance levels at radar workstations are spatial scanning, movement detection, image and pattern recognition, prioritizing, visual and verbal filtering, coding and decoding, inductive and deductive reasoning, short- and long-term memory, and mathematic and probabilistic reasoning.

It is evident that the cognitive and operational processes of an ATC vary not only according to the number of aircraft under control, but also with the number and complexity of problems to be solved.2

The ATC must constantly reorganize his or her system of processing flight information by changing operating methods (in particular, cognitive processes, conversation, coordinating with assistants, anticipation and solving problems) as they arise and interact with each other. 3 This is carried out by means of the precise and effective application of rules and procedures that, however, need flexible adjustments according to differing circumstances, often under time pressure.

At the same time, the job includes high levels of responsibility, not only with regard to risking lives, but also for the high economic costs of aeronautical activities. According to several surveys4, the main sources of stress reported by air traffic controllers are connected both to operative aspects and to organizational structures (Table 1). For the former, the most important are peaks of traffic load, time pressure, having to bend the rules, limitations and the reliability
1

H.L.Ammerman, L.J.Bergen, D.K.Davies, C.M.Hostetler, E.E. Inman and G.W. Jones: FAAair traffic control operations concepts, Vol.VI.ARTCC/HOSTEn route controllers, report number DOT/FAA/AP/86-01 (Washington, Federal Aviation Administration, 1987). 2 S. Ratcliffe and H. Gent: "The quantitative description of a traffic control process", in Journal of Navigation, Vol. 27, 1974, pp. 317-322. 3 J.C. Sperandio: "The regulation of working methods as a function of work-load among air traffic controllers", in Ergonomics, Vol. 21, No. 3, 1978, pp. 195-202. 4 R.C. Smith: Stress, anxiety and the air traffic control specialist, Federal Aviation Administration Report No. FAA-AM-80-14 (Washington, 1980); E.W. Farmer, A.J. Belyavin, A. Berry, A.J. Tattersall and G.R.J. Hockey: Stress in air traffic control. I. Survey of NATS controllers, RAF Institute of Aviation Medicine Report No. 689 (Farnborough, 1990).

39

of equipment. The latter are mainly concerned with shift schedules (night work in particular), role conflicts, unfavourable working conditions and the lack of control over work.

These stress factors can affect not only job satisfaction, but the well-being and safety of ATCs. In fact, as the workload increases the ATC tends to employ more procedures which are less time consuming, together with a progressive reduction to the minimum of flight information and the relaxation of certain self-imposed qualitative criteria. It is evident that the number of decisions to be made becomes a stressful condition when the controller's decision-making capacity is stretched to the maximum; this can lead, in case of overload, to a very risky situation defined as "loss of picture".

On the other hand, it is frequently reported that, paradoxically, many errors often occur during periods of light or non-complex traffic. This points to the great effort required to regulate the psychophysical reactions, maintaining high level of arousal and vigilance even in conditions of "underload".

40

Table 1. Main sources of stress for ATCs

Demand: number of aircraft under control peak traffic hours extraneous traffic unforeseeable events

Operating procedures: time pressure having to bend the rules feeling of loss of control fear of consequences of errors

Working times: unbroken duty periods shift and night work

Working tools: limitations and reliability of equipment VDT, R/T and telephone quality equipment layout

Work environment: lighting, optical reflections noise/distracters microclimate bad posture rest and canteen facilities

Work organization: role ambiguity relations with supervisors and colleagues lack of control over work process salary public opinion

41

Another important stressful factor is shift work, connected with the requirement of an optimum use of all mental faculties at all hours of the day and night, sometimes irrespective of the workload. It has to be taken into account that an ATC's work performance can be impaired at certain hours of the day by an excessive workload, but it can also be lowered during the night by a decline in mental and physical functions, in spite of a reduced external load. In fact, a lack of stimulation from a low workload can further increase the normal drop in physical and mental efficiency during the night hours, connected to perturbation of sleeping habits and circadian rhythms of body functions. This can be particularly harmful in emergency situations.5

Furthermore, air traffic controllers are among the groups of workers more exposed to "critical accidents", these being situations which cause unusuallystrong emotional reactions, such as in the case of air accidents with loss of life or serious injury, near collisions or loss of control due to overload. The psychic (anger, guilt, grief, anxiety) and physical (tachycardia, hypertension, headache, sweating, heartburn, insomnia) reactions cannot only hamper work performance (poor attention and concentration, impaired thinking and memory), but can also give rise to long-term post-traumatic disorders.

1.3 The consequences on health and well-being

If we consider stress as the external demands upon an individual, it is clear that stress for air traffic controllers is connected, on the one hand, with the intrinsic characteristics of the job and, on the other hand, with the work organization and conditions in the workplace. It is important to bear in mind that the psycho-physical responses of individuals also depend on their resources, defined both in terms of personal characteristics and coping strategies. According to the "demand/control/support" model on stress at work6, high stress levels and consequent troubles and illnesses are more likely to develop in work activities where there is high
5

S. Folkard and T.H. Monk (eds.): Hours of work: Temporal factors in work scheduling (Chichester, John Wiley, 1985); and G. Costa: "Shiftwork and circadian variations of vigilance and performance", in J.A. Wise, V.D. Hopkin and M.L. Smith (eds.): Automation and systems issues in air traffic control, NATO ASI Series, Vol. F73 (Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1991), pp. 267-280 6 R. Karasek: "Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain", in Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 24, 1979, pp. 285-308; and J.V. Johnson and E.M. Hall: "Job strain, work place social support, and cardiovascular disease: A cross-sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population", in American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 78, No. 10, 1988, pp. 1336-1342.

42

psychological demand, but low decision latitude and inadequate social support at the workplace ("high strain job"). On the other hand, jobs having not only high psychological demands, but also a high decision latitude and adequate social support, are likely to determine an active behaviour that stimulates learning, motivation and labour productivity.

As far as air traffic control is concerned, it is evident that the job entails, on the whole, high psychological demands while being subjected to a considerable degree of external control.

This feeling of lack of personal influence that ATCs often complain of can be a powerful stressor, also taking into account that the job requires high levels of responsibility.

However, both "demand" and "control", as well as "social support", can vary widely according to several factors dealing with different working situations, e.g. work environment, equipment, work planning and procedures, workload distribution, team composition, working hours, rest pauses, shift schedules and human relations.7

Furthermore, the consequences on an ATC's performance and well-being may differ widely among individuals in relation to many factors dealing with age, life styles, life events, work experience, personality traits (introversion, anxiety, type A), behavioural characteristics (mood, sleeping habits, morningness), attitudes, motivation, and physical and mental health. Moreover,many other factors related to social conditions can play an important role in this respect, e.g. socio-economic status, housing conditions, commuting, family attitudes, social support and integration. 8 Therefore, all these aspects can have more or less influence on an ATC's job satisfaction, health and well-being according to different circumstances (Figure 1). They can interact and interfere with

V.D. Hopkin: "The measurement of the air traffic controller", in Human Factors, Vol. 22, No. 5, 1980, pp. 547560; C.E. Melton, R.C. Smith and J.M. McKenzie: "Stress in air traffic personnel: Low density towers and flight service stations", in Aviation, Space and Environment Medicine, Vol. 49, No. 10, 1978, pp. 724-728; and R.B. Stammers: "Human factors in airfield air traffic control", in Ergonomics, Vol. 21, No. 6, 1978, pp. 483-488. 8 M.W. Hurst and R.M. Rose: "Objective workload and behavioural response in airport radar control rooms", in Ergonomics, Vol. 21, No. 7, 1978, pp. 559-565; J.W.H. Kalsbeek: Some aspects of stress measurements in air traffic control officers at Schipol Airport, working paper presented to the Symposium on Stresses of the Air Traffic Control Officers, University of Manchester, Department of Postgraduate Medical Studies, 1976, pp.39-42; S. Karson: "Some relations between personality factors and job performance rating in radar controllers", in Aerospace Medicine, Vol. 40, 1969, pp. 823-826; and J.H. Crump: "Review of stress in air traffic control: Its measurement and effects", in Aviation, Space and Environment Medicine, Vol. 50, No. 3, 1979, pp. 243-248.

43

each other, giving rise to not only possible additive or multiplicative, but also subtractive effects, so that it is often very difficult to evaluate and compare the effective stress and strain in different groups and individuals. This is the reason why many studies on the stress of air traffic controllers reported apparently contradictory findings.

44

Figure 1. Main consequences of stress for air traffic controllers

SOURCES STRESS

OF

Work demands Operating procedures Working times Working tools Work environment Work organization

SHORT-TERM EFFECTS ON: Brain and cardiac activity Hormonal excretion Performance efficiency Mental processes Operative behaviour

LONG-TERM HEALTH:

EFFECTS

ON

Hypertension Ischaemic heart disease Diabetes Peptic ulcers Psychoneurotic disorders

INFLUENCED BY: Personality traits Skill Aptitude Motivation Experience Operating behaviour Coping strategies Social support

45

With regard to the short-term effects, an ATC's responses can be documented in terms of changes in hormonal secretion (e.g. adrenaline, non-adrenaline, cortisol), heart rate, blood pressure, muscular activity, cerebral waves, work performance (errors) and behaviour (sleeping, smoking, eating and drinking habits). These can indicate a normal, physiological adaptation of the individual to external stimulation, as well as an excessive strain due to an imbalance between demands and resources.

Most research indicates that these responses are in some way related to the workload, which can be evaluated in terms of the number of aircraft under control or expected to come under control, peak traffic counts, duration and type of communications, tight work schedules, and number and complexity of problems to be solved. However, big differences among air control centres can be recorded, mainly in relation to air traffic density.

On the other hand, they appear to be greatly influenced by subjective factors, such as personality traits (anxiety,
9

introversion),

aptitude,

skill,

ability,

motivation,

experience

and operating

behaviour.

In the long term, some studies indicate that this demanding occupational activity may be a risk factor for stress-related symptoms, such as headaches, chronic fatigue, heartburn, indigestion and chest pain, as well as for serious illnesses, such as hypertension, coronary heart disease, diabetes, peptic ulcers and psychoneurotic disorders.10

It is quite easy to foresee the high costs from both the existential and the economic point of view that these negative consequences of stress can have, not only for the single person, but also for companies and society.
9

Karson, op. cit.; R.C. Smith: "Comparison of the job attitudes of personnel in three air traffic control specialties", Aerospace Medicine, Vol. 44, 1973, pp. 918-927; G. Costa: "Evaluation of work load in a group of air traffic controllers", in Ergonomics, Vol. 36, No. 9, 1993, pp. 1111-1120. 10 C.F. Booze: The morbidity experience of air traffic control personnel, Federal Aviation Administration Report No. FAA-AM-78-21 (Washington, 1978); S. Cobb and R.M. Rose: "Hypertension, peptic ulcer and diabetes in air traffic controllers", in Journal of the American Medical Association, No. 224, 1973, pp. 489-492; J.D. Dougherty, D.K. Trites and J.R. Dille: "Self-reported stress-related symptoms among air traffic control specialists (ATCS) and non-ACTS personnel", in Aerospace Medicine, Vol. 36, 1965, pp. 956-960; M.G.P. Fisher: Stress and illness in air traffic controllers, Report to the Committee on Regulation of Air Traffic Controllers Hours (London, Civil Aviation Authority, 1989); R.M. Rose, C.D. Jenkins and M.W. Hurst: Air traffic controller health change study, Federal Aviation Administration Report No. FAA-AM-78-39 (Washington, 1978); and M. Singal, M.J. Smith, J.J. Hurell, J. Bender, R.S. Kramkowski and S.A. Salisbury: Hazard evaluation and technical assistance report: OHare International Airport, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Report No. TA 77-67 (Cincinnati, 1977).

