University College Cork

Coliste na hOllscoile Corcaigh

Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering

Ho rizo nta l Loa ding s o f Liquid Co ncrete o n Skew Arches

P a u l An t h o n y C a h i l l E o i n Th o ma s Al l e n

S u p e r v i s o r : Dr . V i k r a m P a k r a s h i

S u b mi t t e d a s p a r t o f B E ( C i v i l ) de g r e e

1 . Introduction
Currently there are no guidelines in the field of arch design pertaining to lateral forces in liquid concrete acting on precast arches, which are to be used in road bridge construction. The aim of this project is to set up and design working models which will have an applied horizontal load, as a result of the liquid concrete . A case model which is referenced in our investigations is the Leenane Bri dge in county G a l w a y. T h e b r i d g e i t s e l f , b e f o r e b e i n g n e w l y c o n s t r u c t e d , w a s o v e r 1 0 0 ye a r s o l d b u t i n 2 0 0 8 w a s d e s t r o y e d b y s e v e r e f l o o d i n g a n d r a i n s . The bridge was rebuilt in 2009 and was increased in size. The bridge consists of 3 precast arches which rest on in situ reinforced concrete abutments. During construction problems relating to the lateral forces associated with liquid concrete arose, due to no direct guidelines pertaining to arch design being in circulation. Through the use of detailed models using a finite elements programme Strand7 and with the use of Excel programmes, varying parameters such as bridge dimensions and characteristics are accounted for and modelled to produce different horizontal loadings. From these horizontal loadings Bending moments in both X and Y axis will be obtained. With this , a series of data charts and graphs are created to display the maximum horizontal loadings to be withstood by the given arch. With a set of tables or graphs the failure modes can be achieved. In pa rticular the serviceability state of cracking is a vital mode of failure , which for aesthetic purposes must be avoided. Using the obtained charts , guidelines for arch design can be created and thus these modes of failure avoided or seen how to be avoided i n terms of added dimensions o r s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . T h e r e w i l l b e s e v e n v a r yi n g p a r a m e t e r s w i t h regards to our arch model.

Figure 1.1 A picture of a bridge in the w est of Ireland w hich w ill act a model for our case study.1

Figure 1.1 A 3-D generated model of one precast arch w ith layers of concrete being poured as a time.

Figure 1. 2 A real time rendering 3 -D illustration of the arch with concrete set at either side.

2 . L i t e r a t u r e Re v i e w a n d T h e o r y
Concrete arches have been used to solve numerous construction problems worldwide. It is the purpose of this paper to find the limits a precast arch can withstand with respect to bending moments and forces a c t i n g a t a p o i n t o n v a r yi n g d i f f e r e n t d i m e n s i o n s . F i r s t w e m u s t understand and the pressures involved when the concrete at a liquid stage is poured on to the precast slab. There are various different models associated with calculating pressures but few which give reference to arch criterion in particular.

2.5 Models.
T h e r e a r e v a r yi n g d i f f e r e n t m o d e l s w h i c h d e a l w i t h t h e l a t e r a l pressures created when liquid concrete is placed in formwork and begins to set. It was decided for the purposes of this report to focus on models resulting from experimental data rather than theoretical modelling or models made using assumed values . This decision was made to reflect conditions present on construction sites and the resulting conclusions would be more relevant for use in the solving of the problem of lateral forces in concrete. It was decided to use several d i f f e r e n t m o d e l s i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s . U s i n g s e v e r a l v a r yi n g models and not just a one gives a broader description and view of the maximum pressures which take place. As the models included have a r a n g e o f v a r yi n g p a r a m e t e r s w h i c h w i l l g i v e a m o r e a c c u r a t e representation of the pressures involved . The obtained results will include many conditions which are present in the maximum pressure of

lateral forces developed on the precast arch, but if a range of models were not to be considered, a less accurate set of results would be attained as all variables available would not be included in our a n a l ys i s .

