Chapter 6 Nondispersive Waves

6. 1 Introduction
In this chapter I will introduce and discuss nondispersive wave motion. Nondispersive wave motion refers to the motion of wave in which the wave disturbance does not change shape as it propagates. For this to occur, all parts of the wave must travel with the same speed. Nondispersive waveforms are good approximations to a wide variety of physical waves. In this chapter I will concentrate on the basic properties of such waves. In subsequent chapters I will discuss in more detail the way that these waves arise and note properties of particular kinds of waves; transverse and longitudinal waves in strings, sound waves, current/voltage waves in transmission lines, and electromagnetic waves. In this chapter we will use as our model system transverse waves in strings.

6. 2 General Nondispersive Waveforms

I ll consider so-called transverse wave motion in a string in which a transverse ( y-direction) disturbance in a string propagates along the z-direction without change in shape. That such a disturbance will not change shape in an ideal string is one of the subjects of the next chapter. In Figure 6. 1 a snapshot of a transverse pulse in a string, traveling with speed v in the positive z-direction is shown at two dierent times, t 1 and t 2 . Since the pulse does not change shape it can be considered to be the function of a single variable which I will call u. That is y( u) is the function that describes the pulse shape. Now if u = z v t the pulse will simply travel with speed v without changing shape as indicated in the gure. That is all nondispersive waveforms in this string can be written in the form y( z v t) . For example, y = A e a ( z v t) y = ( z v t) ( z v t L) y = A cos( k ( z v t) ( 6. 1 )

all represent traveling nondispersive waves. As I discuss below, waveforms y( z + v t) represent nondispersive waves traveling in the -z-direction.

Nondispersive Waves

y y( z , t 1 ) = y( u) v z = 0, u = 0 z

z= u+ vt y( z , t 2 ) = y( u) v z=0 u=0 z

F igure 6 . 1 . Nondisp ersive pulse pulse waveform propagating in the z-direction

Note that for these waveforms the speed of the wave is v and the direction of the wave is controlled by the relative sign of the z and t term in u = z v t. To see how this works consider a particular point y( u) in the waveform. This point moves ( as do all other points in the waveform) with speed v. To move with this point one must stay beside the same place in the wavefront. That is one move so that the u is constant, so that the derivative of u must be zero: with u = z v t dz du d dt dz dz = ( z v t) = v = v=0 =v dt d t dt dt dt dt That is one must move in the + z-direction with speed v to stay with the waveform. On the other hand, for u = z + v t: dz du d dt dz dz = ( z + v t) = +v = +v=0 =v dt d t dt dt dt dt one must move in the -z-direction with speed v to stay with the waveform.

6. 3 Characteristics of Nondispersive Waves

Some of the important ( and thus far unproven) general characteristics of ( nondispersive) waves are: Nondispersive waves do not change shape as they propagate. Waves carry energy from one point to another without the propagation of matter between the two points. The source of a wave is an external vibration of one part in the medium.

6 . 5 S ingle F requency Waveforms

The waveform shape ( and frequency content) are determined by the source of the wave. In particular for single frequency waveforms, the frequency of the wave is equal to the frequency of the oscillating source. The speed of a nondispersive wave depends only on the nature of the medium through which the wave travelsnot on the shape or frequency content of the waveform. The eect of a wave is to exert forces on objects in the wave path. In transverse waves the medium moves back and forth in a direction that is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. In longitudinal waves the medium moves back and forth along the same direction as the direction of propagation of the wave.