46

Therefore, prevention and control of stress becomes a compulsory target for employees, in order to safeguard their physical, mental and social health; for companies, in order to improve the efficiency and reliability of the service; as well as for society as a whole, in order to guarantee the highest levels of safety and comfort for all included and affected by this very important work activity.

2. How to prevent stress at work

An effective strategy aimed at reducing stress should address both the causes and the consequences of stress, thus acting upon all factors involved concerning work organization, as well as the personal resources and social conditions of the controllers.

The possibility of making changes and improvements in job demands is determined mainly by technical factors related to the development of scientific knowledge with regard to air flight and control systems. Implementing new methods of automation in air traffic control activities, for example, could profoundly change job demands and characteristics. One result of such changes could be a modification in conditions which are known to cause stress.

On the other hand, specific arrangements of work organization and careful attention to the psycho-physiological conditions of ATCs are just as important tools capable of reducing stress and improving the comfort and well-being of operators.

In order to have an understanding of the possible practical interventions for stress prevention and attenuation, we can refer to the model of the stress development process reported in Figure 2.11

11

R. Karasek: "Stress prevention through work reorganization: A summary of 19 international case studies", in ILO: Conditions of Work Digest Preventing stress at work, Vol. 11, No. 2, 1992, pp. 23-41.

47

With respect to the particular aspects of an ATC's job, we will examine the possibilities at the different levels according to the following scheme, also giving some examples of programmes or interventions carried out by some ATC companies, agencies or institutions.

Intervention on the external socio-economic environment Legislation, international and national directives Social support

Intervention on technology and work organization Improving job planning and reliability of the work systems Reduction of working times and arrangement of working teams and rest pauses in relation to the workload Arrangement of shift schedules according to psycho-physiological and social criteria Participation in decision making

Intervention in working place and task structure Improving the work environment Lighting Noise Microclimatic conditions and indoor air quality Arranging workplaces according to ergonomic criteria Workstation design Working with visual displays units Sitting postures Intervention to improve individual responses and behaviour Individual ways of coping with stress Selection and training Counselling and other supporting measures at company level

Specific intervention for health protection and promotion Appropriate medical surveillance
48

3. Intervention on the external socio-economic environment

3.1 Legislation, international and national directives

The Air Navigation Commission of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has formulated the following objective for the task: "To improve safety in aviation by making States more aware and responsive to the importance of human factors in civil aviation operations through the provision of practical human factors material and measures developed on the basis of experience in States".

It is, therefore, necessary that states, organizations, companies and agencies involved in air traffic control make constant efforts for a more and more widespread exchange of know-how, expertise and guidelines to make possible a standardization and an effective integration of information services, flight data and air traffic management.

This is the main goal of the ICAO project on the Future Air Navigation System (FANS), that deals with a combination of satellite technology and the best of line-of-sight systems to provide an air navigational system which will overcome many of today's deficiencies on a global scale.

In Western Europe, for example, air traffic control is managed by 22 independent systems run autonomously by governments and agencies on a national basis. The EUROCONTROL International Convention defines, among the most prominent tasks, those concerning the promotion of common policies for ground and airborne navigational systems, and training of air traffic services staff.

In this perspective, the European ATC Harmonization and Implementation Programme (EATCHIP) is an important tool aimed at properly harmonizing the traffic services among member States in terms of airspace management, working rules and operational procedures, systems and human resources. In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has developed with the
49

collaboration of NASA and the Department of Defense a national plan for integration, coordination and research in the area of human factors support, also providing a relational database system concerning the impact of automation, human performance, selection, training and safety monitoring of ATC activities.

3.2 Social support

Social support is a crucial point in stress management. According to the Karasek and Johnson model, this is one of the three factors that concur in determining stress conditions. It can be seen in two main aspects:

the availability of social services aimed at satisfying ATCs' needs. They concern, for example, transport facilities for reducing commuting times, canteen and sleep facilities, and housing conditions;

the recognition at a social level of the importance of ATCs' activities and, consequently, its appreciation by the general population. ATCs complain that the general public do not fully understand the complexity and

importance of their job, which is often considered "second class". Michel,12 after an enquiry on job satisfaction within a group of Swiss controllers, pointed out that "the controllers' descriptions of their own profession are veryemphatic: ultra specialized, honourable, indispensable, irreplaceable, unique ... There is a shortage of descriptions to prove that this profession is unlike the others, and that it is one to be carried out with pride. This internal acknowledgement makes up for a lack of external image: the profession is little known among the general public, and is even often blamed for causing continuous traffic delays. The self- assessment is therefore indispensable for maintaining the will to work, and to work well".

This is probably determined by a scarcity of information and, therefore, the ATC companies should increase their activities in the field of public relations in order to give people adequate
12

S. Michel: "The impact of ICWS on the job satisfaction of controllers", in SWISSCONTROL, November 1993.

50

4. Intervention on technology and work organization

information about the ATCs' activities and, more generally, about the complexity of such activities, so that people can better appreciate the ATCs' job and role in modern society. 4.1 Improving job planing and reliability of the work systems

The passage from the old procedural methods to modern assistance, under total radar coverage of air space, is the main factor which enables a "jump in quality", not only in terms of work efficiency, but also in terms of stress levels, by reducing cognitive, memory and communicative loads as well as uncertainty and unforeseeability of the situations (that are, in most cases, the main sources of strain).

The further technological passage to operating under "multi-radar" assistance permits a further increase in levels of reliability and safety as well as a decrease in stress levels.

The improvement in coordinating the information flow among the centres in order to assure an increasingly safe, regular and expeditious air traffic flow is the other milestone which allows ATCs to operate safely and quietly.

This is made possible bymodernizing the telecommunication and radio assistance systems and improving the efficiency and reliability of equipment, as well as by the progressive automation of the aeronautical information service, flight data processing and air traffic management.

These improvements allow for better planning of air traffic and, consequently, a more balanced workload among centres, sectors and individual ATCs. These improvements may also subsequently reduce the possibility or the seriousness of many unforeseen situations, by allowing for more reliable information and more time for solving problems and making decisions, while eliminating many stressful and risky traffic peaks.

It is clear that the introduction of advanced automated systems in air traffic control activities can profoundly change job demands and content; therefore, it has to be carried out very

51

carefully.13

The goal of progressive automation is to maximize system safety and efficiency by reducing human workload and error. However, it can also increase some problems related to both cognitive processes and operative procedures. There is a justifiable concern for increased human boredom, decreased motivation, loss of situational awareness, over-reliance on and misuse of automated systems, and deterioration of skill.

Michel, after discussing with a group of Swiss controllers the impact that the new automated workstations may have on motivation and job satisfaction, pointed out some problems and the related risks that can arise.

Regarding information processing, it has to be taken into account that the cognitive competence of controllers consists of simultaneously mastering part of the procedure by application and/or adaptation type. For the moment, it is the controllers themselves who "decide" about this division according to their personality and cognitive structure. With automated workstations, this division will be taken over by the machine, and the controller will then only need to apply or adapt. Some may suffer from this and gain the impression that they can no longer pursue their own logic independently, that they are losing landmarks in their reasoning and that they can no longer think in a reliable manner

Automated systems are now able to provide aids for preventing conflicts. They will provide a "pre-processing" of situations of potential conflicts by showing the areas in which they exist (identification), the degree of urgency (classification) and even the type of solutions that can be considered. This processing carried out by the machine greatly diminishes the individual's decision power. This is certainly indispensable and unavoidable in terms of the reliability of the system, but it is also risky, having a notable effect on decision making. Indeed, what is the limit beyond which the controller will have the impression that his powers of decision are being "stolen" from him? How far can one go in letting him control the process of deciding and not simply "speaking the right

13

J.A. Wise, V.D. Hopkin and M.L. Smith (eds.): Automation and systems issues in air traffic control, NATO ASI Series, Vol. F73 (Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1991).

52

information into the microphone"? The answer to the question is not an easy one, since it is difficult to find the balance between the stress alleviation by increasing the security of the an/machine system, and the reduced involvement which reduces security through a drop of vigilance.

Another example in this field comes from the utilization of the automated Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS). The level of acceptance of TCAS, after more than 20 million hours of operation worldwide, has been clearly divided between pilots and controllers. From the line pilot's perspective, TCAS provides an "extra set of eyes in the cockpit" and increases overall situational awareness, especially in terminal area airspace. Overall, TCAS has been highly regarded by the pilot community, despite the operational shortcomings that have been identified during the TCAS Transition Programme in the United States.

Air traffic controllers, however, have complained about TCAS operation because of its incompatibilities with existing ATC procedures alerts, and that aircraft are leaving assigned clearances without ATC authorization and knowledge. These deviations are disruptive to a controller's plans, they increase workload and are often the cause of a great deal of unnecessary anxiety on the part of the ATCs involved.

4.2 Reduction of working times and arrangement of working teams and rest pauses in relation to the workload

The mental effort, required to maintain the highest level of attention and vigilance, as well as to safely and effectively face the task in terms of cognitive and memory load, can vary widely in relation to air traffic density and connected problems.

Therefore, to guarantee the best level of performance efficiency avoiding excessive mental stress and fatigue, particular attention has to be paid to arranging duty periods.

In relation to the peculiarity of the job and the characteristics of the demands, it is worth stressing that one of the most important aspects in this domain is flexibility, which should be used should be used in scheduling duty periods and arranging working teams and sectors according to the air
53

traffic density.

For example, the Committee on the Regulation of Air Traffic Controllers' Hours in the United Kingdom, after a wide survey on workloads, hours of duty, sleep, performance and fatigue, concluded that the regulation of working hours should be aimed at ensuring, as far as reasonably possible, that controllers' fatigue does not endanger aircraft, and thereby to assist controllers in providing a service safely and effectively.

(a) Duty periods:

the length of the duty period should not exceed ten hours (extendable to 12 hours in special circumstances), and should be adjusted according to the workload; an interval of no less than 12 hours should be scheduled between the conclusion of one period of duty and the commencement of the next period of duty; within a 30-day cycle (720 consecutive hours), the aggregate of periods of duty should not exceed 200 hours, and not fewer than three intervals of a minimum of 60 hours each should be allowed between the conclusion of one period of duty and the commencement of the next period of duty;

consecutive periods of duty should not exceed 50 hours in a seven-day cycle. After that, an interval of a minimum of 60 hours should be allowed before the commencement of the next period of duty;

overtime should be an exception.

(b) Breaks during operational duty:

no operational duty shall exceed a period of two hours without there being taken, during or at the end of that period, a break or breaks totalling no less than 30 minutes; during periods of high traffic density, the possibility of having more frequent short breaks (ten minutes) should be provided; a sufficiently long break for meals should be allowed, providing adequate canteen facilities to assure hot and good quality meals.
54

(c) Holidays:

during any consecutive period of 365 days, no fewer than ten days of total holiday entitlement shall be taken in periods of no less than five consecutive days.