3.1 Introduction
A 3D brick model was set up using Strand7 finite elements p rogramme. A base model was initially des igned with our base dimensions set at an i n t e r m e d i a t e v a l u e s . T h e r e a r e m a n y v a r yi n g p a r a m e t e r s i n v o l v e d w i t h the model from the change of the angle of skew of the arch, h which is the height of concrete poured either side at a time of the arch, R the rate of placement, T the temperature of the concrete, Ratio of dimensions of our model, fcu the concrete strength, T the thickness of the precast structure. These seven paramete rs will have a range of values which will be inputted into our base model and thus resulting in v a r yi n g h o r i z o n t a l l o a d i n g s f o r o u r a r c h .

Figure 3.1 A screen shot of the arch model w ith ap plied horizontal loads long the arch and internal stresses.

3.2 Models used to create horizontal load ings

Using four different models to create values for pressures at increasing heights along the arch it will give varying results and th en be computed as horizontal forces and used in the model. The considered models being used: Adams, Ciria, Garners and Rodens. These four different m o d e l s c o n s i d e r v a r yi n g a s p e c t s o f f o r m w o r k p r e s s u r e s a n d w i l l t h e n r e s u l t i n v a r yi n g h o r i z o n t a l l o a d i n g s . F r o m o u r r e s u l t s w e h a v e f o u n d

that loadings are consistent from being highest to lowest in size. The models range from largest to smallest in horizontal loadings as below. 1 - Ciria 2 Rodens 3 Adams 4 Gardeners There is a general pattern seen throughout the course of results of the horizontal loadings and ultimately the Bending moments which adhere to the above order. Once horizontal loadings are established for each of the models they are used to get values for the bending moments in both X & Y axis.

6 . Cr e a t i o n a n d A n a l y s i s o f 3 - D Mo d e l s a n d G r a p h s .
6.1 Strand 7 finite elements programme.
The computer program used to compute the results was a finite element a n a l ys i s p r o g r a m c a l l e d S t r a n d 7 . T h e s o f t w a r e a l l o w s t h e u s e r t o c r e a t e a mesh of the model, assign properties and loadings quickly and e f f i c i e n t l y. I t i s q u i t e m e t h o d i c a l i n i t s a p p r o a c h t o c o m p l e t i n g t h e model. It computes the stress, force and displacement at each point on the mesh and the results function s, including graphical illustration of the stress in the model, graphing option and spread sheet format of the r e s u l t s a l l o w f o r q u i c k a n a l ys i s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . It was decided to create 3D models of the arches rather than 2D models as we felt the 3D models would be more accurate than its 2D counterpart. Also, by using 3D models, the pressure loadings on the arch could be entered directly into the program as a Global Face Pressure. This pressure acts over the face of the brick on the X -axis, m i r r o r i n g t h e r e a l l i f e e f f e c t s o f t h e c o n c r e t e a c t i n g h o r i z o n t a l l y. S t a n d 7 i n c l u d e s t h e f u n c t i o n f o r e n t e r i n g e q u a t i o n s f o r a p p l yi n g p r e s s u r e a n d t h i s p r o v e d b o t h h e l p f u l a n d a c c u r a t e . F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n a p p l yi n g pressure reliant on height, the exact height of the bric k is used in the program and proves highly accurate when compared to the pressure values generated in Excel.

Figure 6.1 A screen shot of the three dimensional model illustrating the loads acting on the arch horizontally.

6.3 Establishing Models and respective pressures and forces

As stated in the literary review we have worked with four different models which take different approaches in creating horizontal pressures due to liquid concrete. If when we started to use these models and there formulas to create our loadings for each specific case by hand and using just a calculator and pen it would be into next year before any relevant data would be attained. Using our chosen spread sheet, we can simply input the given equation from the chosen models and ins ert the required parameters for each model case. All -ready discussed in c h a p t e r 4 w e r e t h e v a r yi n g p a r a m e t e r s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r e a c h m o d e l and specific case. From drawing up a series of equations and a table of which includes columns of the parameter he adings and rows of the values of the parameters. With this table created it is easy to access the values of pressures or forces for each specific case and simply input that value or range of values into the design model in the finite elements programme and ultimately output the forces impacted onto the arch and the resulting moments and sheer forces. In total we will create a series of models in terms of the angle of skew of the arch from the principal axis and vary one parameter each time we will do this f or e a c h m o d e l f o r 5 t o 8 v a r yi n g p a r a m e t e r s a n d f o r 7 d i f f e r e n t a n g l e s o f skew. This will result in 236 different models covering all aspects of arch size and the variations in terms of the angle of skew of the arch.