6. 4 Some Wave Phenomena

Some important wave phenomena are: Transverse waves in strings This will be our model mechanical wave. The source of a transverse wave in a string is something shaking one end of the string or plucking a place in the string. Transverse waves in strings travel with speed v = T/ where T is the tension in the string and is the mass per unit length of the string. S ound Waves Sound waves are a longitudinal wave ( usually in air) . The source of a sound wave is a vibration that pushes the air back and forth. ( Like a vibrating string, of vibrating vocal chords, etc. The speed of a sound wave in an ideal gas is given by the relation, v = k B T/ m where is the socalled adiabatic constant which is 1 . 4 for diatomic gases ( since air is mostly N2 and O 2 , 1 . 4 for air) , k B = 1 . 38 1 0 2 3 J/ K is Boltzmann s constant, T is the temperature of the gas in kelvins and m is the mass of one molecule in the gas. ( For air one would approximate the gas as if it were only nitrogen. ) Waves in Transmission Lines Transmission lines are a pair of conductors laid out in a line form. Voltage/ current waves propagate along the conductor pair as a result of a driving voltage at one end of the line. The speed of waves in transmission lines are the speed of electromagnetic waves, which is to say the speed of light. The material in the space between the conductors aects this speed. Electromagnetic Waves Electromagnetic waves are emitted by oscillating ( more generally accelerating) charged particles. Most matter on Earth is made from electrons and protons which are charged particles. Since the matter on earth is not at absolute zero temperature these charged particles are in motion ( the vibrations and rotations of atoms and molecules, and so most matter on earth emits electromagnetic waves of which light is a particular example. The speed of light in vacuum ( empty space) is usually given the symbol c and has the value c = 3 1 0 8 m/s. In media such as air and glass electromagnetic waves travel with a speed somewhat less than c. Electromagnetic waves can under certain circumstance travel with low loss through solid, long, thin strands of glass called optical bers.

6. 5 Single Frequency Waveforms

If the source of a wave is an oscillator undergoing single frequency motion the resulting wave will ( eventually) settle into a form that can be represented by the function, where = kv. Below I list the names and meanings of the various parameters in this single frequency waveform. In the next section I derive some of the relations y = A sin( k ( z v t) + 0 ) = A sin( k z t + 0 ) ( 6. 2)

Nondispersive Waves

Parameter y

Name

Meaning Transverse displacement of string Direction of wave propagation: + z direction if the signs of the z and t terms are opposite and z direction if the signs are the same. Magnitude of the maximum transverse displacement of the string. Speed of movement of all parts of the wave

Relations

A v

Amplitude Wave speed

/ k = f T/ 2 / 2 / T Phase Constant

k 0

Spatial frequency Temporal Frequency Phase Constant

2 ( # of cycles/ length) 2 ( # of cycles/time) Sets the phase of the wave at t = 0, z = 0

Table 6 . 1 . Parameters describing single frequency waves.

6. 5. 1 Temporal Frequency, Spatial Frequency, Wave Speed

Below are plots of the single frequency waveform of Eq. 6. 2 These plots together with the fact that the sine function repeats when it its argument ( i. e. the total phase) advances by 2.

z1 y

z2 y A

t1 T

t2

( a) Snapshot: y = A sin( k z t 0 )

t ( b) Fixed Place: y = A sin( k z 0 t)

F igure 6 . 2 . S napshot of wave and wave at a xed point in the medium as a function of time.

Note from gures that the spatial period is which is also known as the wavelength and the temporal period is T, commonly just called the period. For variable z as in Figure 6. 2( a) the relationship between

6 . 6 Wave S uperpos ition

the spatial frequency k and the wavelength follows from noting that k ( z 2 z1 ) = 2 k = 2 k = 2 / ( 6. 3)

Similarly the relationship between the frequency and period T follows from consideration of Figure 6. 2( b) . In particular, ( t 2 t 1 ) = 2 T = 2 = 2 / T ( 6. 4)

The relationship between the wave speed and the spatial and temporal frequencies follows from the assignment made in the last equality of Eq. ( 6. 2) . Namely, k v = v = / k = / T = f ( 6. 5)

Here I have introduced f = 1 / T which is the the frequency in Hz ( cycles/ second) . Example 6. 1 . Single Frequency Waveform Prob lem: Write down the waveform for a single frequency transverse wave in a string. Assume that the wave is traveling in the x-direction. Let the string move in the z-direction. Take the amplitude of the wave to be 0. 1 m, the speed of the wave to be 20 m/s and the wavelength of the wave to be 2 m. Solution . The various wave parameters are, A = 0. 1 m = 2 m k = 2 / = 2 / ( 2 m) = / m = k v = ( / m) ( 20 m/ s) = 20 / s So, z = A sin( k x + t + 0 ) = ( 0. 1 m) sin( ( / m) x + ( 20 / s) t) Here I have chosen the phase of the wave to be zero at z = 0, t = 0. I chose a form with the same sign for the x and t part of the argument of the sine function because the wave is traveling in the x-direction.