4.3 Arrangement of shift schedules according to psycho-physiological and social criteria

Shift work, in particular night work, is a further stress factor for the ATCs due to its negative effects on various aspects of their lives, in particular as concerns:

disturbances of the normal biological rhythms, beginning with the sleep/wake cycle; changes in work performance and efficiency over the 24-hour period, with consequent errors and accidents as potential outcomes; negative effects on health and well-being, including troubles with the digestive function (disturbances of appetite, gastro duodenitis, colitis, peptic ulcers), nervous system (sleep deficit, anxiety, depression) and cardiovascular systems (ischemic heart diseases);

social problems, resulting from difficulties in maintaining the usual relationships both at the family and social levels, with consequent negative influences on marital relations, children's education and social contacts.

Recent studies and research have resulted in some recommendations for the design of shift- work systems aimed at avoiding or reducing dangerous effects on health, well-being and efficiency of shiftworkers.14 They can be summarized in the following points:

1. Adopting a rapidly-rotating shift system, changing work shifts every one or two days instead of

14

A. Wedderburn: Guidelines for shiftworkers, Bulletin of European Shiftwork Topics (BEST) No. 3 (Dublin, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 1991); and P. Knauth: "The design of shift systems", in Ergonomics, Vol. 36, Nos. 1/3, 1993, pp. 15-28.

55

every week (or longer), in order to cause less disturbance to the normal circadian rhythm of body functions, including performance. 2. Reducing the number of consecutive night shifts as much as possible (one or two at most), and having a day's rest after the night-shift period. This prevents accumulation of sleep deficit and fatigue, and allows a quicker recovery. 3. Delaying the beginning of the morning shift (e.g. at 07:00 or later) to allow a normal amount of sleep and to ensure the "REM sleep". 4. Preferring the forward rotation (e.g. morning-afternoon-night) to the backward one (e.g. afternoon-morning-night) to allow a longer period of rest between shifts. The forward rotation also parallels the "natural" tendency of body functions to lengthen the circadian rhythm over 24 hours when in "free-running" conditions (without external synchronizers). 5. Adjusting the length of shifts according to the physical and mental workload: day shifts should be shorter, whereas night shifts could be longer if the workload is reduced and there are sleeping facilities. 6. Giving the possibilityof a short sleep or naps during the night shift, arranging proper sleep facilities. This has been found to have favourable effects on performance, physiological adjustment and tolerance of night work. 7. Keeping the shift rotation as regular as possible, so that the shift cycle will not be too long and will include some free weekends. This allows a better organization of personal, family and social life.
8. Arranging a sufficiently long pause (45 to 60 minutes) for meals during the work shift, and

providing hot meals. Individuals should also adopt some personal strategies, in particular as concerns their sleeping and eating habits, such as:

1. Keeping to a tight sleeping schedule while on shift and night work and, as much as possible, avoiding disturbances (e.g. arranging the bedroom so that it is as silent and dark as possible; using ear plugs; making some arrangements with family members and neighbours). 2. Avoiding the use of sleeping pills, save in exceptional cases, and only under medical control.
56

3. Trying to adhere to the usual meal times, which can act as a good synchronizer of body functions. 4. Eating light meals no later than two hours before going to sleep; avoiding caffeinated drinks and alcohol; relaxing before going to sleep (light exercise, reading, watching television, listening to music). 5. During the night shift, having the main meal preferably before 01:00; thereafter, consuming only light snacks with a high carbohydrate level and soft drinks (fruit juices, milk).

According to these guidelines, the Italian ATC company, ANAV, has adopted for many years a fast-rotating shift schedule on a six-day cycle, as follows: first day: afternoon (13:00- 20:00); second day: morning (07:00-13:00); third day: night (20:00-07:00); fourth day: rest after the end of the night shift; fifth day: off; sixth day: off. The length of the work shifts is inversely associated with the traffic load, the morning and afternoon shifts being shortened to seven hours, in relation to higher air traffic loads, and the night shift being longer (11 hours) in relation to lower air traffic loads. Moreover, during the night shift, controllers are allowed to have long rest pauses alternatively, during which they can take naps in properly arranged rooms. This has been found to be very helpful in overcoming sleepiness and maintaining alertness and performance efficiency. In fact, in a study concerning their psycho-physical reactions, the examined controllers were shown to be maintaining a normal circadian synchronization of body rhythms, and high levels of awakeness and alertness (documented by mood and physical fitness rating scales, as well as by tests of performance and hormonal excretion) also during the night, in spite of the external understimulation.
15

Furthermore, the Committee on the Regulation of Air Traffic Controllers' Hours in the United Kingdom, has recently proposed that:
15

no more than two night shifts may be worked in immediate succession; upon the conclusion of two night shifts in immediate succession, there shall be an interval of a

Costa, 1993, op. cit.

57

minimum of 54 hours before the commencement of the next period of duty; delaying shift systems should be preferred to advancing systems.

4.4 Participation in decision making Participation of the controllers in decision making appears to be necessary to increase perceived influence, motivation, job satisfaction and performance efficiency, as well as to decrease stress and relative negative consequences, not onlyfor the individual, but also for the organization (role conflicts and role ambiguity, job-related communications, exasperated criticisms, strikes, etc.). This aspect is becoming more and more important as long as automated and expert systems are being introduced. The effect of automation can be very complex: some tasks are eliminated, others modified, and still others created. The adaptation of the controllers to such changes depends greatly on their involvement in the process, particularlyas concerns the man-machine cooperation and the utilization of skill and creativity in an apparently more normal and passive role, that otherwise can give rise to frustration and alienation.

Increased participation in decision making is one of the four main suggestions given by Farmer after a survey on British ATCs.16 Responses to job satisfaction items indicated that, although the controllers were satisfied with the intrinsic content of their work, they were rather dissatisfied with other aspects of the job, such as organizational design and structure, the value placed upon their efforts, internal processes within the organization, and personal relationships. The focus of such responses, together with numerous criticisms of management styles, suggest that more attempts should be made to foster more "democratic" decision making.

5. Intervention in working place and task structure

5.1 Improving the work environment

Particular attention has to be given to ensuring that environmental conditions in the control centres are suitable and comfortable as concerns, in particular, lighting, noise and microclimatic
16

Farmer et al., op. cit.

58

conditions.

5.1.1 Lighting Taking into consideration that the ATC's task is performed almost exclusively in front of a visual display unit, particular attention should be paid to providing lighting conditions which favour an optimal visual performance.

Lighting conditions are completely different inside the regional centres and the towers.

In the radar centres, dim light (under 200 lux) is usually used to favour the visual contrast on the screen. It has to be considered that the introduction of modern screens are brighter and in colour, allows an increase of the illumination levels in the control room (up to 500 lux), thus avoiding excessive (and troublesome) luminance contrasts between central and lateral visual fields, making the environment more stimulating, thus increasing vigilance and alertness.

The lighting should be indirect, obtained preferably by mixing natural and artificial light directed onto the ceiling and the walls and thus reflecting into the room. This gives a diffuse lighting in the work environment without shadows and glare. Each artificial lighting unit should contain two or more phaseshifted tubes to avoid flickering, which is extremely annoying, causes visual discomfort and makes the reading of the different traces on the screen more difficult.

Inside the towers, the opposite is the problem. It is necessary to avoid excessive illumination levels due to external bright light using both anti-reflection glass and curtains; it is also important to have the possibility of positioning and shielding the visual display units to avoid indirect glare due to bright reflections on the screen.

5.1.2 Noise The noise levels recorded inside control rooms are usually under the risk level for loss of hearing, but can have significant effects in terms of interference with speech communication, the disturbance of mental concentration and annoyance.

59

It is worth considering the peculiarity of verbal communication, carried out in a foreign language for most of the pilots and ATCs, and containing many unfamiliar, technical and cipher words.

The main sources

of noise

are represented by conversations, manual

operations

(e.g.

manipulations of strip supports) and office machines (printers, telephones, photocopiers, etc.).

Therefore particular attention has to be paid in order to stop background noise from exceeding 45-50 dB byinstalling quieter office machinery, arranging work sectors in order to have better sound protection from each other, and installing more insulating headsets and more sensitive microphones.

5.1.2 Microclimatic conditions and indoor air quality A comfortable working temperature is another important factor supporting the maximum efficiency of performance. It is well-documented that conditions of thermal discomfort favour loss of concentration and efficiency of mental tasks with a consequent increase of errors and irritability.

Microclimatic conditions must be maintained within the range of thermal comfort, that is air temperature between 20 and 24C, humidity between 30 and 70 per cent, and air velocity between 0.05 and 0.5 m/sec.

To ensure these conditions, it is necessary to install adequate air conditioning systems which must be maintained efficiently to guarantee a good indoor air quality

Indoor air, in fact, can be polluted both from human activities (odours, exhaled carbon dioxide, smoking) and by environmental contaminants (chemical substances, microbes). Therefore, it must be periodically changed (at least three times per hour) and purified (passing through adequate filters) in order to avoid people complaining of symptoms related to the so- called "sick building syndrome" (lethargy, tiredness, headache, blocked nose, dry eyes, sore throat, wheeziness, cough, general itchiness) that cannot only disturb work performance, but also cause sickness and absenteeism.

5.2 Arranging workplaces according to ergonomic criteria

60

5.2.1 Workstation design Particular attention has to be paid to the configuration of the workstation, in particular as concerns the console layout in terms of the positioning of radar screens and auxiliary displays, the disposition of commands and controls, and the design of the keyboard and other interfaces. Further standardization of the panel layout is required. Information and controls must be easy to understand and input devices easy to operate, according to logical processes of mental reasoning: delays and errors mayoccur because of confusing, misleading or excessively confusing documentation and information, poorlylocated knobs and levers, or lack of proper coding causing mismatches and mistakes.

Data displays containing flight information should preferably be located beside the radar screen, whereas the auxiliary displays showing maps or other complementary information can be placed above it.

High resolution and multi-colour displays are preferred; keyboards, rolling balls or joysticks should be movable to accommodate individual preferences; headset jacks must be positioned on both sides of the table and should not protrude.

It is also important to arrange the layout of the workplace in order to avoid glare caused by excessive brightness contrasts between different objects and surfaces; it causes discomfort and hampers the comprehension of the information. The displays should be shaded and the surfaces matte, avoiding the use of reflective materials and bright colours on table-tops and consoles. The luminance contrast between the screens and surrounding surfaces (plan-table, console frames, documents, keyboards, strips) should not exceed the ratio of 1:10.

The most advanced display systems allow for better performance with greater comfort because of their greater width, more favourable visual contrast, higher reliability, greater possibility of storing and retrieving information, and a better control layout.

On the other hand, particular attention has to be given to software ergonomics that can offer great possibilities for improving presentation, comprehension and processing of information. With
61

regard to this, it has been proved that an appropriate use of colours, symbols, line shaping, windows and figures facilitates and hastens data recognition and extraction. However, it is worth mentioning that drastic changes in workstation design and man-machine interfaces, often made possible by technological improvements, should be adopted very carefully, as they can cause excessive stress and decreased performance due to difficulties in the adaptation of mental processes and operating procedures. For example, according to a group of Swiss controllers interviewed by Michel17,the system of windowing raises the question of what should be on screen permanently and what should not, bearing in mind that even permanent presence does not mean total security. The excess of information forces the controller to perform a mental "sort" and he only consults that which he considers useful. Therefore incidents/accidents are very often due to misrepresentation of what is useful.

With automated workstations, the controllers have less to do with telephoning, listening and passing on information. These interpersonal communications can have an influence on the method of work and the search for solutions. Reduction of verbal and non-verbal communication might lead to a feeling of isolation and a poorer internal atmosphere; therefore, greater emphasis should be placed on the development of adequate levels of communication.