E a c h m o d e l w i l l a n a l ys e d a n d i t s m a x i m u m s t r e s s a n d b e n d i n g m o m e n t s recorded and graphed as discussed below. Each angle of skew will have 9 v a r yi n g g r a p h s w i t h e a c h o f t h e f o u r p r e s s u r e m o d e l s r e p r e s e n t e d o n the each of the 9 graphs. The 9 graphs will represent each change in t h e v a r yi n g p a r a m e t e r .

Figure 6.5 A section of the discussed table from excel , w here specific models can be easily tracked and produce the resulting forces.

A section of such a table is shown above. When the table is created it can be simply copied again and used for the other models. Highlighted i n ye l l o w a r e t h e c h a n g i n g v a l u e s f o r t h a t p a r a m e t e r . B y w r i t i n g t h e given equation for the model and pasting it in to the same row across the bottom of the table and assigning the coefficients for that case to t h e r e q u i r e d v a l u e s ( t h e b o x e s i n ye l l o w ) a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g v a l u e s a r e left at baseline values. The necessary value for pressure is then o u t p u t t e d i n t h a t b o x u n d e r t h e r e l e v a n t c o l u m n . U s i n g t h i s s ys t e m gave us quick, accurate and the required value for the specific case to i n p u t t o o u r 3 - D m o d e l . H a v i n g d e v e l o p e d t h i s s ys t e m w e f o u n d i t e a s y to transfer values from the formwork pressure models with any dimension or parameter and relay this data into the finite elements programme and produce a model of an arch with horizontal loadings a c t i n g a t v a r yi n g h e i g h t s a l o n g t h e m o d e l l e d a r c h .

6.4 Creation of 3-Dimensional Models

The first step in the development of the m odel was creating beam elements using the points and lines function, creating 180 beams in the shape of the parabola. The beams were then converted into Quad8 plates, by extruding the beams by the desired thickness of the arch. By subdividing these plates into four, square plates were created through the thickness. It is vital that all faces of plates and bricks are square in shape, for completing the finite element approach. These plates were then converted into Hexa8 bricks, by once again using the extrud ing

function, and extruding the bricks by the width of the arch. Subdividing these large rectangular prism bricks along the Z axis results in the desired bricks used in the modelling. The nodes at the base of the arch were then restrained against translati on in the X, Y and Z direction. The properties of the concrete were then applied to the bricks, completing the model.

Figure 6.7 Displaying how the brick is relatively square in shape and its basic data.

The loadings were applied in different load cases. Each load case represents a different pour of concrete, and range from the arch being empty to the completion of the pouring of concrete. For each load case gravity was assigned as -981m/s2. The pressure was assigned to the bricks as a global pressure in the X direction, on the faces which would be in contact with the concrete in a working environment. As previously stated the loads will be assigned at heights rising up the y axis of the arch according to their values in the Excel spread sheet. They will by default act horizontally to the surface of the structure.

Figure 6.8 A screen shot applicable to that model.

displaying

the

various

pour

or

loading

conditions

Once the model has been correctly developed and has the assigned loads. The user will chose an option from the solver and run the linear static solver. In the solver there are various options to consider. As we c r e a t e d o u r m o d e l u s i n g a g l o b a l s ys t e m w h e r e p o i n t s a r e a l l r e l a t e d t o an origin point and when the result file is complete the user can select and x, y or z co-ordinate and get results at that point, line across the structure and at a plane across the arch using the co -ordinates. Form setting the correct settings for the solver and selecting the ok button the programme will solve and produce the results for the series of loads assigned to the structure. As spoken about previously the size of a three dimensional Hex -8 model there is a considerable run time involved with such a model. When however the model is ran, I could open the results file and the programme will automa tically run the results file on the structure. When the programme has ran the results f i l e , t h e m o d e l h a s b e e n c o m p l e t e d f r o m i n i t i a l d e s i g n a l l t h e w a ys t h r o u g h t o r e s u l t a n a l ys i s a n d a p p l i c a t i o n . I t i s n o w d o w n t o t h e u s e r b e i t m ys e l f , m y p a r t n e r o r a n y d e s i g n c o n s u l t a n t t o a c c e s s r e s u l t s a n d use them in any way they desire. The results can be taken at a glance from the screen by corresponding the colours on the structure to the chart on the top right hand of the screen.