6. 6 Wave Superposition
When two or more waves overlap in a portion of a linear medium the overall disturbance of the medium is the sum ( superposition ) of the disturbances that would be caused by each wave alone. This rule is not rue in so-called nonlinear media which I describe briey in a later chapter. We will be primarily concerned with linear media for which this principle of superposition does hold. In the remainder of this chapter I will be concerned with the superposition of two waves with a variety of dierent properties.

6. 6. 1 Standing Waves
A standing wave is formed when two waves of the same frequency and amplitude propagate in opposite directions through the same medium. In a general case of this sort consider the sum y( z , t) of the two waveforms, y1 = A sin( k z t + 1 ) y2 = A sin( k z + t + 2 ( 6. 6) ( 6. 7)

Trigonometric identities can be used to write this in an instructive form that suggests its designation as a standing wave, namely, y = 2 A sin( k z + s ) cos( t + c ) In general this is a bit complicated but can be done using trig identities as follows. The useful trig identity in this case is ( I ll add this identity to Chapter 1 s list of trig identities. . . ) sin( ) + sin( ) = 2 sin 1 1 ( + ) cos ( ) 2 2

Nondispersive Waves

Using this with = k z t + 1 and = k z + t + 2 leads to y = y1 + y2 = 2 A sin( k z + ( 1 + 2 ) / 2) cos( t + ( 2 1 ) / 2) 2 A sin( k z + s ) cos( t + c ) where, s = ( 1 + 2 ) / 2 c = ( 2 1 ) / 2 ( 6. 9) ( 6. 1 0) ( 6. 8)

This is the general form of a standing wave. It is called a standing wave because the spatial dependence is in a dierent rig function that is the temporal dependence. This means that, contrary to a single traveling wave like y1 or y2 , there are values of z for which y is zero for all t . These positions are called the nodes of the standing wave. Make sure that you understand the these last two sentences! ! The nodes occur at the positions given by z m found as, sin( k z m + s ) = 0 k zm + s = m s m s m s = =m zm = 2 2 ( 2 / ) k Note that the nodes are separated by / 2 since, z m + 1 zm = / 2 Node separation ( 6. 1 2) m = 0, 1 , 2

( 6. 1 1 )

In the next section I will analyze the relatively simple case for which 1 = 2 = 0 so that c = s = 0.

6. 6. 2 Modes of a String Fixed at Both Ends

The single-frequency modes of the displacement of a string of length L that is tied down at both ends must be a standing wave with nodes at the ends of the string. These standing waves can be represented by Eq. ( 6. 8) with c = s = 0. That is, y = 2 A sin( k z) cos( t) ( 6. 1 3)

Let us examine a string xed at z = 0 and z = L. Shown below are the three longest wavelength standing wave modes possible in the string. The dierent dashed curves indicate the displacement of the string at several dierent times. These standing waves are often sketched by just showing the extreme cases ( solid and dashed black curves) . ( Be careful to follow a given curve from z = 0 to z = L to understand how the displacement changes with time. In class we will look at animations for this and I will link web animations for this as well.

z=0

L = / 2

z=L

z=0

L = 2 / 2

z=L

z=0

L = 3 / 2

z=L

F igure 6 . 3. S tanding wave modes in a string.