The abolition of paper strips should also be carefully considered. For most controllers, they fulfill a structuring role at a cognitive level and, in addition, they play an extremely important psychological role of reassurance (particularly in case of unforeseen breakdowns). There is nothing to prove that these psychological functions will be fulfilled by electronic strips, even though the technical functions will certainly be perfectly assured.

On the other hand, the four ODID (Operational Display and Input Development) simulation projects, carried out in the last seven years by EUROCONTROL, have pointed out some very interesting developments in the use of new technologies in human-computer interface. The

17

Michel, op. cit.

62

successive steps looked at the use of colour electronic data displays (ODID I and II), the use of the mouse in combinations of graphic displays (ODID III), and the replacement of the strips and radar displays with a composite picture of graphic images and on-screen input mechanism (ODID IV). The latter is programmed to present the controller with the most likely input order as a default value so that, in most cases, it is sufficient to point at a data field and press the mouse button to insert the data and the controller's intentions into the system. The input system is intuitive and logical, which makes it easy to use, easy to learn, and faster than the voice command over radio or telephone. Although the paper strips are replaced by an electronic display of data, the system has carefully maintained the working methods currently practised by controllers. An analysis of controller needs has led to a display system with which the controller will carry out his work in a similar manner as today. A Medium Term Conflict Assistance (MTCA) function has also been developed, which scans all flights for the controller and presents the results of this conflict detection for his inspection and action.

5.2.2 Working with visual display units The interaction between the ATC and a visual display terminal are mainly characterized in terms of data acquisition and interactive communication. The ATC has a continuous dialogue with the radarcomputer system by calling up information, scanning traces, inputting, reading and deleting data. The controller concentrates mainly on the radar screen and periodically glances at the side displays and keyboard. The radar screen should be placed in the centre of the visual field and should be adjustable in height, distance and angle to give the operator the possibility of arranging the best working position in order to avoid, on the one hand, prolonged contraction of the neck muscles and, on the other hand, an excessive effort of visual adjustment with consequent visual discomfort and fatigue. Therefore, it is recommended that the screen be placed within a viewing angle of 5 above and 30 below the horizontal plane of sight, and that the eye-screen distance is between 50 and 70 cm to facilitate visual adjustment. To give the operator the possibility of coming closer to the screen in order to focus better on traces in moments requiring particular attention, it is necessary that the table-top be not overly large but, at the same time, able to support the arms without interference with the keyboard.

5.2.3 Sitting postures

63

The ATC usually remains seated in front of the console, changing position slightly according to the working conditions. The ATC normally sits in the middle of or forward on the chair with his or her arms on the table-top when he or she is actively operating and needs precise control of the radar screen, and leaning on the backrest when he or she is on stand-by.

A prolonged, constrained sitting posture causes musculo-skeletal discomfort and pain, particularly at the level of the neck, the shoulders and the lumbar tract.

In order to avoid or alleviate such disturbances, it is important to use suitable chairs which allow a comfortable sitting posture while working, as well as useful muscle relaxation while on stand-by or resting in front of the screen.

A good chair should be designed for a forward and reclining sitting posture, adjustable in height and angle, rotating on a five-legged base. It should also have user-friendly controls, have wide arms and a high backrest, a pad for lumbar support and a head-rest. The seat should be made of a sufficiently resistant padding of foam rubber covered with non-slip and permeable material, and it should also have a slight hollow and a rounded front edge turned upwards about 4 to 6 degrees above the horizontal plane. The break periods between operational duty should also be used as "postural pauses", the controller should stand and walk around, stretching his body. Moreover, a programme for improving physical fitness should be planned, aimed at preventing lower-back pain by providing gymnasiums to be used by the ATCs during their relief periods. There should also be technical guidance aimed at showing the most appropriate exercises that should be done for the most effective "postural pause".

6. Intervention to improve individual responses and behaviour

64

6.1 Individual ways of coping with stress Managing stress properly also requires that the individual learn how to cope effectively in terms of personal lifestyles and behaviours.18

A. First of all, people should avoid ineffective ways of coping, which can have an apparent short term positive effect but, in the long run, can cause further problems in health and well-being. We refer, in particular, to smoking, alcohol drinking and drug consumption.

Increasing smoking (for smokers) and/or alcohol intake is sometimes seen as a way of obtaining a sense of relief and calmness. Of course, apart from short-term relief, there are many adverse effects both on performance efficiency, due to interference with the upper nervous system activities, and on health, due to increased risk of lung tumours and chronic bronchitis from smoking, and of stomach and liver diseases from alcohol. For example, in the study of Farmer among 618 British ATCs, 19 "the average level of alcohol consumption was related primarily to personality: those who drank more were likely to be extroverts, tough-minded, and relatively unambitious, and to have low behavioural control". The association between this last personality variable and drinking was mediated by use of alcohol to cope with the pressures of the job. The consumption of drugs (e.g. stimulants, tranquillizers or anti-depressants) can have a positive effect only if they are used under medical supervision and attention is paid to their negative effects on vigilance and performance! as auxiliary and temporary support for the organization of effective strategies aimed at removing the causes of stress. In any other case, they become a dangerous masking factor of the stress condition that is more likely to become chronic and cause dangerous drug dependence and addiction. For example, as far as the delicate problem of alcohol and drug abuse is concerned, the Canada Air Traffic Control Association, jointly with Air Traffic Services and Civil Aviation Medicine, has developed a programme called Working Together, aimed at (a) helping controllers who have a chemical
18

J.M. Atkinson: "Analysis of mental processes involved in air traffic control", in Ergonomics, Vol. 14, 1988, pp. 565-570; C.L. Cooper, R.D. Cooper and L.H. Eaker: Living with stress (Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1988). 19 Farmer et al., op. cit.

65

dependency (alcohol or drug) problem get back to work earlier after initial treatment;

and

(b)

increasing awareness of existing resources for the prevention, early identification, assessment and rehabilitation of chemical dependency problems.

Also, Transport Canada personnel licensing medical standards normally require a two-year waiting period before the return of a License Validation Certificate after loss due to alcohol or drug dependency problems. The programme facilitates a much earlier reinstatement of the license by providing a structured rehabilitation framework that includes a peer support network. It also encourages controllers to seek help early before their license is potentially affected.

It features a voluntary follow-up support programme. Controllers with a chemical dependency problem who wish to participate agree both to enter into a compliance agreement, which sets out the relicensing requirements of Civil Aviation Medicine and to enlist the help of a follow-up support team. This team, chosen by the recovering individual, consists of a physician and one, or preferably two, other trained support team members (controller and/or manager). Team members are knowledgeable in the area of chemical dependency. They are selected from a roster and trained for their role within the follow-up support process. Each support team member understands the nature of a chemical dependency problem and is supportive during the rehabilitation process.

Each follow-up support team member, who is personally selected by the individual, is required to keep all information regarding the participant's follow-up programme confidential, except in two specific instances: (1) the physician member of the support team is required to submit confidential periodic reports regarding the participant's progress to the regional aviation medical officer to facilitate LVC reinstatement and to assess continuing medical fitness for ATC licensing; and (2) only with prior written consent provided by the participant will information be considered mutually essential and directly involved in the participant's recovery. shared with specific people

Furthermore, controllers concerned about potential personal problems related to chemical dependencyhave access to CATCA Controller Advisors, ATCIH Health and Lifestyle Consultants and
66

Physicians, plus Transport Canada Regional Counsellors for information relating to chemical dependency prevention and rehabilitation; assistance in seeking referrals for assessment, counselling and treatment; and advice on other related issues.

B. Secondly, maintaining good physical fitness and emotionally stable psychic conditions are the best aids in fighting and overcoming stress.

To stay in satisfactory condition, people should pay particular attention to physical exercise, eating habits, sleeping patterns, relaxation techniques and leisure activities.

There is no doubt that physical exercise, if carried out regularly and in a non-competitive way, is beneficial for all the body functions improving both physical and psychological well-being. However, particular attention should be given by the controllers to secondary occupations and/or sport activities which could hamper proper relaxation or adequate sleep, thus leading to greater tiredness or reduced alertness while on duty.

Proper eating habits are also important in keeping the person fit. A balanced diet, having light and easily digested meals before and during work, can support work performance during duty periods, avoiding drops in mental efficiency and drowsiness that generally occur after heavy meals. A diet with a low-fat content and the right amount of calories, aimed at maintaining an ideal body weight, also has a strong influence in preventing degenerative processes for chronic digestive and cardiovascular diseases, for which both stress and obesity are important risk factors.

Preserving sleep both in terms of quantity (for recovering from physical fatigue) and quality (for psychic well-being), is a very important anti-stress measure. Sleeping troubles, in fact, can be an early symptom of stress, but can make the person more vulnerable to stress as well. Should these troubles arise, the person should not use sleeping tablets (or only as a last resort), but try behavioural methods, such as taking more exercise to become more tired before going to bed; adopting stricter times for going to bed and getting up; avoiding eating before going to bed; having a light dinner with a prevalent content of carbohydrates rather than proteins; not taking stimulants, such as alcoholic beverages, tea,
67

coffee and soft drinks containing caffeine; having a warm bath before going to bed; arranging a comfortable bedroom protected from disturbing noises; listening to relaxing music or reading before sleeping.

Relaxation techniques are becoming more and more popular among people who feel to be under stress. Massage, yoga, meditation and autogenous training are all useful exercises which help to control restlessness, anxiety, muscular tension, inability to concentrate, insomnia and other symptoms of stress.

Leisure time activities may help fight stress provided that they have a recreative aim and are not taken too seriously, in order to avoid them becoming another stressor. Depending on personality characteristics, some people prefer individual activities (such as fishing, painting, listening to music, reading and do-it-yourself); others need group activities (such as team games and social groups).

Educational activities concerning all these important aspects are provided by many ATC companies. They are carried out by means of printed materials (newsletters, brochures, posters) as well as by seminars and periodic meetings. Lifestyle consultants work with employees and managers to help them become aware of lifestyle practices that promote physical and mental health by providing lifestyle assessment and programming, such as good nutrition, physical fitness, relaxation, medication and prevention of illnesses.

6.2 Selection and training Improvements in selection procedures are desirable. The Swedish Civil Aviation Administration, in close cooperation with Uppsala University, implemented an integrated training programme in 1974 that lead to positive results by reducing the average failure rate of applicants by almost 20 per cent (it passed from 54 per cent during the 1970s to 66 per cent during the 1980s and to 74 per cent during the 1990s). The expert group reported that an important prerequisite for a successful training result is an efficient selection procedure based on a well thought-out chain, consisting of an information-introduction-skill test, assessing in substance the most important groups of the key behaviours derived from a work analysis based on the critical incident technique, such as decision making in a dynamic process; self-confidence; information gathering and
68

processing; social relations; and communication. Moreover, it became clear that efforts have to be made in order to continually pin-point key behaviours in changing technology. In fact, if a new technology or system is to be introduced, it is important and fundamental to be assured that operators accept the new technique and that the new technique will create opportunities for them to improve their performance. They must also be informed in advance of how to be trained to achieve this new standard of performance. Furthermore, the results of trying to apply modern training techniques, for example programmed skill-training and to teaching the instructor to become a mentor and a coach, is now believed to be the most promising measure taken to improve the outcome of basic ATC training.
20

Personality variables (e.g. conscientiousness, trait anxiety, neuroticism/emotional stability, type A, non-assertive behaviour) also play an important role in flight safety and may be associated with many stress effects. 21 For example, in a large study concerning 1,790 students of the FAA Academy22, it was shown that the proportion of students who passed at the Academy decreased as a function of increasing levels of anxiety, and that the proportion of students who either failed or were in the withdrawal/incomplete category increased as a function of increasing levels of anxiety. On the other hand, a higher proportion of ATCs with lower anxiety scores were successful in field training compared to the group of trainees with high anxiety scores.23

Therefore, greater emphasis on these factors during selection and training may increase both the performance efficiency and the level of resistance to stress of ATCs. Periods of training are also of crucial importance for the education of ATCs in terms of stress prevention. An effective training programme aimed at understanding the needs and capacities of
20

The Controller, No. 4, 1993.

