CHAPTER 3

SHORT CIRCUIT THEORY AND TERMINOLOGY

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Short Circuit Theory and Terminology

SHORT CIRCUIT THEORY AND TERMINOLOGY

ONE LINE DIAGRAMS Introduction Purposes

EFFECTS OF SHORT CIRCUITS Arcing and Burning Current Flow Thermal Stress Mechanical Stress Voltage Drop

FAULT CURRENT SOURCES Introduction Generators (Local) Motors Utility System Total Fault Current

MACHINE REACTANCE MODELING Introduction Subtransient Reactance (Xd) Transient Reactance (Xd) Synchronous Reactance (Xd)

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FAULT CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS Symmetrical Versus Asymmetrical Fault Currents System Power Factor and X/R Ratios Sample Fault Current Waveshapes Asymmetry Factors

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ONE-LINE DIAGRAMS
INTRODUCTION The most commonly used diagram in an industrial power system is the one-line diagram (Figure 3-1). This diagram is very useful in showing, by means of standard graphical symbols and nomenclature, an over-all power system arrangement. For maximum usefulness, the relative physical arrangement of the electrical system should be shown on the one-line diagram.

Figure 3-1. One-Line Diagram

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PURPOSES One-line diagrams are used in the performance of power system studies, to perform system operations and maintenance, and for construction purposes. Power System Studies: The one-line diagram is most commonly used in the performance of power systems studies. The following information is usually provided, as a minimum, on the one-line diagram, regardless of the type of power system study being performed. Bus current and voltage ratings Short circuit current available (optional) Voltage and current ratios of instrument transformers Protective device (e.g., circuit breakers and fuses) ratings Functions of relays indicated by device numbers Ratings, type, and impedance of motors and transformers Connections (e.g., delta or wye) of transformers Number, length, size, and type of conductors and conduit

The final application of the drawing (short circuit study, coordination study, construction, etc.) will determine the exact information that is provided on the oneline diagram. For example, impedance of a motor is required for a short circuit study but not for a coordination study. Relay and adjustable settings of circuit breakers are required for a coordination study but are not required for a short circuit study. Operations and Maintenance: The one-line diagram is also commonly used by technicians to operate and maintain the plant electrical distribution system. For example, the one-line diagram is used to determine which breakers or switches should be closed or opened to switch to alternate sources of power due to a fault on the system. Another example is that the one-line diagram is used to perform locking and tagging procedures when equipment is to be removed from service. Both of these uses of the one-line diagram point out that the diagram must be kept up-todate and accurate. Use of inaccurate data (one-line diagram) for a power systems study could result in additional costs; use of inaccurate data for switching purposes or locking and tagging procedures could result in loss of life.

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EFFECTS OF SHORT CIRUCITS

ARCING AND BURNING At the point of the fault, arcing and burning occurs resulting in hot, molten copper, burning insulation, etc. In many instances, the end result is a fire. CURRENT FLOW Large currents flow under short circuit conditions form various sources (utility, motors, and generators). These currents are independent of load current. THERMAL STRESS All components carrying short circuit currents are subject to thermal stress (heat) that varies as a function of the current squared (I2) and the fault duration (t). The temperature rise (T) is an integrated effect, as shown below:
t2

T = [( cA )] where: T C A i(t) t I

2 -1

t1

i2 (t) dt = I2t (simplified)

= temperature rise in oC = electrical conductivity in ohm-1/meter (/m) = specific heat in joules/oC x m3 = conductor cross-sectional area in m2 (Figure 3-2) = instantaneous current in amperes (A) = time in seconds (sec) = rms current in amperes (A)

Figure 3-2. Conductor Cross-Section

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MECHANICAL STRESS All components carrying electrical current are also subjected to mechanical stress that is related to the square of the current and the fault duration [i2(t)]. The primary difference from thermal stress is that the mechanical stress is an instantaneous effect, rather than an integrated effect, as shown below: F/L = [0i2(t)]/(2d) where: F/L = force per unit of length in Newtons/meter (N/m) 0 = magnetic permeability of air = 4 x 10-7 henries/meter (H/m) i(t) = instantaneous current in amperes (A) d = conductor spacing in meters (m) (Figure 3-3)

Figure 3-3. Parallel Conductors (Simplest Case) VOLTAGE DROP The system voltage drops throughout the entire power system and it is directly proportional to the magnitude of the fault current. The worst-case voltage drop is at the point of the fault, where the drop is 100 percent (V=0) for a hard fault, but all parts of the power system are subjected to some level of voltage drop.

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FAULT CURRENT SOURCES

INTRODUCTION When calculating the fault current, it is important to include all possible sources (Figure 3-4) of short circuit current. The fault current sources are generators (local), motors (induction and synchronous), and the utility (large generators).