6.5 Accuracy of Models and Data

Using a finite elements programme such as Strand7 for a first time user can be difficult and hard to master. From our research and constant use of this software package we got to grips with the available tools and functions and learned how fully exploit th e programme to develop and create usable and significant data. Having spent weeks working at both

the meshing of our model and the assigning of loads to the model on a trial and error basis we finally created a working and technically correct model.

Fig ure 6.9 A model summary from strand displaying the volume and number of brick elements used in this specific model.

Having originally decided to use two -dimensional modelling , these m o d e l s u s e d p l a n e s t r a i n p l a t e s a s a m o d e l t yp e . T h i s a p p r o a c h h a d advantages in the form of quick run time, easily applicable loadings and smaller model to work on thus making it easier to assign loads or c o m p u t e a n y c h a n g e s . W h i l e u s i n g t h i s t yp e o f m o d e l w e e n c o u n t e r e d problems where the thickness of the plates effected the densities of the plates them self and gave a substantially larger resistance than that of a precast concrete arch and thus resulting in flawed results. Having tried rectifying these faults with our model and even tried changing to a d i f f e r e n t p l a t e s ys t e m i n t h e f o r m o f p l a i n s t r a i n p l a t e s . T h e s e changes resulted in further illegitima cies in the model producing results for stress in the range of 60 Kpa. These values were obviously well outside any plausible range of results . This ultimately called for a n e w m o d e l t yp e a n d d e s i g n . A s c a n b e s e e n f r o m t h e m o d e l s u m m a r y there are over 129,600 different brick elements, this shows the shear amount of elements it takes to create such a model and ultimately that the meshing needs to be correct or else one mistake will throw out the r e s u l t s o r t h e m o d e l a n a l ys i s w h e n l o a d s a r e a p p l i e d . Firstly both the beam and arch were created in the same process, including all the same criteria for meshing, using the same brick elements (hex-8) and keeping all conditions the sa me within the mesh and brick settings. With both models created we set about to set the end conditions of both models. The arch would be fully fixed at one end and fixed in rotations at the other. At the end of the arch with only fixed rotations it would b e allowed to move in both the x and y ax is. In keeping with this static characteristic, the beam was free at one end and fully fixed at the other end. Using these now relevant and working m o d e l s w e s e t t h e s t r a n d 7 p r o g r a m m e t o a n a l ys i n g b o t h b e a m a n d a r c h

with only self-weight being applied basically an U.D.L. (Uniformly Distributed Load) acting across the length and breadth of the structure.

insert length insert breadth insert height insert y

20 10 0.4 0.2

m m m m

Theory for a simply supported beam

SW for 10m width I = bd^3 /12

rho*h

9.6 KN/m^2 96 KN/m width 0.053333333 m^4

M = (w(l^2))/8 Stress

4800 18000

kNm KPa

Results For Simply Supported Percentage Correct 105.9297222 % -99.1705556 % 105.9297222 % -99.1705556 %

Brick Middle

Stress (KPa) Moment (KNm)

Arch Beam Arch Beam

19067.35 -17850.7 5084.626667 -4760.186667

As seen above, using an Excel spread sheet we could calculate the moments from the resulting stresses outputted by the results file of our model in the finite elements programme. The second moments area was calculated which would be the same at the crown o f the arch as a n yw h e r e a l o n g t h e b e a m . W e t o o k v a l u e s f r o m t h e a r c h a t t h i s p o i n t . Keeping in line with our results and the accuracy the arch should create slightly larger stresses and moments as all tough it acts over the same span it has a larger volume due to its shape and thus resulting in a

larger UDL due to the increase in self -weight. From the results obtained for both the arch and beam they were inputted to the spread sheet as seen above and then compared back against each other and the hand calculations of what the structure should produce in terms of moments and sheer. From calculating the stress and moments for a beam 20 metres long, 0.4 metres in height and 10 metres in breath. The Second moment of area was calculated giving 0.0533m 4. Simply by using a fundamental rule o f statics for stresses the moments can be calculated.
(Equation 6.1).