G. Costa, G. Schallenberg, A. Ferracin and E. Gaffuri: Psychophysical conditions of air traffic controllers evaluated by the Standard Shiftwork Index, in Work and Stress, 1994.
21 22

W.E. Collins, D.J. Schroeder and L.N. Nye: "Relationships of anxiety scores to screening and training status of air traffic controllers", in Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine, March 1991, pp. 236-240.

L. Hitchcock: The FAA approach to human factors, in H. David (ed.): European Group for Human Factors in Air Traffic Control, Task AT27, EEC Note 19/92 (Bretigny-sur-Orge, EUROCONTROL, 1992).
23

69

the individual, and balancing individual needs with organizational needs, is able to improve not only technical learning but also motivation, job satisfaction and human relations.

Training should also aim, in particular, at teaching occupational and specific coping strategies in order to improve the capacity of event appraisal and problem solving, so that ATCs learn how to cope with emotional effects of stressful events and improve the capacity of control.

Air traffic controllers should be trained to develop action-oriented and problem-focused coping abilities. Positive acceptance and reappraisal of stress situations, active coping, seeking social support for instrumental and emotional reasons must be strengthened, while inclination towards restraint coping, behavioural and mental disengagement should be restricted.

An important part of the training should also be devoted to improving interaction between controllers and pilots, promoting meetings aimed at increasing a mutual understanding of each other's work tasks, problems and operative behaviours.

Periodical refresher courses on the English language for non-native speaking people are also important for improving self-confidence and avoiding stressful and risky misunderstandings while communicating.

6.3 Counselling and other supporting measures at company level

Psychological support and counselling given by psychologists appears to be an important aspect of the coping strategies that can be activated at company level. This should be carried out periodically and, in particular, on occasions of high emotional stress and anxiety due to conflicts or errors that can lead to burn-out. This should be concerned with improving self-control, developing a more effective capacity of choosing among alternative modes of action and behaviour, and to gaining more information about reactions by monitoring self-behaviour, emotions and thoughts.

For example, the Transport Canada Counselling Service has set a specific programme for critical
70

incident stress management (CISM). It consists of both pre-incident education and post- incident support services, managed by teams of mental and occupational health professionals. 24 It is aimed at increasing awareness about critical incident stress (CIS) and post-traumatic disorders, teaching effective techniques for managing and reducing strain, and giving support for a defusing and/or debriefing process of the event to help alleviate the immediate stress reactions and to promote a quick return to routine activities.

The

"debriefings"

are

structured

group

meetings

that

emphasize

educational

and

informational elements which are of great assistance for emergency personnel in understanding and dealing with stress generated by the event. The support process is ideally conducted within 24 to 72 hours25 after the incident and generally lasts two to four hours in length.

The "defusings" are a shortened version of the debriefing. They are usually 20 to 90 minutes long in an ATC environment. It must be done within eight hours of an incident.

"Follow-up services" are always necessary after a defusing to ensure that the personnel are adequately managing stress. This may be done in several ways, e.g. by telephone, by direct contact with the person or, in extreme situations, by providing debriefing to family members as well. The maintenance of confidentiality is vital to the success of these services.

Their introduction is of paramount importance, considering that approximately 86 per cent of individuals experiencing CIS will have some cognitive, physical or emotional reaction within 24 hours after the incident. If unmanaged, 22 per cent will have symptoms six months to one year after the event, and approximately 4 per cent run the risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorders.

References
H.L. Ammerman , L.J. Bergen, D.K. Davies, C.M. Hostetler, E.E. Inman and G.W. Jones: FAA air traffic control operations concepts, Vol. VI, ARTCC/HOST En route controllers, report
24

M.G.P. Fisher: Stress and illness in air traffic controllers,Report to theCommittee onRegulation of Air Traffic Controllers Hours (London, Civil Aviation Authority, 1989). 25 International CivilAviationOrganization (ICAO):Manual of civil aviation medicine (Montreal, 1985).
71

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75

CHAPTER -3

DATA ANALYSIS

76

Table 3. 1

Age profile Category 20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50 50 plus Total No. Percentage 30.00% 46.67% 16.67% 6.67% of 100.00% No. of respondents 9 14 5 2 30

respondents

Inference

From the above table, it is inferred that out of the respondents of the Trivandrum Air

Traffic Control majority fall in the age category of 30 40 yrs, with the 20 30 yrs category having the second highest number of respondents

Age profile
50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% 20 - 30 30 - 40 40 - 50 50 plus 16.67% 6.67% Age profile 30.00% 46.67%

Figure 3. 1

Interpretation The collected data leads to the interpretation that the Air traffic Control comprises of a young workforce that is expected to show heightened senses as compared to the older category that operate supervisory roles

77

Table 3. 2

Gender profile of respondents No. of respondents Male Female Total no. of respondents 23 7 30 Percentage 76.67% 23.33% 100%

Inference

From the above table, it is inferred that out of the respondents of the Trivandrum Air

Traffic Control majority are men (76.67%) with women forming 23.33% of the workforce.

Gender Profile of Respondents

Female 23.33% Male 76.67% Male Female

Figure 3. 2

Interpretation From the collected data, it is interpreted that the Air Traffic Control workforce at the Trivandrum Airport is male dominant in terms of numbers as opposed to the number of female Air traffic controllers

78

Table 3. 3

Stress rating at workplace No. of respondents Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. of respondents 0 3 17 8 2 30 Percentage 0% 10% 56.67% 26.67% 6.66% 100%

Inference

From the above table, it is inferred that one-third of the 30 respondents find the

stress at the workplace high or very high, with the majority of 56.67% rating the stress levels to be moderate

Stress rating at workplace

60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% 0.00% 10.00% 26.67% 6.66% Stress rating at workplace 56.67%

Figure 3. 3

Interpretation The job of an Air Traffic Controller at the Trivandrum Airport is a fairly stressful on the high side, as per the perception of the respondents

79

Table 3. 4

Effect of stress on performance Declines Unaffected Improves Total no. 14 11 5 of 30 46.67% 36.67% 16.66% 100%

respondents

Inference

46.66% of the respondents found the stress to be detrimental to their performance

whereas a minority of 16.66% find it useful to improve performance and 11 respondents who form the remaining 36.66% find it doesnt affect their performance.

Effect of stress on performance

50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% Declines Unaffected Improves 16.66% Effect of stress on performance 46.67% 36.67%

Figure 3. 4

Interpretation

From the collected data it can be interpreted that the present stress levels at the

Trivandrum ATC, as perceived by the majority of the respondents are having a negative impact on their work performance and thereby could possibly be detrimental to the overall performance of the ATC.

80

Table 3. 5

Number of aircraft under control Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. 0% 0% 6.67% 23.33% 70% of 100% 0 0 2 7 21 30

respondents

Inference

From the above table, it can be inferred that out of the total respondents, 70% experience

very high levels of stress linked to the number of aircrafts they handle at a time

Number of Aircraft under control

80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 70%

23.33% 0% 0% 6.67%

Number of Aircraft under control

Figure 3. 5

Interpretation Having multiple aircrafts under ones purview demands proportionately higher levels of response and decisions that inevitably leads to high levels of stress linked with the no. of aircrafts one is handling.

81

Table 3. 6

Peak traffic hours Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. 0% 0% 16.67% 36.67% 46.66% of 100% 0 0 5 11 14 30

respondents

Inference

From the above table it can be inferred that the stress arising out of peak traffic hours are

rated to be very high (46.66%) and high (36.67%).

Peak traffic Hours

50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0% Very low Low Moderate High Very high 0% 16.67% Peak traffic Hours 36.67% 46.66%

Figure 3. 6

Interpretation A very large portion of the total no of respondents find the stress due to peak traffic hours cause a huge work load demand and a proportionately high levels of stress

82

Table 3. 7

Extraneous traffic Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. 0% 26.67% 33.33% 40% 0% of 100% 0 8 10 12 0 30

respondents

Inference

From the above table it can be seen that 33.33% of the respondents find the stress arising

out of extraneous traffic to be moderate while 40% rate it as a source of high stress

Extraneous Traffic
45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 40% 33.33% 26.67% Extraneous Traffic

0% Very low Low Moderate High

0% Very high

Figure 3. 7

Interpretation Extraneous traffic causes diversion of attention and ultimately tends to distract the respondents from their task at hand, which is also highly demanding. This undesirable traffic causes unwanted apprehension and stress.

83

Table 3. 8

Unforeseeable events Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. 0% 0% 3.33% 43.33% 53.34% of 100% 0 0 1 13 16 30

respondents

Inference

From the collected data it is inferred that 53.34% of the respondents rate the stress due to

unforeseeable events to be very high, while 43.33% rate it as high.

Unforeseeable events
60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0% 0% 3.33% Unforeseeable events 43.33% 53.34%

Figure 3. 8

Interpretation A change from routine procedure or plan of action while performing task tends to distress the respondents of the Trivandrum ATC highly, especially when untoward incidents happen on board/ to the plane.

84

Table 3. 9

Time pressure Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. 0% 3.33% 16.67% 46.67% 33.33% of 100% 0 1 5 14 10 30

respondents

Inference

From the above table, it can be inferred that 46.67% of the total respondents rate the

stress due to time pressure to be high, whereas 33.33% rate it as very high.

Time pressure
50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0% Very low Low Moderate High Very high 3.33% 16.67% Time pressure 46.67% 33.33%

Figure 3. 9

Interpretation Having to make split-second decisions and a job that demands attention to multiple factors at the same time are inevitably a source of stress that places high work load pressure on the respondents

85

Table 3. 10

Having to bend rules Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. 3.33% 10% 43.34% 23.33% 20% of 100% 1 3 13 7 6 30

respondents

Inference

It is inferred that 43.34% of the respondents rate the stress due to having to bend the rules

to be moderate. 23.33% are of the opinion that it is a source of high levels of stress

Having to bend rules

50.00% 45.00% 40.00% 35.00% 30.00% 25.00% 20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% 43.34%

23.33% 10% 3.33%

20% having to bend rules

Figure 3. 10

Interpretation From the collected data it can be interpreted that the fear of being caught on account of deviating from procedure to make work easy but adding relatively higher element of risk to it, causes considerable level of stress to the respondents

86

Table 3. 11

Feeling loss of control Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. of 6.67% 13.33% 40% 23.33% 16.67% 2 4 12 7 5 30

respondents

Inference

Feeling the loss of control during operational procedures was rated as a source of

moderate stress by as high as 40% of the respondents. 23.33% of the respondents claim the stress levels are high.

Feeling loss of control

45.00% 40.00% 35.00% 30.00% 25.00% 20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% 40%

23.33% 13.33% 6.67% 16.67% Feeling loss of control

Figure 3. 11

Interpretation A job with high work load demand and levels of responsibility combined with accountability cause stress to the respondents when they feels that they are losing control over a part or whole of their work process

87

Table 3. 12

Fear of consequences of errors Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. of 0% 6.67% 13.33% 23.33% 56.67% 0 2 4 7 17 30

respondents

Inference

From the above table, it can be inferred that 56.67% of the total respondents find the

stress levels due to fear of consequence of errors to be very high, while 23.33% rate it as high.