6 . 6 Wave S uperpos ition

As indicated in Figure 6. 3 and Eq. ( 6. 1 2) the nodes are separated by half the wavelength ( / 2) of the underlying traveling waves that add to form the standing wave. These gures suggest a means of developing a formula for the frequencies of these modes. Now the frequency ( in Hz) f of a wave is related to the speed v of the wave and the wavelength of the wave by Eq. ( 6. 5) , v = f. The speed of the wave is determined by the nature of the medium and is independent ( for nondispersive waves) of the wavelength or frequency of the wave. Recall that for a wave in a string v = T/ where T is the tension in the string and is the mass per unit length of the string. From Figure 6. 3 and Eq. ( 6. 1 2) one can see that the wavelengths m of the dierent standing wave modes are related to the length L of the string by the relation,

L = m m / 2 m = 1 , 2, 3 2L m = m

( 6. 1 4)

Then the frequencies of the standing wave modes are given simply by

fm =

v v =m = m f1 m = 1 , 2, 3 . m 2L

( 6. 1 5)

The lowest frequency( longest wavelength) mode is called the fundamental frequency or the rst harmonic frequency. The higher frequency modes are the overtones or the higher harmonics.

Example 6. 2 . Modes of a string xed at both ends. Consider a string that is 0. 5 m long, xed at both ends, and under a tension of 400 N. Take the mass per unit length of the string to be 0. 01 kg/m. A) Find the speed of the wave in the string. Solution : c= T/ = ( 400/ 0. 01 ) m/ s = 200 m/s

B) Find the wavelengths and frequencies of the three longest wavelength standing wave modes of the string. Solution : Modes have wavelengths such that an inter number of half-wavelengths t into the length of the string. The three longest wavelengths are then: 1 ( 1 / 2) = L 1 = 2 L = 1 m 2( 2 / 2) = 2L 2 = 0. 5 m 3 ( 3 / 2) = 2L 3 = ( 1 / 3 ) m The corresponding frequencies are: 1 = c/ 1 = ( 200/ 1 ) Hz = 200 Hz 2 = c/ 2 = ( 200/ 0. 5) Hz = 400 Hz 3 = c/ 3 = ( 1 00/ ( 1 / 3 ) ) Hz = 600 Hz C) Sketch the standing wave pattern associated with the three longest wavelength standing-wave modes of the string.

Nondispersive Waves

It is important to know that the modes of the string are not the only motions possible on the string but a famous theorem due to Fourier states that any general motion of the string can be written as the sum of the mode functions with diering amplitudes and phases. That is, ygen era l =
m= 1

A m sin( k m z) cos( t + m )

( 6. 1 6)

where k m = 2 / m and the A m and m are determined by the initial shape of the string. We will explore this a bit with animations in class.

6. 6. 3 Interference of waves of the same frequency traveling in the same direction

Generally, the term interference is used to describe the superposition of waves of any character. In this section we will discuss the interference of two waves of the same frequency that are traveling in the same direction. We will consider the case in which the two waves are combined at a given point ( two springs/ strings attached to the same window handle. . . ) . In this case the waves of amplitude A 1 and A 2 to be combined can be described at the position of the door handle by, y1 = A 1 cos( t k s 1 + 0 1 ) y2 = A 2 cos ( t k s 2 + 0 2 ) ( 6. 1 7) ( 6. 1 8)

Note that I have chosen to represent the waves by cosine functions: This is just an arbitrary choice. Here s 1 and s 2 are the directed distances along the respective directions of propagation that the waves have traveled from their respective s 1 = 0 and s 2 = 0 origins and 0 1 and 0 2 are the phases of the the respective beams at the origins and at time t = 0. The situation is sketched below.

s1 y1 Combination Point y2 s2

F igure 6 . 4. Two-Wave Interference

It is convenient to dene the phase constants 1 = 0 1 k s 1 2 = 0 2 k s 2 so that, y1 = A 1 cos( t + 1 ) y2 = A 2 cos ( t + 2 ) The sum wave can be expressed as a single oscillation of the form, y = y1 + y2 = Acos( t + ) ( 6. 23) ( 6. 21 ) ( 6. 22) ( 6. 1 9) ( 6. 20)