We can now calculate the moment

created in the arch as Strand& only outputs stresses . 3-D 3-D 3-D 3-D Model Model Model Model Arch Stress % correct: 105.9% Brick Stress % correct: 99.17% Arch Moment % correct: 105.9% Brick Moment % correct: 99.17%

With this simple test achieved and passed we could move on with the c r e a t i o n o f t h e o t h e r m o d e l s f o r v a r yi n g p a r a m e t e r s a n d l o a d c a s e s , happy in the knowledge that our model would be correct and produce proper and true results and data as the new three dimensional model w a s w o r k i n g a c c o r d i n g l y.

6.6 Use and calculation of established data

Having successfully created working models with relevant and usable data it is now time to take this data and use it to calculate moments and thus ultimately to ascertain whether or not the serviceability limit states will be passed or fail due to excess m oments experienced within the arch. Strand7 produces an extensive series of results, when using the global setting in terms of the models positions results can be attained from any position or point on the graph. When the results file has finished running it will display graphically. The stresses throughout the arch will be shown in colour which can be referenced to the chart on the top right of the screen when the results file has been o p e n e d ( r e f e r t o f i g u r e 3 . 1 p a g e 2 1 ) . S t r a n d 7 a n a l ys i s a l l t h e l o a d c a s e s acting on the structure, then takes into consideration the assigned characteristics of the arch and then attributes the stresses accordingly across and throughout the arch. As now reactions, deflections and stresses are now all present on the model, acquiring these results in relevant positions and using the results to produce moments and ultimately relationship graphs between all the 4 pressure models (refer to chapter 2.5 page 16). Using the graph function in Strand 7 allowed us to get stresses at any p o i n t s w e d e s i r e d a n d h e n c e i n c r e a s e t h e a c c u r a c y o f o u r a n a l ys i s a n d

report. Having read through our resulting models we found on every model that the maximum stresses occurred mostly on the penultimate pour. Looking at the model and its stresses highlig hted in various colours we could see that stresses occurred in mainly two positions. There was however 3 positions but from consulting a publication on the d yn a m i c o f a r c h e s t h a t , t h e l o a d a t t h e t o p o f t h e c r o w n m a k e s e a c h element along the arch of the bridge press on the one next to it. This happens until the push is applied to the end supports or abutments, w h i c h a r e f i x e d i n t h e g r o u n d o r t o a n o t h e r s u p p o r t 2. F r o m t h i s w e decided to take results of stresses from points starting, in the middle and at the end of the portions of high stress regions. This we felt gave a more accurate range of results to show the maximum forces generated in the graph. The points of selection will be shown on the figure below.

Figure 6.12 A screen shot illustrating where the results will be taken in red and the excluded zone in pink.

As illustrated in the figure above the main regions of stress acting within the arch. The above diagram has been truncated at its centre along the breadth of the arch (cut taken parallel to the x axis). This then shows the stresses at the centre of the structure. When obtaining r e s u l t s o r d e f l e c t i o n i n t h e a r c h u s i n g t h e g l o b a l c o o r d i n a t e s s ys t e m t h e programme allows the user to get results across a plane or along a line at any point along the structur e using x, y and z co -ordinates. As seen in the again in the diagram 6.12 the points where we place d a line across the thickness of the arch (in purple) and attained results for that section of the arch, which was placed again at its centre, where the max stresses would occur, and not at the edges or the arch. The region where we would be excluding for analysis is outlined in pink as these

forces

will

be

transferred

to

the

bridge

abutments.

Figure 6.13 A graph created by strand7 across a line section of the arch showing the stresses created.

The produced graph is shown above of a line section of stres ses taken across a section of the arch. Stresses on the outside and inside of the arch are shown either side of the graph. The series of load cases are d i s p l a ye d a n d a r e d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e v i a t h e l e g e n d . A s c a n b e s e e n l o a d case 8 has the created the maximum stress on the outside face and is d i s p l a ye d i n t h e t e x t b o x t o t h e t o p r i g h t o f t h e g r a p h . T h e m a x i m u m stress on the inside face has been created by the full load case and is seen by the coral red line intersection the left y axis by the -1200KPa mark.