Fear of consequence of errors

60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 6.67% 0% 13.33% 23.33% Fear of consequence of errors 56.67%

Figure 3. 12

Interpretation The high levels of risk attached to an aircraft in terms of human life and the monetary factors cause the air traffic controllers to be extra cautious about not committing any errors that lead to irreversible disasters, invariably causing the ATC s high levels of stress.

88

Table 3. 13

Limitations and unreliability of equipments Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. 0% 0% 6.67% 20% 73.33% of 100% 0 0 2 6 22 30

respondents

Inference

It can be inferred from the collected data that 73.33% of the total respondents find the

stress related to the limitations and unreliability of the equipments, to be very high. 20% rate it as a source of high level of stress.

limitations and Unreliability of equipments

80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 0% 0% 6.67% 20% limitations and Unreliability of equipments 73.33%

Figure 3. 13

Interpretation An Air Traffic Controller cannot afford to have any weak links in his work process. The equipments serve as the most vital and relevant link between an ATC and the aircrafts pilot. Any degree of unreliability or/and limitations in the equipment thus inevitably causes very high levels of stress in the respondents.

89

Table 3. 14

VDT, R/T and telephone quality Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. of respondents 3.33% 10% 33.33% 36.67% 16.67% 1 3 10 11 5 30

Inference

From the above table it can be inferred that 36.67% of the respondents rate the stress

arising out of VDT, R/T and telephone quality to be high as opposed to 33.33% that rate it as moderate

VDT, R/T and telephone quality

40.00% 35.00% 30.00% 25.00% 20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% 33.33% 36.67%

16.67% 10% 3.33% VDT, R/T and telephone quality

Figure 3. 14

Interpretation This leads to the interpretation that having quality VDT, R/T and telephone systems is highly essential to reduce the stress levels of the respondents as it helps to establish and maintain communication lines with the aircrafts under control for issuance of appropriate and timely instructions.

90

Table 3. 15

Equipment Layout Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. 16.67% 23.33% 26.67% 20% 13.33% of 100% 5 7 8 6 4 30

respondents

Inference

It can be inferred from the above table that 26.67% of the total respondents rate the stress

due to the equipment layout to be of moderate levels with 23.33% rating the stress levels to be low

Equipment Layout
30.00% 25.00% 20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00% 0.00% 23.33% 16.67% 26.67% 20% 13.33% Equipment Layout

Figure 3. 15

91

Interpretation Equipment layout needs to be of a kind that is easily accessible and operatable because of the time factor that is involved in the job of an ATC. The equipment layout at the ATC of the Trivandrum Airport happens to be one such layout that doesnt cause worrying levels of stress to the majority of the workforce. Information and controls must be easy to understand and input devices easy to operate, according to logical processes of mental reasoning: delays and errors may occur because of confusing, misleading or excessively confusing documentation and information, poorly located knobs and levers, or lack of proper coding causing mismatches and mistakes.

92

Table 3. 16

Working environment factors that cause the most stress Lighting, optical reflections noise/ distracters microclimate bad posture rest and canteen facilities Total no. of respondents 10% 16.67% 16.67% 23.33% 43.33% 1005 3 2 5 7 13 30

Inference

From the above table and graph, it is evident that 13 respondents view the stress caused

due to working environment factors such as rest and canteen facilities to be the issue that requires immediate attention. 7 respondents rate bad posture as the top issue while 5 respondents want a better microclimate. Issues such as lighting and external noise have 3 respondents each rating it as the top issue.

Working environment factors that cause the most stress

50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 43.33% 23.33% Working environment factors that cause the most stress

10%

16.67%

16.67%

Figure 3. 16

93

Interpretation The ATC usually remains seated in front of the console, changing position slightly according to the working conditions. The ATC normally sits in the middle of or forward on the chair with his or her arms on the table-top when he or she is actively operating and needs precise control of the radar screen, and leaning on the backrest when he or she is on stand-by, hence lack of proper rest facilities and bad posture top the list of stressors

94

Table 3. 17

Role ambiguity Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. 0% 10% 30% 36.67% 23.33% of 100% 0 3 9 11 7 30

respondents

Inference

From the table, one can view that 36.66% of the respondents view the stress due to role

ambiguity to be high. 30% rate it as of moderate stress while 23.33% view it to be a source of very high stress. 10% of the respondents feels the stress caused is low.

Role ambiguity
40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 36.67% 30% 23.33% Role ambiguity 10% 0% Very low Low Moderate High Very high

Figure 3. 17

Interpretation In an environment like that of an ATC, where time, responsibilities with no room for error and accountability are top priority factors, role ambiguity can cause a detrimental effect of causing high levels of stress among the respondents

95

Table 3. 18

Role conflicts Very low Low Moderate High Very high 0% 0% 20% 50% 30% 0 0 6 15 9 30

Total no. of 100% respondents

Inference

From the collected data, it is observed 50% of the respondents feel high stress due to role

conflicts. 9 out of the 30 respondents rate the stress caused to be very high. The remaining 20% feel the stress levels caused due to role conflicts to be moderate.

Role conflicts
60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Very low Low Moderate High Very high 0% 0% 20% 30% Role conflicts 50%

Figure 3. 18

Interpretation Having to perform multiple tasks simultaneously requires high degree of multi-tasking capabilities and at times leads to performing unrelated procedures for the given tasks at hand, which leads to increased mental reasoning and movements prioritizing the various tasks to minimize the role conflicts thus causing stress.

96

Table 3. 19

Relations with supervisors and colleagues Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. 0% 0% 20% 46.67% 33.33% of 100% 0 0 6 14 10 30

respondents

Inference

From the above table, it is inferred that 33.33% of the respondents feel that the stress

caused due to relations with supervisors and colleagues is very high. As high as 46.66% rate it as cause of high stress. Only 20% view it as of moderate stress.

Relations with supervisors and colleagues

50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0% 0% 20% Relations with supervisors and colleagues 46.67% 33.33%

Figure 3. 19

Interpretation Maintaining good relations with supervisors and peers and establishing and maintaining a good internal support network would be a good inhibitor to the levels of stress caused.

97

Table 3. 20

Lack of control over work process Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. 0% 10% 30% 43.33% 16.67% of 100% 0 3 9 13 5 30

respondents

Inference

It is inferred from the above table that lack of control over work process with respect to

the organizational aspects cause high levels of stress to 43.33% of the respondents as opposed to 30% who rate it as a source of moderate stress.

Lack of control over work process

50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0% 16.67% 10% Lack of control over work process 30% 43.33%

Figure 3. 20

Interpretation Participation of the controllers in decision making appears to be necessary to increase perceived influence, motivation, job satisfaction and performance efficiency, as well as to decrease stress and relative negative consequences, not only for the individual, but also for the organization

98

Table 3. 21

Salary Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. 0% 60% 40% 0% 0% of 100% 0 18 12 0 0 30

respondents

Inference

From the above table, it can be inferred that 60% of the total respondents rate the stress

related to salary to be low as opposed to the 40% that rate it as moderate.

Salary
70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Very low Low Moderate High Very high 0% 0% 0% Salary 40% 60%

Figure 3. 21

Interpretation It can thus be interpreted that salary is not a significant stressor, supporting the by the respondents who also highlighted that the salary is quite satisfactory.

99

Table 3. 22

Public opinion Very low Low Moderate High Very high Total no. 0% 36.67% 56.67% 6.66% 0% of 100% 0 11 17 2 0 30

respondents

Inference

The above table leads to the inference that 56.67% of the total respondents rate stress due

the public opinion about the job of an ATC , to be moderate, while 36.67% rate it as a source of low stress.

Public opinion
60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 0% Very low Low Moderate High Very high 6.66% 0% 36.67% Public opinion 56.67%

Figure 3. 22

Interpretation Stress related to public opinion is insignificant

100

Table 3. 23

Do your peers help to reduce your stress? yes no 73.33% 26.67% 22 8 30

Total no. of 100% respondents

Inference

From the above table it can be inferred that 73.33% of the total respondents agree that

their peers help to reduce their stress.

Do your peers help to reduce your stress?

80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% yes no 26.67% Do your peers help to reduce your stress? 73.33%

Figure 3. 23

Interpretation A good support and stress sharing network exists in the work environment that helps to keep a check on the levels of stress from crossing into the high and very high levels. Some respondents prefer to handling their stress on their own due to being capable of doing so and also to avoid causing inconvenience to others in a work environment where time is of great importance.

101

Table 3. 24

Early phase training sufficient to handle stress yes no Total no. of respondents 56.67% 43.33% 13 30 17

Inference

56.67% of the respondents find the early phase training to be sufficient enough to handle

the day-to-day stress at the workplace.

Early phase training sufficient to handle stress

60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% yes no Early phase training sufficient to handle stress 56.67% 43.33%

Figure 3. 24

Interpretation An almost balanced response indicates the divide among the two perceptions about the early phase training, with almost half the respondents rating it as a sufficient tool to handle stress. At the same time, some respondents felt that the periodic training was required or essential

102

Table 3. 25

Frequent/periodic training to handle stress yes no Total no. of respondents 36.67% 63.33% 11 19 30

Inference

From the above data, it can be inferred that 63.33% feel that there is a lack of frequent

training programs to handle stress

Frequent/periodic training to handle stress

70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% yes no 36.67% Frequent/periodic training to handle stress 63.33%

Figure 3. 25

Interpretation The respondents feel that there is a need for periodic training programs to be organized by AAI so as to help the employees, especially the ATCs to handle the considerable levels of daily stress that they are exposed to.

103

Table 3. 26

Interpersonal relationships with pilots who fly regularly on same routes helps to reduce stress yes no 66.67% 33.33% 20 10 30

Total no. of 100% respondents

Inference

From the collected data, it can be inferred that 66.67% of the total respondents agree that

establishing interpersonal relationships with pilots who fly regularly on same routes, helps to reduce stress

Interpersonal relationships with pilots who fly regularly on same routes helps to reduce stress
80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% 66.67% Interpersonal relationships with pilots who fly regularly on same routes helps to reduce stress

33.33%

yes

no

Figure 3. 26

Interpretation Having a certain comfort level with pilots helps the ATCs to communicate better and be less apprehensive of opposition from the pilot with respect to deviation from issued directions, that inevitably helps to reduce stress that would otherwise occur due to pilot-ATC conflict.

104

Table 3. 25

Factors while interacting with pilots that cause stress language barrier Rate of speech Non compliance Pilot's lack of 6.67% 10% 63.33% tech. 3.33% 2 3 19 1

knowledge Communication breakdown Total no. of respondents Inference 16.66% 100% 5 30

From the above table it can be inferred that 63.33% of the respondents feel the non

compliance on the part of the pilot is a leading stressor when interacting with the pilots, followed by 16.66% rating communication breakdown to be the next leading cause of stress

Factors while interacting with pilots that cause stress

70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% 63.33%

6.67%

10%

16.66% 3.33% Factors while interacting with pilots that cause stress

Figure 3. 25

Interpretation Of the many factors that cause stress to ATC while interacting with pilots, most respondents rate non compliance on the part of the pilots to the issued directions cause a conflict between the pilot and the ATC. This invariably leads to heightened stress levels as in the case of most conflicts.