6 . 6 Wave S uperpos ition

I ll nd the amplitude A and phase of the sum wave at the combination point in terms of the amplitudes, A 1 and A 2 , and phases 1 and 2 of the individual waves being superposed. It is convenient to use the complex representation to do this. I will dene the complex functions, y1 = A 1 e i t e i 1 Re( y1 = y1 i t i2 y2 = A 2 e e Re( y2 = y2 y = Ae i t e i Re( y = y Then, y 1 + y2 = y i t i2 A 1 e e + A 2 e e = Ae i t e i A1 e i 1 + A2 e i 2 = A e i
i t i1

( 6. 24) ( 6. 25) ( 6. 26)

( 6. 27)

Now, A can be found by multiplying both sides of the Eq. ( 6. 27) by its complex conjugate: A1 e i 1 + A2 e i 2 A1 e i 1 + A2 e i 2 = A e i A e i
1 2

A2 + A2 + A1 A2 e i ( 1 2 ) + e i 1 2

= A2

A 2 + A 2 + 2 A 1 A 2 cos( 1 2 ) = A 2 1 2 In the last step I used the general relation cos = e i + e i / 2. Thus the amplitude of the sum wave is A= A 2 + A 2 + 2 A 1 A 2 cos( 1 2 ) 1 2 ( 6. 28)

The phase of the sum wave can be found by writing out the real and imaginary parts of Eq. ( 6. 27) using the relation e i = cos + i sin . This gives, A 1 cos 1 + A 2 cos 2 + i ( A 1 sin 1 + A 2 sin 2 ) = A e i ( 6. 29)

The phase of the complex number A e i is the inverse tangent of the ratios of its imaginary and real part, = tan 1 A 1 sin 1 + A 2 sin 2 A 1 cos 1 + A 2 cos 2 ( 6. 30)

An important subsidiary condition is given by equating the real parts of Eq. ( 6. 29) : A 1 cos 1 + A 2 cos 2 = A cos This condition can be used to choose the solution to Eq. ( 6. 30) that leads to a positive A. Let us consider the implications of these results for dierent cases. 6. 6. 3. 1 Constructive Interference When 1 = 2 the incoming waves are in phase and are said to constructively interfere. In this case, Eq. ( 6. 28) gives, A= A 2 + A 2 + 2 A 1 A 2 cos 0) = 1 2 A2 + A2 + 2 A1 A2 = 1 2
2 ( A1 + A2 ) = A1 + A2

( 6. 31 )

and Eq. ( 6. 30) gives, = tan 1 A 1 sin 1 + A 2 sin 1 A 1 cos 1 + A 2 cos 1 = tan 1 ( A 1 + A 2 ) sin 1 ( A 1 + A 2 ) cos 1 = tan 1 ( tan 1 ) = 1

Thus the sum wave is simply y = ( A 1 + A 2 ) cos( t + 1 )

10

Nondispersive Waves

I should be quick to point out that the fancy formalism we have used here is a waste of time for this simple case since I could have simply written, y1 + y2 = A 1 cos( t + 1 ) + y2 cos( t + 1 ) = ( A 1 + A 2 cos( t + 1 ) The full formalism we have developed is needed for the general case when the phases are not equal ( or do not dier by . )

6. 6. 3. 2 Destructive Interference When the individual waves being superposed dier in phase by ( or equivalently an odd multiple of ) the waves are said to destructively interfere. In this case, ( 1 = 2 + ) , Eqs ( 6. 28) and ( 6. 30) give, A= = tan 1 A 2 + A 2 + 2 A 1 A 2 cos = 2 1 A 1 sin 1 + A 2 sin ( 1 + ) A 1 cos 1 + A 2 cos ( 1 + ) A2 + A2 2 A1 A2 = 1 2 = tan 1 ( A1 A2 ) = A1 A2 = tan 1 ( tan 1 ) = 1
2

directly as

This is illustrated in Figure 6. 5b where it is shown that in destructive interference, if A 1 = A 2 , the wave disturbance vanishes at the combination point. Since waves carry energy, this should cause a concern related to conservation of energy. For the case being described in which the waves are combined at a window handle, there will be no energy delivered to he window handle for the case of destructive interference. Rather all of the incoming energy is reected into the strings back towards the sources of the individual waves. In general, in any system, destructive interference at one place or in one direction is always accompanied by constructive interference at another place or in another direction. Conservation of energy demands that this be so.

