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PROPORTIONAL CONTROL VALVES A proportional valve is one that can be controlled continuously throughout its full operating range. Proportional electro-hydraulic control valves are electrically operated control valves that direct and meter the flow of fluid to system actuators in proportion to the position of hand-operated control station levers. In modern hydraulic systems, proportional controls are replacing conventional control valves and are particularly suited to industrial control and mobile hydraulics applications including steel mill control, earth moving vehicles, material handling units, articulated arms, and other construction and service equipment. Proportional electro-hydraulic control valves consist of a control valve driven by a torque motor that receives an electrical signal from a remote controller in proportion to the manual positioning of the control station lever. A feedback signal from the valve spool balances the action of the torque motor to change and/or hold the valve spool position to meter flow in proportion to the control lever position. The operator manipulates the electrical manual control station providing the electrical signal to the control valve proportional to the lever position. Control systems can be mounted to control panels, or held as portable units off the vehicle at the end of an umbilical control cable. They also can be completely portable by using radio-controlled units. These options offer convenience and flexibility not possible with stationary mounted control valves. Several operational characteristics are inherent to such a system. Operator fatigue is drastically lowered because of reduced stress and physical exertion requirements. Hydraulic plumbing is simplified because the control valve can be mounted close to the actuator. This also eliminates fluid leakage at the control station Flexibility of controls allows single or multiple mounted control stations, either on or off the vehicle or both, including two axis joystick operation or other human engineered controls for operator convenience. Radio controls add to this flexibility of operation. Because of the low mass and friction of the control station levers, precise control and feathering are possible with no loss in actuator speed. Typical delay times between operator manipulation of the control lever and proportional movement of the valve spool are a fraction of second. Valves are available as single units or can be assembled in banks like conventional control valves. The proportional electro-hydraulic valve shown in Fig.2a consists of torque motor pilot valve assembly and a four-way power stage valve assembly. The torque motor portion consists of a double air gap having two coils and two magnets. The armature is suspended by a frictionless torsion pivot and extends from one air gap to the other. It can move with a limited rocking action. An electrical signal current to the coils alters the permanent magnetic field causing the armature to pivot one way or the other. The polarity and strength of the current determine the direction and magnitude of the armature force about the pivot. Because the armature have a low mass, the toque motor has a high dynamic response bandwidth and bidirectional control. The flapper attaches to the center of the armature and extends down between the feedback springs of the follow-up piston. A nozzle is located on each side of the flapper such that rocking of the armature varies the size of the two nozzle openings. Pressurized fluid from the pilot supply is carried through the valve stack and enters each pilot stage through a 75-micro meter filter screen. The fluid then passes through two fixed orifices, one upstream of each nozzle. Discharge fluid from the nozzle passes out through a drilling in the power valve spool to a tank cavity in the power valve body. The pressures between each nozzle and fixed orifice are ported to opposite ends of the spool 2b centerline. The level Fig of these pressures holds the follow-up piston in continuous contact Fig 2a with the end of the power valve spool. The differential between the pressures, as varied by the flapper motion between the nozzles, creates the driving force on the power valve spool and the follow-up piston. (fig. 2b) Essentially, the double nozzle flapper valve is a hydraulic resistance bridge circuit with two parallel connecting flow paths. Figure 4 shows how the bridge circuit works. Pressurized fluid passes through both paths from a common supply port Ps to a common return port Pt-. Each flow path has an upstream orifice and a down stream nozzle, with an output port located between the orifice and the nozzle. The flapper is located equidistant between the two nozzles. Flapper to nozzle spacing determines the
Fig-1