Figure 3-4. Fault Current Sources

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GENERATORS (LOCAL) Generators are driven by some type of prime mover (turbine, diesel engine, etc.). When a fault occurs on the circuit, the generator continues to produce voltage because the field excitation is maintained and the prime mover continues to drive the generator at normal speed. Stated another way, the generator sees the fault as an instantaneous load demand. The only impedance that limits the fault current magnitude (Figure 3-5) flowing from a generator is the impedance of the generator (Xg, Rg) and any system impedance that is between the generator terminals and the point of the fault.

Figure 3-5. Generator (Local) Fault Source MOTORS Synchronous motors are constructed similar to generators, which is that they have a separate field excited by dc current and current flows in the stator winding. Normally, a synchronous motor converts electrical energy (input kW) to mechanical energy (output hp). Under fault conditions, the opposite occurs, the synchronous motor acts like a generator and delivers fault current with the load inertia acting as a prime mover. As a result the synchronous motor delivers fault current for many cycles (Figure 3-6) and, like a generator, the current flowing is limited by the motor impedance (Xm, Rm) and any impedance between the motor terminals and the point of the fault.

Figure 3-6. Synchronous Motor Fault Source

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MOTORS Induction motors act much like synchronous motors under fault conditions. The inertia of the load acts as a prime mover and the motor delivers fault current, but only for a few cycles (Figure 3-7). The duration is very short because the field of the induction motor is from the stator winding rather than a dc winding, as is the case with a synchronous motor. The short circuit current contribution must be considered, but only for momentary ratings of medium voltage switchgear, and interrupting and withstand ratings of low voltage equipment. The fault current magnitude delivered by the induction motor, like generators and synchronous motors, is limited by the motors own impedance (Xm, Rm) and any impedance between the motor terminals and the point of the fault.

Figure 3-7. Induction Motor Fault Source The utility system, strictly speaking, is not a source of fault current. The actual source is the utility companys generators, which are typically the largest source of short circuit current in an industrial power system. Like the other short circuit current sources, the only impedance limiting the fault current from the utility is the selfimpedance of the utility generator(s), and any impedance between the utility system and the point of the fault. Unlike the other sources, the utility delivers fault current without any noticeable decay for an indefinite period (Figure 3-8).

Figure 3-8. Utility (Generator) Fault Source

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TOTAL FAULT CURRENT The total short circuit current that is flowing (Figure 3-9) into the fault point is the sum of the individual sources plus the dc component. Note: The dc component of the total fault current will be discussed later in this Tab.

Figure 3-9. Total Fault Current

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MACHINE REACTANCE MODELING

INTRODUCTION The impedance of generators and motors consist primarily of reactance and, unlike cables and transformers, it is not a simple value, but is more complex and it also varies with time. Machines are modeled by three reactance values as follows: subtransient (Xd), transient (Xd), and synchronous (Xd). If a short circuit occurs across the terminals of a generator, the waveshape is as shown in Figure 3-10. The magnitude starts out relatively high and decays to a steady state value after a definite time lapse (e.g., 30 cycles) depending on the type of generator (turbine, salient-pole, etc.) and the generators reactance (X).

Figure 3-10. Generator Fault Waveshape

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SUBTRANSIENT REACTANCE (Xd) Subtransient reactance (Xd) is the apparent reactance of the stator winding at the instant the short circuit occurs, and it determines the current flow during the first few cycles after short circuit. 0 < t < 3 to 6 cycles

A synchronous motor has the same kind of reactance as a generator, but it is of a different value. Induction motors have no field coils, but the rotor bars act like the amortisseur winding in a generator; and therefore, induction motors are said to have subtransient reactance only. TRANSIENT REACTANCE (Xd) Transient reactance (Xd) determines the current following the period when subtransient reactance is the controlling value. Transient reactance is effective up to one-half second ( 30 cycles) or longer, depending upon the design of the machine. Transient reactance is approximately 150 percent greater than the subtransient reactance (Xd 1.5 Xd). 3 to 6 cycles < t < 30 to 200 cycles

SYNCHRONOUS REACTANCE (Xd) Synchronous reactance (Xd) is the reactance that determines the current flow when a steady state condition is reached. It is not effective until several seconds after the short circuit occurs; consequently, it is not generally used in industrial power systems short circuit calculations. t > 30 to 200 cycles

Figure 3-11. Machine Reactances (XM)

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FAULT CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

SYMMETRICAL VERSUS ASYMMETRICAL FAULT CURRENTS Symmetrical and asymmetrical describe the ac current waveshape about the zero axis. Virtually all short circuit currents begin as asymmetrical currents and decay to symmetrical currents. It the envelopes of the peaks of the fault current waveshape are symmetrical about the zero axis, they are called symmetrical currents, as shown in Figure 3-12.

Figure 3-12. Symmetrical Fault Current If the envelopes of the peaks of the fault current waveshape are not symmetrical about the zero axis, they are called asymmetrical currents, as shown in Figure 313.

Figure 3-13. Asymmetrical Fault Currents

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SYSTEM POWER FACTOR AND X/R RATIOS Virtually all fault currents are asymmetrical because the system power factor before a fault occurs is very high (implying low X/R ratios) and then it changes instantaneously to a very low system power factor after a fault occurs (implying high X/R ratios). Figure 3-14 shows a typical system circuit model.