105

Table 3. 26

Empathizing with the pilot helps to reduce stress yes no Total no. of respondents 56.67% 43.33% 17 13 30

Inference

The collected data leads to the inference that 56.67% of the total respondents agree that

empathizing with the pilot helps to reduce stress

Empathizing with the pilot helps to reduce stress

60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% yes no Empathizing with the pilot helps to reduce stress 56.67% 43.33%

Figure 3. 26

Interpretation The pilot being in the working environment of the aircraft is more familiar with the nuances of operating it under ordinary conditions and otherwise. Pilots often see ATCs to be issuing instructions without much empathy. ATCs feel that with a bit of empathizing with the pilot would help to resolve problems faster and easily as opposed to a one-sided issuing of instructions.

106

Table 3. 27

Does stress affect domestic life? yes no 86.67% 13.33% 26 4 30

Total no. of 100% respondents

Inference

From the above table it can be inferred that 86.67% of the respondents do feel that their

domestic life is affected due to the workplace stress

Does stress affect domestic life?

100.00% 90.00% 80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% yes no 13.33% Does stress affect domestic life? 86.67%

Figure 3. 27

Interpretation An ATC is exposed to stress at multiple levels for multiple reasons, multiple times a day. This inevitably would lead to the workplace stress to be taken home and affect their domestic lives.

107

Table 3. 28

Rating of the Job Exciting Mediocre Monotonous Total no. of 23.33% 43.33% 33.33% 7 13 10 30

respondents

Inference

The data suggests the inference that 43.33% of the respondents feel the job of an ATC is

neither exciting nor monotonous as opposed to the 33.33% who find it monotonous and 23.33% who rate it to be exciting.

Rating of the Job

50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% Exciting Mediocre Monotonous 23.33% Rating of the Job 43.33% 33.33%

Figure 3. 28

Interpretation The individual perceptions of the level of stress one is subjected gives an idea about the excitement or interest levels one has for the job. ATCs have to strictly follow the rules and procedures which makes the work quite a clockwork routine. The liking for the job and other social and personal factors also influence the individuals perception about the job

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Table 3. 29

Reactions to stress Excessive sweating Rapid/Stuttered speech Less Concentration Increased heart rate Loss of sleep irritable behaviour other health issues Total no. of respondents 10% 3.33% 6.67% 26.67% 23.33% 20% 10% 100% 3 1 2 8 7 6 3 30

Inference

From the above table it can be inferred that increased heart rate is one of the most

exhibited signs of reacting to stress by 26.67%. Loss of sleep is also another leading reaction to stress, as rated by 23.33%

Reactions to stress
30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% 26.67% 23.33% 20% 10%

10% 3.33%

6.67%

Reactions to stress

Figure 3. 29

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Interpretation With regard to the short-term effects, an ATC's responses can be documented in terms of changes in hormonal secretion (e.g. adrenaline, non-adrenaline, cortisol), heart rate, blood pressure, muscular activity, cerebral waves, work performance (errors) and behaviour (sleeping, smoking, eating and drinking habits). These can indicate a normal, physiological adaptation of the individual to external stimulation, as well as an excessive strain due to an imbalance between demands and resources.

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CHAPTER -4 HYPOTHESIS TESTING USING FISHER EXACT TEST RELATIVE RISK

111

TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS

4.1 HYPOTHESIS 1
H1 : There is no association between gender and Stress rates in (different scenarios) among air traffic controllers. H0 : There is an association between gender and Stress rates in (different scenarios) among air traffic controllers.

Stress Rate * Gender Cross tabulation Stress Rate Gender Male 16 1 7 2 23 Total 7 30 3 10 Female 4 20 Total

1: V. Low, Low, Moderate 2: High, V. High Fisher exact test : p value is 0.6573 There is no statistical significance between gender and general stress rate. Interpretation: Since the calculated value is more than 0.05, the researcher accepts the alternate

hypothesis stating that there is no association between gender and Stress rates in (different scenarios) among air traffic controllers
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4.2 HYPOTHESIS 2
H1: There is no significant association between gender and stress contributed by the need to bend rules at work place.

H0: There is a significant association between gender and stress contributed by the need to bend rules at work place.

Having to bend rules * Gender Cross tabulation

Gender Having rules VLow/ Mod High/ V High Total 6 23 6 7 12 30 to bend Male Low/ 17 Female 1 Total 18

Fisher exact test: p value is .009

There is a significant association between gender and stress contributed by the need to bend rules at work place. Interpretation: Since the calculated value is less than 0.05, the researcher accepts the null

hypothesis stating there is a significant association between gender and stress contributed by the need to bend rules at work place.

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4.3 HYPOTHESIS 3

H1: There is no significant association between gender and stress arising due to the feeling of loss of control over a particular situation.

H0: There is a significant association between gender and stress arising due to the feeling of loss of control over a particular situation.

Feeling of Loss of Control * Gender Crosstabulation

Feeling Control

of

Loss

of Gender Male VLow/ Moderate High/ V High 6 23 6 7 12 30 Low/ 17 Female 1 Total 18

Total

Fisher exact test: p value is .009 There is a significant association between gender and stress arising due to the feeling of loss of control over a particular situation.

Interpretation:

Since the calculated value is less than 0.05, the researcher accepts the null

hypothesis stating there is a significant association between gender and stress arising due to the feeling of loss of control over a particular situation.

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4.4

HYPOTHESIS 4

For the purpose of analysis the median age of 33 was taken as a cut-off and all persons above this was categorized as relatively older and persons 33 and below were considered as relatively younger.

H1: There is no significant association between fear of consequence of errors and age. H0: There is significant association between fear of consequence of errors and age. Fear of consequence of errors and age cross tabulation

Age Fear of Consequence of Errors VLow/ Moderate High/ VHigh Total 16 16 8 14 24 30 Younger Older Low/ 0 6 Total 6

Fisher exact test; p value is .005 There is significant association between fear of consequence of errors and age. Interpretation: 80% of the respondents felt that stress levels due to fear of consequence of errors

was high or very high. All the respondents from the younger age group felt that stress levels increased due to this factor. This was statistically significant. Hence null hypothesis accepted as the p value is lesser than 0.05.

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4.5 HYPOTHESIS 5

For the purpose of analysis the median age of 33 was taken as a cut-off and all persons above this was categorized as relatively older and persons 33 and below were considered as relatively younger.

H1: There is no significant association between time pressure and age. H0: There is significant association between time pressure and age.

Time pressure * Age Cross tabulation

Age Time pressure VLow/Low/ Moderate High/ VHigh Total 15 16 10 14 25 30 Younger Older 1 4 Total 5

Fisher exact test: p value is .157 Most respondents across both the age groups felt that time pressure contributes highly towards stress . However this difference was not statistically significant. Interpretation: Since the calculated value is more than 0.05, the researcher accepts the alternate

hypothesis stating there is a no significant association between time pressure and age.

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4.6 HYPOTHESIS 6

For the purpose of analysis the median age of 33 was taken as a cut-off and all persons above this was categorized as relatively older and persons 33 and below were considered as relatively younger. H1: there is a no significant association between Limitations and unreliability of equipment and age. H0: There is significant association between Limitations and unreliability of equipment and age. Limitations and unreliability of equipment * Age cross tab

Age Limitations and Younger Older V Low/ Low/ 0 2 Total 2

reliability of equipment

Moderate High/ V High Total 16 16 12 14 28 30

Fisher exact test: p value is .209 Though more respondents said that limitations in reliability of equipments cause high stress levels. There is no significant association between age distribution and stress levels due to limitations in the reliability of equipment. Interpretation: Since the calculated value is more than 0.05, the researcher accepts the alternate

hypothesis stating there is a no significant association between Limitations and unreliability of equipment and age.

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4.7

Relative Risk

Does stress levels cause a decline in the performance of the ATCs due to stress?

Stress affecting Declines performance VHigh/ High 9

Unaffected

Total

10

stress levels V Low/ Low/ 5 Moderate Stress levels 10 15

Relative Risk is 2.7.

Employees who experienced VHigh/ High stress levels at work were 2.7 times more likely to have a reduced performance level at work when compared to employees experiencing VLow/ Low or Moderate levels of stress at work. This difference was statistically significant with Relative risk : 2.7 and 95% Confidence interval is 1.282 to 5.687.

Thus there is a significant association between High Stress levels and the decline in performance due to stress

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CHAPTER -5

5.1 FINDINGS 5.2 SUGGESTIONS 5.3 CONCLUSION

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5.1 Findings
Study revealed that 46.6% of the ATCs fall in the age category of 30 40yrs which projects the ATC to be comprised of young professionals

Of the 30 respondents, 76.6% were males

56.66% rated the stress at the workplace to be moderate

46.66% of the respondents stated that the stress caused their performance to decline

As high as 70% of the respondents rated the stress associated with the number of aircraft under control to be in the very high stress category

46.66% of the 30 respondents rate the stress arising out of prak traffic hours to be very high

The stress caused due to extraneous traffic was rated to be high as much as 40% of the respondents

Unforeseeable events was rated very high on stress levels caused, by as much as 53.33% of the 30 respondents

46.66% of the respondents feel the stress caused by time pressure to be high

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Out of the 30 respondents, 43.33% rated the stress arising out of having to bend the rules to be moderate

40% of the respondents opine that the stress associated with feeling loss of control to be moderate

Stress was rated to be very high by as much as 56.6% of the respondents when asked about the stress caused by the fear of consequence of errors

73.3% of the respondents rate the stress associated with the limitations and reliability of the equipments to be very high

36.6% of the respondents placed the stress caused by VDT, R/T and telephone quality to be in the high category

Out of the 30 respondents, 26.6% are of the view that the stress that arises out from equipment layout to be moderate

When asked about the various working environment factors that caused the respondents most stress, 43.33% suggested about the rest and canteen facilities

As high as 36.6% of the respondents opined that the stress caused by role ambiguity to fall in the high category

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50% of the 30 respondents were of the opinion that the stress related to role conflicts to be high

When asked about the levels of the stress that arise out from relations with supervisors and colleagues, 46.6% of the respondents said it was high.

43.3% of the respondents felt that lack of control over work process causes high stress

On the subject of salary, 60% of the respondents associated low stress with it.

The stress caused by public opinion about the job done by ATC was rated as a source of moderate stress by as high as 56.6% respondents

73.3% of the respondents affirming that their peers help to reduce their stress highlights the good peer relationship at the ATC

Of the 30 respondents, 56.6% are of the view that early phase training is sufficient to handle stress

66.6% of the respondents believe that building a good interpersonal relationship with pilots who regularly fly the same routes, helps to reduce stress

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On the subject of whether frequent/periodic training was organised to help handle stress, 63.33% of the respondents responded negative thus highlights the fact the early phase training given before entering the job is usually sufficient to handle the stress

While interacting with a pilot while on job, of the various factors that stress out ATCs most, 63.3% responded about the non compliance on the part of the pilot to be the leading cause.

56.6% responded that empathizing with the pilot helps to reduce the levels of stress associated with work

86.6% of the respondents had no doubts on the fact the workplace stress does affect domestic life

Mediocre was rated by as high as 43.3% of the respondents when asked about how they would rate their job with respect to the levels of excitement and monotony

Of the various reactions to stress, 26.6% responded that they experience increased heart rates.