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This case is illustrated in Figure 6. 5a below. ( A 1 A 2 ) sin 1 ( A 1 A 2 ) cos 1 y1 + y2 = A 1 cos( t + 1 ) + A 2 cos( t + 1 ) = A 1 cos( t + 1 ) A 2 cos( t + 1 ) = A 1 A 2
y1
1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 1.5 1 y 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

This result could have been obtained more

y1 t

1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

y1 t

1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

y2

1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 1.5 y 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

y2

1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 1.5 1 y 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

y2

(a)

(b)

(c)

F igure 6 . 5 . ( a) C onstructive interference. ( b) Destructive interference. ( c) G eneral interference.

6 . 6 Wave S uperpos ition

11

If the waves neither constructively nor destructively interfere, as in Figure 6. 5c, the amplitude of the sum wave is neither the sum nor the dierence of the individual waves and the full formalism must be used. The process is illustrated in the example below. Example 6. 3. General interference Find the sum of the two functions given below.

Using Eq. ( 6. 30) , = tan 1 A 1 sin( / 6 ) + 3 A 1 sin( / 4) A 1 cos( / 6 ) + 3 A 1 cos( / 4) = tan 1 ( 0. 543) = 0. 497, 0. 497 +

I must take the choice that = 0. 497 to ensure that A is positive. ( See Eq. ( 6. 31 ) ) . We will return to the implications of these interference results several times during the remainder of this course.

6. 6. 4 The Beat Phenomenon

Consider now the superposition ( at a detector) of two waves of the same amplitude and direction but with slightly dierent frequencies. Let the form of these waves at the detector be y1 = A cos( 1 t + 1 ) y2 = A cos( 2 t + 2 ) I will state without proof ( you are responsible for understanding the result only, not the derivation. . . ) that trigonometric identities can be used to write the sum of these waves in the instructive form, y = y1 + y2 = 2 A cos 1 + 2 1 2 t cos t 2 2 ( 6. 32)

This has the form of a rapidly oscillating ( at ( 1 + 2 ) / 2) cosine function modulated by a slow ly varying amplitude cosine function that oscillates with the small frequency ( 1 2 ) / 2. Such a function is plotted on the next page. Following the plot of the function itself I plot the scaled power delivered to the detector. The power delivered ( as I will show in the next chapter) is proportional to y 2 . Note, from the plots on the next page, that the frequency of the power is twice that of the waveform itself so that the frequency of the slowly variation in the power is b ea t = 1 2 fb eat = f1 f2 ( 6. 33)

Thus for example, the sound heard when two tuning forks of nearly the same frequency arrive at the ear at the same time gets loud and soft at a beat frequency that is the dierence between the frequencies of the individual waves. This phenomenon can be used to compare the frequency of an unknown signal with a standard ( to decode the a communications signal carried by modulation of a harmonic wave, for example) or to tune the frequency of an oscillator to be in agreement with a standard ( as in bringing two guitars into tune. . . )

4 !7  (Y
  7 HWsf

y1 = A 1 cos( t / 6) y2 = 3 A 1 cos( t + / 4)

: Using Eq. ( 6. 28) , A= A = A 2 + ( 3 A 1 ) 2 + 6A 1 A 2 cos( / 6 / 4) 1 A = A 1 1 0 + 6 cos( 5 / 1 2) = 3. 40A 1 A 2 + A 2 + 2 A 1 A 2 cos( 1 2 ) 1 2

12

Nondispersive Waves

y( 1 m) cos( ( 48/ s) t) y2 = ( 1 m) cos( ( 52/ s) t) y = y1 + y2 = ( 2 m) cos( ( 2/ s) t) cos( ( 50/ s) t)

2

1.5

Displacement (m)

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2 0 2 4 6 8 10

Time (s)
1

0.8

Power (au)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0 2 4 6 8 10

Time (s)