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resistance of the nozzle. Steady flow, called quiescent flow, which passes through the circuit, is a function of the orifice and nozzle size. When the flapper is in the neutral position, the bridge circuit is balanced and the pressures at the output ports C1 & C2 are equal. Slight movement of the flapper causes the nozzles to change sizes. This is how the flapper imbalances the bridge circuit and causes a differential pressure and flow from the output ports that shift the hydraulic valve main spool or in the case of two stage valves, to shift the boost valve spool. Flapper displacements as low as 0.004 in. will create a differential pressure greater than 80% of the supply pressure with maximum output flow rates of 50% of the quiescent flow rate. While the double nozzle valve is found in most high performance proportional valves, sliding spool pilot stage valves are found in low to modest performance mobile and industrial applications (fig. 5) the hydraulic bridge circuit used is very similar except that quiescent flow is across two meter-in control edges and two meter-out control edges of the sliding spool pilot valve. Flow from the meter-out control spool edges drain to a common return port. The output ports to the boost stage of the valve are between each of the meter-in and meter out edges of the control valve spool. In the neutral position, quiescent flow across meter-in and meter-out edges of the spool balance the pressure between the boost ports. When an electrical signal is sent to the solenoid actuator, the spool is displaced, imbalancing the bridge circuit by opening one set of meter-in/meter-out control edges and closing the other meter-in edge. This produces a pressure flow situation at one output port or the other to shift the main spool or boost stage of the control valve. Because of the design, shifting the sliding spool pilot stage requires relatively large spool displacements (up to 0.030 in.) and requires high actuating forces from the solenoid actuator (with a dither signal to minimize friction and hysteresis effects). The control spool and solenoid mass also limit the Fig-4 dynamic response bandwidth to modest values unless high force output solenoids are used, but this requires high electrical inputs which generate unwanted heat.

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The flow capacity and flow control characteristics of proportional electrohydraulic valves are determined by the power stage valve spool configuration and flow characteristics that are altered by flow metering slots. Spools may have a number of configurations. Tandem center spools are used with constant flow pump supplies (fixed displacement pumps) (Fig.6). These spools have a bypass from pressure to return when the spool is centered in order to unload the hydraulic supply. As the spool moves to either side of center, the bypass closes off and the pump pressure builds throughout the hydraulic system upstream of the actuator.

Fig 6&7

Fig 5

Spool configurations for proportional valves operating on constant pressure systems may have either open or closed control ports when the spool is in the center position. Remember that an open center spool has both control ports open to return when the spool is centered. The tandem center bypass, which allows stacking and independent supply to other loads, also diverts the constant volume pump to tank when the valve spool is in the center position. The pressure lands usually are overlapped so that 10% to 30% of spool travel is necessary to close the return and open the cylinder port to pressure. This spool configuration always is used to operate a man lift, as the open center assures operation of load holding valves at the lift cylinders which are required by OSHA and ANSI. Closed center spools are used with constant pressure supplies (variable displacement pumps) The control is quite accurate and linear, but the requirement of a variable displacement pump increases the cost of the system considerably. An alternative to the constant pressure system (variable volume pump) is to use a load demand pressure regulator (pilot operated unloading valve) on a constant volume fixed displacement pump. The result is that all valves will have the same supply pressure, and that the system pressure will change to accommodate maximum load. Standby pressure is essentially the same as the losses in the tandem center valve system (200-300 lbf/in.2), and pump pressure builds as the load requires. The advantage of this system over conventional tandem center constant volume systems is that the performance of all control valves is immediate and non interactive as with true constant pressure systems. In both cases, however, the value of the pressure is dependent upon the valve controlling the maximum load, and when two or more valves are opened simultaneously, the valve controlling the least load will received priority flow. A fixed displacement pump circuit with a cylinder demand pump unloading valve is shown in fig.7 Notice that the open center valves require load holding valves at the cylinder ports.

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Figure 8 illustrates several controllers that are used with proportional control valves. Single-lever controllers con be moved back and forth to control the direction of one double-acting cylinder or the forward and reverse rotation of a motor. The center position is usually detented and removes electrical power. Two axis single-lever controllers are used to direct two actuators hooked to a single piece of equipment such as a loader fork on slides that lift as well as slide from Fig 8 side to side. The single lever is moved back and forth or from side to side. Each direction has its own detent, feel-centering spring, potentiometer, and on-off switch. Two units of this style can be mounted side by side to provide convenient two-hand four-axis control. External mounting of the controller requires a sealed weather tight unit with a shroud to prevent accidental switching. Multiple control lever controllers Fig8b such as that in Fig.8b give the operator control over 2 to 6 lever switches which can drive a signal proportional valve or a hydrostatic pump stroker. The center position is neutral, and a "deadman" switch is located on the side to energize the control levers. Custom designed control stations such as that shown in Fig.8c are available for special use applications. And self-contained radio controllers provide up to six proportional and 16 on-off functions. Individual logic codes prevent erroneous control from electrical interference or from other radio controllers. The integral radio transmitter operates from rechargeable batteries. Fig -9