6.7 Results and graphed data

As above, stated is how where and why we create the data and set of results needed for the calculation and determination of the serviceability limit state check for cracking and whether or not it is attainable for certain arche s of specific dimensions. From the created results which are explained above, to where we get those results . Here I will show the findings of one set of results for one specific case. The case chosen here is the baseline range of parameters for all the fou r models. The entire set of results will be published in an appendix. For

the clarity of this report I will show the set of results and explain how they were attained. As said shown here will be the set of results for the four models all set at Baseline va lues. The base line values are the d e f a u l t v a l u e s w h i c h a r e a l l s e t a t i n t e r m e d i a t e v a l u e s f o r e a c h v a r yi n g parameters discussed in chapter 4. The entire process as described from this chapter will implemented from creating the model, assigning all t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , c h e c k i n g t h e m o d e l t h a t i t w o r k s c o r r e c t l y, a p p l yi n g t h e l o a d c a s e s , r u n n i n g t h e s o l v e r , a n a l ys i n g t h e f o r c e s a n d graphing the data. These are the steps to be taken to end up at complete stage where the models can be compared to each other an d then used to attain serviceability checks for cracking.

6.7.1 Tables of created data.

Full Pours Inside Face Moments Heights (m) 0.7400 1.1800 1.4800 1.8460 2.0300 2.3600 2.5500 2.6000 Stress (Mpa) 0.5432 0.7861 0.8293 0.7868 0.5537 0.6778 1.0150 1.2306 Moments (kNm) 14485.3333 20962.1333 22114.6667 20981.3333 14765.3333 18074.6667 27066.6667 32816.0000 Heights (m) 0.7800 1.5800 1.8800 2.2460 2.4300 2.7600 2.9500 3.0000 Full Pours Outside Face Moments Stress (Mpa) 0.6246 0.9558 1.0482 1.0449 0.8627 0.4993 0.3580 0.6207 Moments (kNm) 16656.0000 25488.0000 27952.0000 27864.0000 23005.3333 13314.6667 9546.6667 16552.0000

The above table shows the range of moments experienced in the arch on both the outside and inside face. The height column refers to the height along up the arch in the y axis the where the stress is taken. The stress column is self-explanatory where that i s the stress found at that height up the arch at the centre of the arch. The moments column is then the stress converted by using formula 6.1 using the second moment of area to get the moment at that point. The above table is the table for the Baseline values for the Rodin model. From these values which will be created 3 more times for each other model and thus there will be four similar tables for each model at these set of values. With tables created for all the four results we then, using the graph function in Excel combine each models set of results for moments which will be assigned to the y axis. The height will be assigned to the x axis, but will be the s a m e f o r a l l t h e m o d e l s a n d t h u s c r e a t i n g a n e q u a l b a s i s o f a n a l ys i s t o compare each model to the n ext. The table is divided into two parts the

moments at the inner face and the moments at the outer face which will provide two different graphs. Notice that the heights increase by the thickness of arch and thus displaying which are the outer face moments. The two graphs produced from combining the four ranges of moments as shown below again for the Baseline set of values for the four chosen models . There are certain comparisons that can be taken f r o m t h e s e g r a p h s a n d t h u s l e a d i n g t o f u r t h e r a n a l ys i s .

Figure 6.14 Show s the graph of the four mode ls graphed w ith M oments V Heights for the inside face moments.

Figure 6.15 Show s the graph of the four mode ls graphed w ith M oments V Heights for the outside face mome nts.

From looking at both graphs it can be seen that Rodins and Adams models for horizontal pressures are similar in there range of values for moments. From looking at their approaches for how pressure is created one would expect this they suggest that the pr essure envelope is close t o b e i n g h yd r o s t a t i c i n i t s d e s i g n a n d t h e n o n c e t h e p r e s s u r e m a x i m u m is reached it adheres to its own set of guidelines which are relatively similar. On the other case Ciria and Gardners models are not in keeping with this range of values. The concept Ciria has adopted is to maintain a constant uniform pressure along the structural formwork or whatever the liquid concrete is in contact with in this case the precast arch. This design procedure can be seen in figure 6.16 where the pr essure envelope is dictated by a straight line at the pressure face. Gardner however processes a similar approach until the height of concrete poured reaches the minimum immersion depth for an immersion rod or vibrator. This height is set according to Gard ner at 1 metre. After this the pressure graphs establishes a new pressure value and increases linearly as the height of concrete rises until, like Rodins and Adams models when it reaches the pressure maximum (P, max) it no longer increases and becomes co nstant.

