MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

UNIAXIAL STRESS-STRAIN Stress-Strain Curve for Mild Steel

L = /L, where = = longitudinal deformation and length of member.
E= = = PL AE P A L

THERMAL DEFORMATIONS t = L ( o), where

t = = L = deformation caused by a change in temperature, temperature coefficient of expansion, length of member, final temperature, and initial temperature.

= o =
The slope of the linear portion of the curve equals the modulus of elasticity.

Engineering Strain = L / L0, where

= L = L0 = pl = el = engineering strain (units per unit), change in length (units) of member, original length (units) of member, plastic deformation (permanent), and elastic deformation (recoverable).

CYLINDRICAL PRESSURE VESSEL Cylindrical Pressure Vessel For internal pressure only, the stresses at the inside wall are:
t = Pi ro2 + ri2 ro2 ri2 and 0 > r > Pi

For external pressure only, the stresses at the outside wall are:
t = Po ro2 + ri2 ro2 ri2 and 0 > r > Po , where

Equilibrium requirements: F = 0; M = 0 Determine geometric compatibility with the restraints. Use a linear force-deformation relationship; F = k.
DEFINITIONS

t = tangential (hoop) stress, r = radial stress, Pi = internal pressure, Po = external pressure, ri = inside radius, and ro = outside radius. For vessels with end caps, the axial stress is:
a = Pi ri2 ro2 ri2

Shear Stress-Strain = /G, where

shear strain, shear stress, and shear modulus (constant in linear force-deformation relationship).
E , where G= 2(1 + )

= G =

These are principal stresses. When the thickness of the cylinder wall is about one-tenth or less, of inside radius, the cylinder can be considered as thin-walled. In which case, the internal pressure is resisted by the hoop stress and the axial stress.
t = Pi r t and a = Pi r 2t

E v

= = =

modulus of elasticity Poisson's ratio, and (lateral strain)/(longitudinal strain).

Uniaxial Loading and Deformation = P/A, where

P A = stress on the cross section, = loading, and = cross-sectional area. 33

where t = wall thickness.

Flinn, Richard A. & Paul K. Trojan, Engineering Materials & Their Applications, 4th Ed. Copyright 1990 by Houghton Mifflin Co. Figure used with permission.

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS (continued)

STRESS AND STRAIN Principal Stresses For the special case of a two-dimensional stress state, the equations for principal stress reduce to
a , b = c = 0 x + y 2
x y 2 + 2 xy
2

The two nonzero principal stresses are then: a = C + R b = C R

(y, xy)
in = R

The two nonzero values calculated from this equation are temporarily labeled a and b and the third value c is always zero in this case. Depending on their values, the three roots are then labeled according to the convention: algebraically largest = 1, algebraically smallest = 3, other = 2. A typical 2D stress element is shown below with all indicated components shown in their positive sense.

(x, xy)

The maximum inplane shear stress is in = R. However, the maximum shear stress considering three dimensions is always
max = 1 3 . 2

Mohr's Circle Stress, 2D To construct a Mohr's circle, the following sign conventions are used.

Hooke's Law Three-dimensional case:

x = (1/E)[x v(y + z)] y = (1/E)[y v(z + x)] z = (1/E)[z v(x + y)] Plane stress case (z = 0): x = (1/E)(x vy) y = (1/E)(y vx) z = (1/E)(vx + vy) xy = xy /G yz = yz /G zx = zx /G

x E y = 2 1 v xy

Uniaxial case (y = z = 0): 1. Tensile normal stress components are plotted on the horizontal axis and are considered positive. Compressive normal stress components are negative. 2. For constructing Mohr's circle only, shearing stresses are plotted above the normal stress axis when the pair of shearing stresses, acting on opposite and parallel faces of an element, forms a clockwise couple. Shearing stresses are plotted below the normal axis when the shear stresses form a counterclockwise couple. The circle drawn with the center on the normal stress (horizontal) axis with center, C, and radius, R, where x + y 2
x y + 2 , R= xy 2
2

1 v 0 x v 1 0 y 1 v xy 0 0 2 x = Ex or = E, where

x, y, z = normal strain, x, y, z = normal stress, xy, yz, zx = shear strain, xy, yz, zx = shear stress, E = modulus of elasticity, G = shear modulus, and v = Poisson's ratio.

STATIC LOADING FAILURE THEORIES Maximum-Normal-Stress Theory The maximum-normal-stress theory states that failure occurs when one of the three principal stresses equals the strength of the material. If 1 > 2 > 3, then the theory predicts that failure occurs whenever 1 St or 3 Sc where St and Sc are the tensile and compressive strengths, respectively. Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory The maximum-shear-stress theory states that yielding begins when the maximum shear stress equals the maximum shear stress in a tension-test specimen of the same material when that specimen begins to yield. If 1 2 3, then the theory predicts that yielding will occur whenever max Sy /2 where Sy is the yield strength.