Electro-hydraulic proportional control valves can be used to control hydrostatic transmissions by replacing the usual manual control lever of the variable displacement pump with an electric controller driven by a battery powered potentiometer. The electrical remote control for the hydrostatic pump is provided by a proportional valve mechanism like that shown in fig.9. In this application the position of the pump stroking mechanism is proportional to the electrical input, so a lever and spring connect from the stroking mechanism to the torque motor. When an electrical signal is applied from the hand controller to the torque motor coils, the armature rocks either clockwise or counterclockwise. This torque displaces the flapper between the two nozzles. The differential nozzle flow moves the spool to either the right or left. The spool continues to move until the feedback torque applied to the flapper from the spool valve counteracts the electromagnetic torque. At this point the armature and flapper are returned to center, the spool stops and remains displaced until the electrical input signal changes to a new level. Valve spool position is proportional to the electrical signal. The actual flow from the valve to the stroking mechanism of the pump depends on the load pressure, and the stroking mechanism will move until it reaches a displacement where the feedback spring just counteracts the electrical input torque. At this point the valve has moved back near its centered position. The control loop in this instance is open by its very nature, and it can be closed only by the actions of the operator who must compensate for changes in the speed of the engine that drives the hydrostatic pump or changes in the load. One of the problems inherent to proportional control valves is that operator effort to shift the controller is not proportional to the output of the hydraulic valve, This can cause the actuator to start too quickly or exert too much force when the load resistance is encountered. For example, quick-shifting of the valve on the tram motors on a tracked vehicle or on a fork lift drive could spill the load and break the machine, particularly at start-up or if the machine were stalled. Here the result could be personal injury as well as equipment damage. The output force and velocity can be regulated by installing pressure or flow control valves at the actuators, but these have adjustment
Fig - 10

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limitations and often consume power needlessly. A more recently developed solution incorporates an inexpensive electrical programmable velocity control in the valve itself. Figure 10 illustrates the characteristics of such a circuit as it would be applied to a hydraulic cylinder or motor. The upper half of the figure illustrates the input voltage from a variable controller that, in this case, is switched abruptly forward(positive) and then reversed (negative). The lower half of the figure illustrates adjustable (ramped) outputs at ports A and B, which are programmed with respect to acceleration, velocity, and deceleration. No matter how fast the controller is shifted, the output of the actuator is programmed to ramp the start-up acceleration, maximum velocity, and stopping acceleration in both directions within the safe limits of the machine and operating personnel. SERVO VALVES A servo valve produces a continuously controlled output as a function of an electrical input signal. It does this by incorporating a feedback loop that compares the velocity, position. or force of the output actuator with the command signal sent to the control valve, and then makes corrections at the output for differences in the two. The most common type of servo valve is a four-way valve, but three-way and two way porting configurations are also common. In a proportional electro-hydraulic valve like that shown in Fig. 9, the position of the swash plate stroking mechanism on the pump is controlled by the position of the hand-operated proportional controller. The control loop in this instance is open by its very nature because the operator must compensate for changes in engine speed when the load builds or reduces such that the engine driving the pump is made to slow down or speed up. Closed-loop operation (Fig. 11) is achieved by attaching a tachometer to measure the speed of the hydraulic motor and comparing this value with the command setting of the potentiometer at the control station, and then making adjustments to the input to compensate for differences (the error) between the two. Servo valves come in single, two-stage, and three-stage designs, depending upon the flow rate and pressure ratings (Fig. 12). With single-stage valves pilot pressure is used to shift the main spool. Staging has the effect of increasing the flow capacity by providing the higher spool pressures and flow required to shift the main valve spool. Single-stage valves commonly provide output flow rates to 15 gal/min at 1000 lbf/in.2 drop and supply pressures to 5000 Ibf/in.2 although 5 to 10 gal/min is often the realistic limit for single-stage valves. Two-stage valves increase the flow capacity to 40 gal/min or more, and three-stage valves are used with flow rates between 40 and 400 gal/min, although some three-stage valves have capacities to 1000 gal/min. Both proportional valves and servo valves position the valve spool in proportion to an electrical signal from the controller. The proportional valve electrical signal is regulated by a handoperated controller with the magnitude determined by the position. Servo valves, on the other hand, receive the initial electrical signal from the command input, and any deviation from that is sensed at the output and fed back into the controller as an error signal. Thus it would seem that proportional valves could be used to replace servo valves which are more expensive, simply by exchanging the command station and output sensing device for the hand-operated controller. In most instances, this cannot be done because the difference lies not in the control of the valve, but in the spool configuration of the valve. Proportional valves are designed so that at full opening the pressure drop across the valve is only 5% to 10% of system supply pressure. In this respect, they are power delivery valves. They also have a flow deadband of 20% to 30% of spool stroke in the center position. A flow deadband of this magnitude creates a positive null that is desirable for open-loop manual control systems. Proportional valves can be used in closed-loop servo systems. but this requires the use of nonlinear electronic controllers to compensate for the instability associated with a wide null bandwidth.
Fig -11