Before the forces are applied in the finite elements programme model we graphed the generated forces in excel which mirrored the results attained in their respective publications.

Figure 6.16 The Graphed pressures according to the four models in Excel (B aseline Values).

From simply looking at how the models compare to a simply full h yd r o s t a t i c a p p r o a c h i t c a n b e s e e n t h a t i t w o u l d l e a d t o e x c e s s i v e volumes of concrete and reinforcement to create a cracking or bearing capacity high enough to prevent failure due to these modes. Having generated a substantial amount of data pertaining to the four chosen pressure models, correctly inputted these range of preliminary results i n t o w o r k i n g m o d e l s , w e h a v e i n - t u r n c r e a t e d a n a c c u r a t e s ys t e m t o quantify the horizontal loads imparted onto a precast arch due to the pouring of liquid concrete onto that structure. Discussed in 6.7 and 6.7.1 are the graphed results and data for one range of values with set parameters which were chosen to be the baseline values. A full set of results are published in the appendix.

7 . Co n c l u s i o n
T h e a n a l ys i s o f h o r i z o n t a l l o a d i n g s o f l i q u i d c o n c r e t e o n c o n c r e t e s k e w arches was carried out using the use of excel spread sheets and the finite elements programme Strand7. The aims of this report were a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h a n a l ys i s o f t h e p r o d u c e d s t r e s s e s a n d m o m e n t s r e s u l t data, created in the arch when horizontal pressures were applied via

v a r yi n g f o r m w o r k p r e s s u r e m o d e l s . T h e g e n e r a t i o n o f r e s u l t s g a v e a w i d e r a n g e o f v a l u e s f o r v a r yi n g s i z e a r c h e s a n d t h u s c r e a t e d a catalogue of graphs of the models and the forces created when inputted to the 3-Dimensional model. These objectives included establishing the limits and cracking capacities of skew arches due to the imparted load d u e t o t h e l i q u i d c o n c r e t e , t h e b e n e f i t s o f s u c h a s ys t e m a s a m e a n s o f s t r u c t u r a l a s s e s s m e n t , i s t h e e a s e i n i d e n t i f yi n g s t e e l r e i n f o r c e m e n t capacities, the impact of over stressing or overloading the precast arch and leading to damaging the concrete structure at serviceability limit s t a t e s s u c h a s c r a c k i n g , a n d t h e s u c c e s s o f c r e a t i n g s u c h a s ys t e m t o allow an end user to identify these limits and designate dimensions to such precast arch designs at the design stage. Assessment of the relationships betwee n the models and their resultant data gave an indication to the maximum cracking resistance of an arch of a predetermined size and dimensions. Using Strand7 which is a relatively user friendly finite elements programme allows for a p p l i c a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e l o a d c a s e s a t o n e o r v a r yi n g t i m e s a l l o w i n g t h e replication of real construction practices producing precise and usable results. The use of such a technical and specific programme outputted very manageable and functional data which gave this report such successful results. From acquiring the a large set of analysed models it gave us the opportunity to compile a paper to display the suggested r a n g e s o f c a p a c i t i e s o f p r e c a s t s k e w a r c h e s w i t h f o u r v a r yi n g p r e s s u r e models compared and used in the development of t he data.

9 . Re f e r e n c e
Heneghan, K. 2010 Figure 1.1 West Galway Renowned Stone Bridges. [online].Availible at: http://keithheneghanphoto.photoshelter. Com /image/I0000qKcvQCCHNn0 . [accessed on 17 November 2010]
1

H e n r yc h , J . 1 9 9 2 T h e D yn a m i c o f A r c h e s a n d f r a m e s ( d e v e l o p m e n t o f Civil Engineering). Virgina Tech, USA.