C=

34

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS (continued)

Distortion-Energy Theory The distortion-energy theory states that yielding begins whenever the distortion energy in a unit volume equals the distortion energy in the same volume when uniaxially stressed to the yield strength. The theory predicts that yielding will occur whenever
(1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + (1 3 )2 2
12

Sy

TORSION Torsion stress in circular solid or thick-walled (t > 0.1 r) shafts: Tr T= J where: J = polar moment of inertia (see table at end of DYNAMICS section). TORSIONAL STRAIN z = limit r ( z ) = r (d dz )
z 0

The relationship between the load (q), shear (V), and moment (M) equations are:
dV(x) dx dM(x) V= dx x2 V2 V1 = x1 [ q(x )] dx q(x ) =
x M 2 M 1 = x1 V (x ) dx
2

The shear strain varies in direct proportion to the radius, from zero strain at the center to the greatest strain at the outside of the shaft. d/dz is the twist per unit length or the rate of twist. z = G z = Gr (d/dz) T = G (d/dz) A r2dA = GJ(d/dz)
L = o

T TL , where dz = GJ GJ

= total angle (radians) of twist, T = torque, and L = length of shaft. T/ gives the twisting moment per radian of twist. This is called the torsional stiffness and is often denoted by the symbol k or c.

For Hollow, Thin-Walled Shafts T , where = 2 Amt

t = thickness of shaft wall and the total mean area enclosed by the shaft measured to the midpoint of the wall. Am =

BEAMS Shearing Force and Bending Moment Sign Conventions 1. The bending moment is positive if it produces bending of the beam concave upward (compression in top fibers and tension in bottom fibers). 2. The shearing force is positive if the right portion of the beam tends to shear downward with respect to the left.

Stresses in Beams x = y/, where = the radius of curvature of the deflected axis of the beam, and y = the distance from the neutral axis to the longitudinal fiber in question. Using the stress-strain relationship = E, Axial Stress: x = Ey/, where x = the normal stress of the fiber located y-distance from the neutral axis. 1/ = M/(EI), where M = the moment at the section and I = the moment of inertia of the cross-section. x = My/I, where y = the distance from the neutral axis to the fiber location above or below the axis. Let y = c, where c = distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber of a symmetrical beam section. x = Mc/I Let S = I/c: then, x = M/S, where S = the elastic section modulus of the beam member. Transverse shear flow: q = VQ/I and Transverse shear stress: xy = VQ/(Ib), where q = shear flow, xy = shear stress on the surface, V = shear force at the section,
Timoshenko, S. & Gleason H. MacCullough, Elements of Strength of Materials, 1949 by K. Van Nostrand Co. Used with permission from Wadsworth Publishing Co.

35

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS (continued)

b = Q = A =
y =

width or thickness of the cross-section, and Ay , where area above the layer (or plane) upon which the desired transverse shear stress acts and distance from neutral axis to area centroid.

ELASTIC STRAIN ENERGY If the strain remains within the elastic limit, the work done during deflection (extension) of a member will be transformed into potential energy and can be recovered. If the final load is P and the corresponding elongation of a tension member is , then the total energy U stored is equal to the work W done during loading.
U = W = P/2

Deflection of Beams Using 1/ = M/(EI),

EI EI EI d2y = M, differential equation of deflection curve dx 2 d3y = dM(x)/dx = V dx 3 d4y = dV(x)/dx = q dx 4

The strain energy per unit volume is u = U/AL = 2/2E (for tension)

Determine the deflection curve equation by double integration (apply boundary conditions applicable to the deflection and/or slope). EI (dy/dx) = M(x) dx EIy = [ M(x) dx] dx The constants of integration can be determined from the physical geometry of the beam.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Material Wood (Fir) Aluminum Cast Iron

Units

COLUMNS For long columns with pinned ends: Euler's Formula

Pcr = 2 EI , where 2

Modulus of Elasticity, E Modulus of Rigidity, G Poisson's Ratio, v

Mpsi GPa Mpsi GPa

30.0 207.0 11.5 80.0 0.30

Steel

10.0 69.0 3.8 26.0 0.33

14.5 100.0 6.0 41.4 0.21

1.6 11.0 0.6 4.1 0.33

Pcr = critical axial loading, = unbraced column length. substitute I = r2A:

Pcr 2 E = , where A ( r )2

r = radius of gyration and

/r = slenderness ratio for the column.

For further column design theory, see the CIVIL ENGINEERING and MECHANICAL ENGINEERING sections.

36

Beam Deflection Formulas Special Cases ( is positive downward)

P a L b max x max max L x max max L M P x max b x L

Pa 2 (3x a ), for x > a 6 EI Px 2 = ( x + 3a ), for x a 6 EI =

max =

Pa 2 (3L a ) 6 EI

max =

Pa 2 2 EI

y w

wo x 2 2 x + 6 L2 4 Lx 24 EI

max =

wo L4 8EI

max =

wo L3 6 EI

M o x2 2 EI

max =

M o L2 2 EI

max =

MoL EI

R1 = Pb/L y w

R2 = Pa/L

Pb 6 LEI Pb = 6 LEI

[ x + (L
3

L 3 3 2 2 b (x a ) x + L b
2 2

)x , for x > a

max =

Pb L2 b 2 9 3LEI at x =

37

32

b x , for x a

)]
)

L2 b 2 3

Pab(2 L a ) 6 LEI Pab(2 L b ) 2 = 6 LEI 1 = 1 = 2 = wo L3 24 EI

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS (continued)

x L R1 = w0 L/2 y R2 = w0 L/2 M0 x R1 = M0 /L L R2 = M0 /L

wo x 3 L 2 Lx 2 + x 3 24 EI

max =

5wo L4 384 EI

M Lx x = o 1 2 6 EI L
2

max =

M o L2 9 3EI at x = L 3

MoL 6 EI MoL 2 = 3EI 1 =

Crandall, S.H. & N.C. Dahl, An Introduction to The Mechanics of Solids, Copyright 1959 by the McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. Table reprinted with permission from McGraw-Hill.