5.2 Suggestions
The improvement in coordinating the information flow among the centres in order to assure an increasingly safe, regular and expeditious air traffic flow is the other milestone which allows ATCs to operate safely and quietly. This is made possible by modernizing the telecommunication and radio assistance systems and improving the efficiency and reliability of equipment, as well as by the progressive automation of the aeronautical information service, flight data processing and air traffic management.
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The lighting should be indirect, obtained preferably by mixing natural and artificial light directed onto the ceiling and the walls and thus reflecting into the room. This gives a diffuse lighting in the work environment without shadows and glare. Each artificial lighting unit should contain two or more phase-shifted tubes to avoid flickering, which is extremely annoying, causes visual discomfort and makes the reading of the different traces on the screen more difficult. Inside the towers, the opposite is the problem. It is necessary to avoid excessive illumination levels due to external bright light using both anti-reflection glass and curtains; it is also important to have the possibility of positioning and shielding the visual display units to avoid indirect glare due to bright reflections on the screen.

Particular attention has to be paid in order to stop background noise from exceeding 45-50 dB by installing quieter office machinery, arranging work sectors in order to have better sound

protection from each other, and installing more insulating headsets and more sensitive microphones.

Microclimatic conditions must be maintained within the range of thermal comfort, that is air temperature between 20 and 24C, humidity between 30 and 70 per cent, and air velocity between 0.05 and 0.5 m/sec. To ensure these conditions, it is necessary to install adequate air conditioning systems which must be maintained efficiently to guarantee a good indoor air quality.

Data displays containing flight information should preferably be located beside the radar screen, whereas the auxiliary displays showing maps or other complementary information can be placed above it. High resolution and multi-colour displays are preferred; keyboards, rolling balls or joysticks should be movable to accommodate individual preferences; headset jacks must be positioned on both sides of the table and should not protrude.

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The most advanced display systems allow for better performance with greater comfort because of their greater width, more favourable visual contrast, higher reliability, greater possibility of storing and retrieving information, and a better control layout.

Particular attention has to be given to software ergonomics that can offer great possibilities for improving presentation, comprehension and processing of information. With regard to this, it has been proved that an appropriate use of colours, symbols, line shaping, windows and figures facilitates and hastens data recognition and extraction.

With automated workstations, the controllers have less to do with telephoning, listening and passing on information. These interpersonal communications can have an influence on the method of work and the search for solutions. Reduction of verbal and non-verbal communication might lead to a feeling of isolation and a poorer internal atmosphere; therefore, greater emphasis should be placed on the development of adequate levels of communication.

A prolonged, constrained sitting posture causes musculo-skeletal discomfort and pain, particularly at the level of the neck, the shoulders and the lumbar tract. In order to avoid or alleviate such disturbances, it is important to use suitable chairs which allow a comfortable sitting posture while working, as well as useful muscle relaxation while on stand-by or resting in front of the screen.

A programme for improving physical fitness should be planned, aimed at preventing lower-back pain by providing gymnasiums to be used by the ATCs during their relief periods. There should also be technical guidance aimed at showing the most appropriate exercises that should be done for the most effective "postural pause".

Proper eating habits are also important in keeping the person fit. A balanced diet, having light and easily digested meals before and during work, can support work performance during duty periods, avoiding drops in mental efficiency and drowsiness that generally occur after heavy meals. A diet with a low-fat content and the right amount of calories, aimed at maintaining an ideal body
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weight, also has a strong influence in preventing degenerative processes for chronic digestive and cardiovascular diseases, for which both stress and obesity are important risk factors.

Preserving sleep both in terms of quantity (for recovering from physical fatigue) and quality (for psychic well-being), is a very important anti-stress measure. Sleeping troubles, in fact, can be an early symptom of stress, but can make the person more vulnerable to stress as well. Should these troubles arise, the person should not use sleeping tablets (or only as a last resort), but try behavioural methods, such as taking more exercise to become more tired before going to bed; adopting stricter times for going to bed and getting up; avoiding eating before going to bed; having a light dinner with a prevalent content of carbohydrates rather than proteins; not taking stimulants, such as alcoholic beverages, tea, coffee and soft drinks containing caffeine; having a warm bath before going to bed; arranging a comfortable bedroom protected from disturbing noises; listening to relaxing music or reading before sleeping.

Relaxation techniques are becoming more and more popular among people who feel to be under stress. Massage, yoga, meditation and autogenous training are all useful exercises which help to control restlessness, anxiety, muscular tension, inability to concentrate, insomnia and other symptoms of stress.

Leisure time activities may help fight stress provided that they have a recreative aim and are not taken too seriously, in order to avoid them becoming another stressor. Depending on personality characteristics, some people prefer individual activities (such as fishing, painting, listening to music, reading and do-it-yourself); others need group activities (such as team games and social groups).

Periods of training are also of crucial importance for the education of ATCs in terms of stress prevention. An effective training programme aimed at understanding the needs and capacities of the individual, and balancing individual needs with organizational needs, is able to improve not only technical learning but also motivation, job satisfaction and human relations.

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Participation of the controllers in decision making appears to be necessary to increase perceived influence, motivation, job satisfaction and performance efficiency, as well as to decrease stress and relative negative consequences, not onlyfor the individual, but also for the organization (role conflicts and role ambiguity, job-related communications, exasperated criticisms, strikes ,etc.).

the availability of social services aimed at satisfying ATCs' needs. They concern, for example, transport facilities for reducing commuting times, canteen and sleep facilities, and housing conditions; the recognition at a social level of the importance of ATCs' activities and, consequently, its appreciation by the general population. ATCs complain that the general public do not fully understand the complexity and importance of their job, which is often considered "second class".

5.3 Conclusion

The consequences on an ATC's performance and well-being may differ widely among individuals in relation to many factors dealing with age, life styles, life events, work experience, personality traits (introversion, anxiety, type A), behavioural characteristics (mood, sleeping habits, morningness), attitudes, motivation, and physical and mental health. Moreover, many other factors related to social conditions can play an important role in this respect, e.g. socio-economic status, housing conditions, commuting, family attitudes, social support and integration.

Because of the specific requirements of the task, it is necessary that operators not only possess high intellectual and operative skills, but that they are also in good health (both physical and mental) in order to guarantee the highest levels of vigilance and performance at all times.

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Therefore, all these aspects can have more or less influence on an ATC's job satisfaction, health and well-being according to different circumstances (Figure 1). They can interact and interfere with each other, giving rise to not only possible additive or multiplicative, but also subtractive effects, so that it is often very difficult to evaluate and compare the effective stress and strain in different groups and individuals.

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6.1 Bibliography

Age and Attitudes in the Air Traffic Control Specialist Workforce: An Initial Assessment Richard C. Thompson, Lawrence L. Bailey ,Civil Aeromedical Institute (1999)

Statistic Analysis Of The Aeronautical And Air Traffic Students Education At The Faculty Of Transport And Traffic Engineering, University Of Zagreb -Biljana Juricic, Jelena Bistrica, Stanislav Pavlin, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering, Zagreb, Croatia (1998)

Validation Management in an ATM Research Project-Alberto Pasquini, Marinella Leone, Keith Vickery, and Hans Wagemans (2001)

Occupational stress and stress prevention in air traffic control -Professor Giovanni ,Costa Institute of Occupational Medicine, University of Verona (1995)

A Temporal Markers Framework for Analyzing ATC Operational Errors-Mark D. Rodgers, Julia Pounds, Daniel G. Jack, and Deborah Thompson (December 2005)

ATM Strategic Plan - Volume II- ATM OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS AND PROCEDURES (April 2008)

Model of the Cognitive Aspects of Air Traffic Control- European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation (EUROCONTROL) 1997

Stress, Cognition, and Human Performance: A Literature Review and Conceptual Framework Mark A. Staal ,Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California (2005)

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A Psychosocial approach To Understanding Pilot And Controller Acceptance Of Change In Atm, Based On Three Cda Case Studies-Andrew Cook, Graham Tanner, University of Westminster, London, UK Nadine Pilon, Tony Joyce, EUROCONTROL Experimental Centre, Brtigny /Orge, France (2010)

Definition of a Responder: Analysis of Behavioral, Cardiovascular, and Endocrine Responses to Varied Workload in Air Traffic Controllers-ROBERT M. ROSE, MD, AND LOUIS F. FOGG, PHD (2004)

A Plan for the Future -The Federal Aviation Administrations 10-Year Strategy for the Air Traffic Control Workforce 2008-2017 (2008)

Communication And Cooperation Analysis In Air Traffic Control- A. Bellorini, F. Vanderhaegen (1996)

The Impact of the Charter Jet Industry on Air Traffic Control: Brian Taranto (2009)

Manual of Air Traffic Services-International Civil Aviation Organization (2007)

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APPENDIX-1
QUESTIONNAIRE

APPENDIX-2
AAI Airport and Aviation traffic Maps

131

6.2 Appendix 1 Occupational stress in Air traffic Control Questionnaire

1. Age and Gender

2.

Which area of Air traffic control/ Technical department do you work in?

3.

How would you rate the stress that you experience at the workplace?

Very low Low Moderate High Very high 4. How does stress affect your performance? Declines Unaffected Improves

5.

How do you rate the stress that arises out of work load demand number of aircraft under control Very low Low Moderate High Very high peak traffic hours Very low Low Moderate High Very high extraneous traffic Very low Low Moderate High Very high unforeseeable events Very low Low Moderate High Very high
132

6. Which of the following aspects related to operational procedures stress you out

time pressure

Very low Low Moderate High Very high Very low Low Moderate High Very high

having to bend the rules

feeling of loss of control

Very low Low Moderate High Very high

fear errors

of

consequences

of

Very low Low Moderate High Very high

7.

Of the below listed factors related to equipments, indicate the ones that cause stress to you

limitations and reliability of equipment Very low Low Moderate High Very high

VDT, R/T and telephone quality Very low Low Moderate High Very high

equipment layout Very low Low Moderate High Very high

8. The following factors of the Working environment that add stress to you lighting, optical reflections noise/distracters microclimate (temperature,ventilation,humidity) bad posture
133

rest and canteen facilities

9. How do you rate the stress associated with the following Working Organization factors

role ambiguity Very low Low Moderate High Very high

role conflicts Very low Low Moderate High Very high

relations with supervisors and colleagues Very low Low Moderate High Very high

lack of control over work process Very low Low Moderate High Very high

salary Very low Low Moderate High Very high

public opinion (pride associated with the job, appreciation, status) Very low Low Moderate High Very high

10. Do your peers help you to reduce your stress? Yes / No

11. Is the training received during early phase of the job sufficient to handle stress? Yes / No

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12. Interpersonal relationship with pilots who fly regularly on routes helps to reduce/eliminate stress Yes / No

13. Do you have frequent /periodic training to handle stress? Yes / No

14. In your interactions with the pilots, rank the below factors in the order that cause stress to you ( rank the factor that causes you maximum stress as 1 and so on)

Language barrier Rate of speech Non compliance with orders / guidance Lack of technical knowledge on the part of the pilot Communication breakdown (technical or/and personal)

15. Do you empathize with the pilot to see from a different perspective to reduce / eliminate stress? Yes / No

16. Does the work stress affect your domestic life? Yes / No

17. Do you find the job Exciting Indifferent Monotonous

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18. How do you rank the following reactions to stress (rank max as 1 and so on) Excessive sweating Rapid Speech Less Concentration Increased heart rate Loss of sleep Irritable behaviour Health issues

Thank you!

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6.3 Appendix 2 a

137

Appendix 2 b

138

Appendix 2 c

139

Appendix 2 d

140

Appendix 2 e

Regional Headquarters

141