Figure 3-14. Circuit Model Before a fault occurs, the following conditions apply: Load impedance dominates (ZL >> ZS) ZS very small and mostly XS (XS >> RS) ZL very large and mostly RL(RL >> XL) (Figure 3-15b) High power factors (e.g., 70% - 95%) Very low X/R ratios (e.g., <1) Current lags voltage by 18 - 45 degrees (Figure 3-15a)

After a fault occurs the following conditions apply: System impedance (ZS) dominates ZL equals 0 (e.g., shorted out) ZS dominant factor and mostly XS(XS >> RS) Low power factors (e.g., 5% - 45%) Current lags voltage by 79 - 87 degrees (Figure 3-16a) Very high X/R ratios (e.g., 5-20 or larger) (Figure 3-16b)

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SYSTEM POWER FACTOR AND X/R RATIOS

Figure 3-15. System Relationships (Before Fault Occurs)

Figure 3-16. System Relationships (After Fault Occurs)

SYSTEM POWER FACTOR AND X/R RATIOS The only possible way that a current/voltage relationship can change from lagging approximately 36.9o (Figure 3-15a) to instantaneously (t=0) lagging by approximately 85o (Figure 3-16a) is for the current waveshape to offset itself from the zero axis. The greater the ratio of reactance to resistance (X/R ratio), the greater the offset and the slower the rate of decay.

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SAMPLE FAULT CURRENT WAVESHAPES If a fault occurs in a zero power factor circuit (R = 0) at a system voltage equal to the maximum value (ES = Emax), the fault current will be totally symmetrical, as shown in Figure 3-17.

Figure 3-17. Zero Power Factor Circuit (ES = Emax) If a fault occurs in a zero power factor circuit (R = 0) at a system voltage equal to zero (ES = 0), the fault current will be totally asymmetrical, as shown in Figure 3-18.

Figure 3-18. Zero Power Factor Circuit (ES = 0)

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SAMPLE FAULT CURRENT WAVESHAPES High X/R Ratio: Figure 3-19 shows a typical short circuit current oscillogram in a medium voltage circuit where X/R = 15 (power factor of 7%). Figure 3-19 shows the voltage current relationships under the same conditions.

Figure 3-19. Short Circuit Current Waveshape at X/R = 15

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SAMPLE FAULT CURRENT WAVESHAPES Low X/R Ratio: Figure 3-20 shows a typical short circuit oscillogram in a low voltage circuit where X/R = 2 (power factor of 45%).

Figure 3-20. Short Circuit Current Waveshape at X/R = 2 The following conclusions can be made concerning the decay of the current waveshapes under fault conditions. Rate of decay is a function of the system X/R ratio. Low X/R ratios imply a very fast decay. High X/R ratios imply a very slow decay.

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ASYMMETRICAL FACTORS
S/C* p.f. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 S/C X/R Mm 1/2 1.732 1.697 1.662 1.630 1.599 1.569 1.540 1.512 1.486 1.461 1.437 1.413 1.391 1.370 1.350 1.331 1.312 1.295 1.278 1.262 1.247 1.232 1.219 1.205 1.193 1.181 1.170 1.159 1.149 1.139
-1

Ma 1/2 1.394 1.374 1.354 1.336 1.318 1.302 1.286 1.271 1.256 1.242 1.229 1.216 1.204 1.193 1.182 1.172 1.162 1.152 1.144 1.135 1.127 1.119 1.112 1.105 1.099 1.092 1.087 1.081 1.076 1.071

S/C* p.f. 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 100

S/C X/R 3.180 3.067 2.961 2.861 2.766 2.676 2.592 2.511 2.434 2.361 2.291 2.225 2.161 2.100 2.041 1.985 1.930 1.878 1.828 1.780 1.732 1.518 1.333 1.169 1.020 .8819 .7500 .6197 .3287 0

Mm 1/2 1.130 1.122 1.113 1.106 1.098 1.091 1.085 1.079 1.073 1.068 1.062 1.058 1.053 1.049 1.045 1.041 1.038 1.035 1.032 1.029 1.026 1.016 1.009 1.005 1.002 1.0008 1.0002 1.00004 1.00002 1.00000

Ma 1/2 1.064 1.062 1.057 1.053 1.050 1.046 1.043 1.040 1.037 1.034 1.031 1.029 1.027 1.024 1.023 1.021 1.019 1.017 1.016 1.014 1.013 1.008 1.004 1.002 1.001 1.0004 1.0001 1.00002 1.00001 1.00000

99.995 49.990 33.318 24.980 19.975 16.637 14.251 12.460 11.066 9.950 9.036 8.273 7.627 7.073 6.591 6.169 5.797 5.465 5.167 4.899 4.656 4.434 4.231 4.045 3.873 3.714 3.566 3.429 3.300

* S/C p.f. = cos = cos [tan (X/R)]

Table 3-1. Mm and Ma Ratios (Asymmetrical Factors-A.F.)

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