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Servo valves, on the other hand, are precision metering valves. Pressure drop across these valves at full spool opening is commonly 33% of input pressure. This is done to ensure precision flow metering characteristics, and because there is very little spool overlap, the flow headband is negligible. It must be remembered, however, that the amount of power transmitted through the valve is limited to 67% of the input power. Servo valves are used to control the velocity, position, force, and acceleration-deceleration rate of the actuator. Most servo valves control the flow rate to the actuator and are called flow control servo valves. Fig-12 Servo valves that control and differentiate pressure to the load are called pressure control servo valves. Both functions can bc incorporated in one servo valve with the primary function being flow rate output (velocity control), with load pressure controlled as a function of the load resistance to motion. When flow and pressure are controlled in one servo valve, the valve provides a load flow rate as a function of the load resistance to motion. Which function the valve serves is determined by how the output is sensed, the configuration of the valve, and how the controller receives the feedback as a combined Fig -13 error signal. Thus far we have discussed how a tachometer sensing the output speed of a hydraulic motor can be used to stroke the hydraulic pump. This is a flow control device. Here it was not important what caused the speed to change at the output of the hydrostatic transmission output. It could have been caused by a change in the output load, for example, as the vehicle traveled up or down a grade, or by a change in load on other parts of the system to cause the drive speed to the pump to change. Either one would affect the speed of the output and if the command signal from the controller specified a certain speed, then the feedback from the tachometer signal would cause an error signal to be sent to the controller. One means used to reduce the number of sensors, wiring harness, and connectors on the output actuator and simplify the integration of the various feedback signals into an error signal is to incorporate a programmed electronic microprocessor module in the controller, usually called a SYSTEM ENHANCER, to compute the velocity. acceleration, and load parameters. Figure 13 illustrates the schematic for such an example. The riveting machine shown requires control of the Compression rate, force levels, time of compression (squeeze), and rate of decompression. the sensing device used to activate the program in the microprocessor is the load cell. The circuit is designed to have the ram advance upward, contact the rivet, compress and then hold for a Specified time, and then retract at a rapid traverse rate. The ram starts from the bottom position and rapid advances under open-loop servo control until it contacts the rivet. At the instant of rivet contact, the force begins to build up. This force is detected by the load cell and sent to the microprocessor, in the controller, which in turn commands the servo valve to instantaneously reverse direction and reduce the force level to zero. When the moment of zero force level is achieved, the system automatically Switches to closed-loop force control. The force is then increased at a controlled rate to a predetermined level. Once the force level is reached, it is maintained for a given time interval and then the system decompresses at a controlled rate to zero force level. At the zero force level, the microprocessor commands the ram to return to the full down position at a rapid rate and the system stands by for the next cycle. The microprocessor contains all the system logic, timers, ramps, and comparators, as well as most of the control circuitry. The only inputs that are required are "initiate" to start the cycle and "abort" to stop the cycle. Another means to Simplify the control of servo valve systems. if the actuator is not subjected to a hostile environment, is to mount the servo valve directly on the actuator (Fig. 14). The advantage of this arrangement is to eliminate the plumbing between the valve and actuator, thereby increasing the drive Stiffness. This reduces oscillation and increases operating speed and accuracy. Servo actuators of this type use LVDT (linear variable

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Fig -14

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differential transformer) or DCDT (LVDT with solid state exciter and phase sensitive demodulator) transducers to control velocity (flow) or load (pressure).

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